LECTURE 9.

FLUID
STATICS PART 2

Transport Phenomena
CHEB417-01
2024 Spring Semester / MW 11:00 ~ 12:15
Outline

• Barometer

• Manometer

• Forces on submerged plane surfaces

• Calculate the force and torque on the gate

• Forces on submerged curved surfaces

• Calculate the force on the sphere

• Buoyancy forces

• The hydrometer
 Summary - Pressure in the fluid
(1) The linear momentum principle (0 = ∫𝒱𝒱 𝜌𝜌𝐠𝐠𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ∫𝒜𝒜 𝐭𝐭 (𝐧𝐧) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) and
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
𝐭𝐭 (𝐧𝐧) = −𝐧𝐧𝑝𝑝 were applied to a differential volume element of a material volume
to develop the equations of fluid statics

(2) The equations were solved to yield: 𝑝𝑝 = −𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧 + 𝐶𝐶

(3) A boundary condition was specified and applied to obtain an expression

for the pressure in the fluid
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿 − 𝑧𝑧)

*This boundary condition results from the rule that pressure is

a continuous function for fluids at rest
→ This neglects any effect of surface tension at the gas-liquid
interface
 Barometer
• A device for measuring the absolute pressure of the atmosphere

• The barometer fluid (usually mercury)

vaporizes in the closed end, and the
pressure there is the vapor pressure 𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
• For mercury, 𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ~3 × 10−6 atm at RT
(may be considered to be zero)

• The differential equation for the pressure is,

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= −𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑔𝑔 𝑝𝑝 = −𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧 + 𝐶𝐶
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
• The boundary condition is

B.C. 1: 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ≈ 0, 𝑧𝑧 = ℎ
• The application of B.C. gives

𝑝𝑝 = 𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑔𝑔(ℎ − 𝑧𝑧) + 𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

• Since the pressure at 𝑧𝑧 = 0 is the atmospheric pressure, 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 , we write,

𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 = 𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑔𝑔ℎ

• Due to the universal use of mercury barometers to measure

atmospheric pressure, it is often reported in terms of ℎ or inches of
mercury
• Atmospheric pressure varies from day to day, the average being 29.92 in. Hg.

• This value is referred to as one standard atmosphere

𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 (standard) = 14.696 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓 /𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.2 = 14.696 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

(pounds per square inch absolute)
 Manometer
• Devices which make use of columns of liquid to determine pressure
differences
• Simplest type is the U-tube illustrated below
• For the system to work,
(1) Manometer fluid must be immiscible with the fluid in the tank

(2) Manometer fluid density(𝜌𝜌1 ) must be greater than the density of

the fluid in the tank (𝜌𝜌2 )

[Link]
 • The equations for the pressure in the two fluids are

𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝1
= −𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝2
= −𝜌𝜌2 𝑔𝑔
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
• The boundary conditions for this system are

B.C. 1: 𝑝𝑝1 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 , 𝑧𝑧 = ℎ3

B.C. 2: 𝑝𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑝1 , 𝑧𝑧 = ℎ1

*Both boundary conditions are derived from the notion that the pressure is a continuous function
and interfacial tensions are neglected

• Solution of the two differential equations give

𝑝𝑝1 = −𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧 + 𝐶𝐶1 𝑝𝑝2 = −𝜌𝜌2 𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧 + 𝐶𝐶2

• Application of B.C. 1 gives 𝑝𝑝1 |𝑧𝑧=ℎ3 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 = −𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔ℎ3 + 𝐶𝐶1

𝐶𝐶1 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔ℎ3

∴ 𝑝𝑝1 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔(ℎ3 − 𝑧𝑧)

• Application of B.C. 2 gives

𝑝𝑝2 |𝑧𝑧=ℎ1 = −𝜌𝜌2 𝑔𝑔ℎ1 + 𝐶𝐶2 = 𝑝𝑝1 |𝑧𝑧=ℎ1 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔(ℎ3 − ℎ1 )

𝐶𝐶2 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔 ℎ3 − ℎ1 + 𝜌𝜌2 𝑔𝑔ℎ1

• The pressure in fluid 2 is

∴ 𝑝𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔 ℎ3 − ℎ1 + 𝜌𝜌2 𝑔𝑔(ℎ1 − 𝑧𝑧)

• The gauge pressure, 𝑝𝑝𝑔𝑔 , is defined as the absolute pressure minus the
atmospheric pressure
• The gauge pressure in the tank is

𝑝𝑝𝑔𝑔 = 𝑝𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 = 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔 ℎ3 − ℎ1 + 𝜌𝜌2 𝑔𝑔(ℎ1 − 𝑧𝑧)

• If the fluid in the tank is a gas, the density of the manometer fluid will usually be much
larger than that of the gas (𝜌𝜌1 ≫ 𝜌𝜌2 ), and the gauge pressure is,

𝑝𝑝𝑔𝑔 ≅ 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔 ℎ3 − ℎ1
 Manometer calculation
• The fluid in the tank is a gas and a mercury manometer is used to
measure the pressure
• If the readings on the manometer are ℎ1 = 3.25 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ℎ3 = 5.17 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

ℎ3 − ℎ1 = 1.92 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
• The density of mercury is 13.5 g/cm3

• The gauge pressure is 𝑝𝑝𝑔𝑔 ≅ 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔 ℎ3 − ℎ1

𝑝𝑝𝑔𝑔 = 13.5𝑔𝑔/𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3 32.2𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2 1.92𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

3
1𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2 2.54𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 12 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.
×
453.6𝑔𝑔 32.2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

𝑝𝑝𝑔𝑔 = 11.2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓 /𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.2

• To distinguish gauge pressure from absolute pressure (psia) we write,

𝑝𝑝𝑔𝑔 = 11.2 psig (pounds per square inch gauge)

 Forces on submerged plane surfaces
• We previously learned how to determine the pressure field for a fluid at rest

• Now let’s move on to the calculation of forces on submerged surfaces

• The force which the surround exert on a system is

𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

= 𝐭𝐭 (𝐧𝐧) = −𝐧𝐧𝑝𝑝 for a fluid at rest
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
,where 𝐧𝐧 is the outwardly directed unit normal for the system

• The total surface force 𝐅𝐅 exerted by a fluid at rest on a solid surface is

𝐅𝐅 = � 𝐭𝐭 (𝐧𝐧) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − � 𝐧𝐧𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴

,where 𝐧𝐧 is the outwardly directed unit normal for the solid

*𝐧𝐧 is the unit normal directed into the phase which exerts the force
 Problem - Calculate the force and torque on the gate

• The first step is to determine the pressure in the fluid

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
• Solving the differential equation described previously, = −𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
• The boundary condition is

B.C. 1: 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 , 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿 − 𝑧𝑧)

• The net surface force exerted on the gate, 𝐅𝐅𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 , consists of (1) the force
exerted by the liquid and (2) by the surrounding atmosphere
𝑦𝑦

𝐅𝐅𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = − � 𝐧𝐧𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝐧𝐧𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 (1)
(1) (2) (2)

• The unit outwardly directed normal in the surrounding atmosphere, 𝐧𝐧𝑜𝑜 , is just equal
and opposite to 𝐧𝐧, and we may write

𝐅𝐅𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = − � 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝐴𝐴

• If the width of the gate is b (y-direction) then

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝜂𝜂
,where 𝜂𝜂 is the distance measured along the gate from the hinge
𝜂𝜂=𝑙𝑙/ sin 𝜃𝜃
• The net force is now given by, 𝐅𝐅𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = − � 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿 − 𝑧𝑧)𝐧𝐧𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝜂𝜂
𝜂𝜂=0
• In order to evaluate the integral, we must put 𝑧𝑧 in terms of 𝜂𝜂 or 𝜂𝜂 in
terms of 𝑧𝑧
𝜂𝜂=𝑙𝑙/ sin 𝜃𝜃
𝐅𝐅𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = − � 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿 − 𝑧𝑧)𝐧𝐧𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝜂𝜂
𝜂𝜂=0

• By taking the latter case (𝜂𝜂 in terms of 𝑧𝑧),

𝜂𝜂 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑧𝑧 𝜂𝜂 = 𝑧𝑧/ sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝜂𝜂 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/ sin 𝜃𝜃

𝑧𝑧=𝑙𝑙 𝐧𝐧 𝑙𝑙
1
𝐅𝐅𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 =− � 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿 − 𝑧𝑧)𝐧𝐧𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧 = − 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏(𝐿𝐿 − )
sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑧𝑧=0 sin 𝜃𝜃 2
• The unit normal 𝐧𝐧 can be expressed in terms of its components 𝐧𝐧 = 𝐢𝐢𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 + 𝐣𝐣𝑛𝑛𝑦𝑦 + 𝐤𝐤𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧

• Let’s calculate these components, 𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 , 𝑛𝑛𝑦𝑦 , 𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧

𝜋𝜋
𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 = 𝐧𝐧 � 𝐢𝐢 = cos + 𝜃𝜃 = − sin 𝜃𝜃
2
𝜋𝜋
𝑛𝑛𝑦𝑦 = 𝐧𝐧 � 𝐣𝐣 = cos = 0
2

𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧 = 𝐧𝐧 � 𝐤𝐤 = cos 𝜃𝜃
• Since we know the followings,
𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 = − sin 𝜃𝜃
𝐧𝐧 𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑛𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝐅𝐅𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 =− 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿 − ) 𝐧𝐧 = 𝐢𝐢𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 + 𝐣𝐣𝑛𝑛𝑦𝑦 + 𝐤𝐤𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧
sin 𝜃𝜃 2
𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧 = cos 𝜃𝜃
• Now net force may be expressed as,

𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙
𝐅𝐅𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = −(𝐢𝐢𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 + 𝐤𝐤𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧 ) (𝐿𝐿 − )
sin 𝜃𝜃 2
• The components of the net force are given by,

𝑙𝑙
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿 − )
2
𝑙𝑙
𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = − cot 𝜃𝜃 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿 − )
2
• Now let’s calculate the torque, 𝝉𝝉, on the hinge of the gate

𝝉𝝉 = 𝐫𝐫 × 𝐅𝐅
𝑦𝑦
𝜂𝜂=𝑙𝑙/ sin 𝜃𝜃
𝝉𝝉 = � 𝐫𝐫 × −𝐧𝐧(𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 )𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝜂𝜂
𝜂𝜂=0

Force

• The position vector 𝐫𝐫 is best represented in terms of a unit tangent vector to the gate,
𝛌𝛌, and the distance measured along the gate 𝜂𝜂

𝐫𝐫 = 𝛌𝛌𝜂𝜂

• Since 𝛌𝛌 and 𝐧𝐧 are orthogonal, we may write,

𝐫𝐫 × 𝐧𝐧 = 𝜂𝜂𝛌𝛌 × 𝐧𝐧 = −𝐣𝐣𝜂𝜂
• Thus, the torque can be written as,

𝜂𝜂=𝑙𝑙/ sin 𝜃𝜃
𝝉𝝉 = 𝐣𝐣 � 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 𝑏𝑏𝜂𝜂 𝑑𝑑𝜂𝜂
𝜂𝜂=0
• Putting the pressure difference 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 in terms of 𝜂𝜂 and integrating,

𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 = 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿 − 𝑧𝑧) 𝑧𝑧 = 𝜂𝜂 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 = 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿 − 𝜂𝜂 sin 𝜃𝜃)

𝜂𝜂=𝑙𝑙/ sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜂𝜂=𝑙𝑙/ sin 𝜃𝜃

𝝉𝝉 = 𝐣𝐣 � 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 𝑏𝑏𝜂𝜂 𝑑𝑑𝜂𝜂 = 𝐣𝐣𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 � (𝐿𝐿 − 𝜂𝜂 sin 𝜃𝜃)𝜂𝜂 𝑑𝑑𝜂𝜂
𝜂𝜂=0 𝜂𝜂=0

𝐿𝐿 𝑙𝑙
𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑙𝑙 2
2−3
𝝉𝝉 = 𝐣𝐣
sin2 𝜃𝜃
• It is often convenient to represent a distributed force in terms of a single
resultant force
• For this resultant force to describe properly the distributed force system, it must act a
point which gives rise to the same torque as the distributed force system
• We call this point the center of pressure and denote it by 𝐫𝐫̅

• The position vector locating the center of pressure is determined by solving the equation
𝐫𝐫� × 𝐅𝐅 = 𝝉𝝉
,where 𝝉𝝉 is the torque owing to the distributed force system and 𝐅𝐅 is the resultant force
• Representing the center of pressure in terms of a unit tangent vector,

𝐫𝐫� = 𝛌𝛌𝜂𝜂̅
• Now let’s locate the center of pressure on the hinged gate by determining this 𝜂𝜂,̅

𝐿𝐿 𝑙𝑙
𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑙𝑙 2
𝐫𝐫� × 𝐅𝐅 = 𝝉𝝉 2−3 𝐅𝐅𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 =
1 𝑙𝑙
𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿 − )
𝝉𝝉 = sin 𝜃𝜃 2
sin2 𝜃𝜃

𝐿𝐿 𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝐿 𝑙𝑙
𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑙𝑙 2 𝑙𝑙 2 − 3
2−3 sin 𝜃𝜃
=
𝜂𝜂̅ = × sin 𝜃𝜃 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑙𝑙
sin2 𝜃𝜃 𝑙𝑙
𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿 − ) 2
2
 Forces on submerged curved surfaces
• Now let’s move on to the calculation of forces on curved submerged
surfaces
• Consider the force on the arbitrary surface shown below:

• The force on the surface is

𝐅𝐅 = − � 𝐧𝐧𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴

,where 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿 − 𝑧𝑧)

• Since the projection of the surface area element

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 on the three coordinate planes is

𝐢𝐢 � 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥
𝐣𝐣 � 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦
𝐤𝐤 � 𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧
• The surface area 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 may be expressed in terms of the projected areas as

𝐧𝐧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐢𝐢 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 + 𝐣𝐣 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 + 𝐤𝐤 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧

• Just for a reminder,

𝐧𝐧 = 𝐢𝐢𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 + 𝐣𝐣𝑛𝑛𝑦𝑦 + 𝐤𝐤𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧 𝐧𝐧 � 𝐢𝐢 = 𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 𝐧𝐧 � 𝐢𝐢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥

• The force acting on a curved solid surface may be written in terms of the projected areas

𝐅𝐅 = − � 𝐧𝐧𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝐢𝐢 � 𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 − 𝐣𝐣 � 𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 − 𝐤𝐤 � 𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧

𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧

*We do this because pressure is always given in terms of the x, y, and z coordinates

→ It is necessary to perform the integration in terms of these coordinates rather than

in terms of the surface area

→ To illustrate the applications of these ideas, let’s try out an example problem!
 Problem - Calculate the force on the sphere

• The force that the fluids exert on the sphere imbedded in a thin wall is

𝐅𝐅 = − � 𝐧𝐧𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − � 𝐧𝐧1 𝑝𝑝1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝐧𝐧2 𝑝𝑝2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2

,where 𝐧𝐧1 and 𝐧𝐧2 are the unit normal directed into fluids 1 and 2, respectively
• The pressure in the two fluids are given by, 𝑧𝑧
𝑦𝑦
𝑝𝑝1 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿1 − 𝑧𝑧)
𝑥𝑥
𝑝𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌2 𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿2 − 𝑧𝑧) 1 2
• Substitution into the previous equation gives,

𝐅𝐅 = − � 𝐧𝐧1 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿1 − 𝑧𝑧) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝐧𝐧2 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌2 𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿2 − 𝑧𝑧) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2

• Taking the inner product with unit vector 𝐢𝐢 gives,

𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 𝐢𝐢 � 𝐅𝐅 = −� 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿1 − 𝑧𝑧) 𝐢𝐢 � 𝐧𝐧1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌2 𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿2 − 𝑧𝑧) 𝐢𝐢 � 𝐧𝐧2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2

• From previous equations, we know that

𝐢𝐢 � 𝐧𝐧1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥

𝐢𝐢 � 𝐧𝐧2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥

• Substitution into previous equation and putting both terms under the same integral sign,

𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = − � 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿1 − 𝑧𝑧) 𝐢𝐢 � 𝐧𝐧1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌2 𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿2 − 𝑧𝑧) 𝐢𝐢 � 𝐧𝐧2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2

=� 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌2 𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿2 − 𝑧𝑧) 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥

𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥

=� 𝜌𝜌1 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝜌𝜌2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑔𝑔 + 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥

𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥

• Since 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 the force may be written as

𝑧𝑧=𝑙𝑙+𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦=+ 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 2 −(𝑧𝑧−𝑙𝑙)2

𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = � � 𝜌𝜌1 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝜌𝜌2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑔𝑔 + 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑧𝑧=𝑙𝑙−𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦=− 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 2 −(𝑧𝑧−𝑙𝑙)2

• Integration respect to y gives,

𝑧𝑧=𝑙𝑙+𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 2 � 𝜌𝜌1 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝜌𝜌2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑔𝑔 + 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 2 − (𝑧𝑧 − 𝑙𝑙)2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑧𝑧=𝑙𝑙−𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜
 • Let’s integrate with respect to 𝑧𝑧

𝑧𝑧= 𝑙𝑙+𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 2 � 𝜌𝜌1 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝜌𝜌2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑔𝑔 + 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 2 − (𝑧𝑧 − 𝑙𝑙)2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑧𝑧= 𝑙𝑙−𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜

• Utilizing integration by substitution, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑡𝑡= 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 2 � 𝜌𝜌1 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝜌𝜌2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑔𝑔 + 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔(𝑙𝑙 + 𝑡𝑡) 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 2 − 𝑡𝑡 2 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
𝑡𝑡=−𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜

• Utilizing integration by substitution again, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃
𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃= 2
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 2 � 𝜌𝜌1 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝜌𝜌2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑔𝑔 + 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔(𝑙𝑙 + 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 sin 𝜃𝜃) 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 2 cos 2 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃
𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃= −
2

• Dividing into two terms,

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃= 2 𝜃𝜃= 2
= 2� 𝜌𝜌1 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝜌𝜌2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑔𝑔 + 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 2 cos 2 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 + 2 � 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 3 sin 𝜃𝜃 cos2 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃= − 𝜃𝜃=−
2 2

(1) (2)
• Let’s start with (2),

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃= 2 𝜃𝜃= 2
2� 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 3 sin 𝜃𝜃 cos2 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 = 2 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 3 � sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 2 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃=− 𝜃𝜃=−
2 2

𝜋𝜋
2 2
= − 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 3 cos3 𝜃𝜃 𝜋𝜋 =0
3 −
2
• Let’s go back to the original equation,
𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃= 2
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 2 � 𝜌𝜌1 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝜌𝜌2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑔𝑔 + 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 2 cos2 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃
𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃= −
2
1+cos 2𝜃𝜃
• Since cos 2 𝜃𝜃 =
2
𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃= 2
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 𝜌𝜌1 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝜌𝜌2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑔𝑔 + 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 2 � (1 + cos 2𝜃𝜃)𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃
𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃=−
2
𝜋𝜋
1 2
= 𝜌𝜌1 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝜌𝜌2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑔𝑔 + 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 2 𝜃𝜃 + sin 2𝜃𝜃
2 −
𝜋𝜋
2

∴ 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 𝜌𝜌1 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝜌𝜌2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑔𝑔 + 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 2

 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 𝜌𝜌1 𝐿𝐿1 − 𝜌𝜌2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑔𝑔 + 𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 2

• If we add and subtract 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 from the RHS and rearrange the terms we obtain

𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌1 𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿1 − 𝑙𝑙) 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 2 − 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 + 𝜌𝜌2 𝑔𝑔(𝐿𝐿2 − 𝑙𝑙) 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 2

• The resulting force can be written in terms of the mean pressure acting on the surface
multiplied by the projected area of the surface in the direction of the force

• We may use this to determine forces which act perpendicular to the gravity vector provided
the pressure is a linear function of 𝑧𝑧
 Buoyancy forces
• Buoyant force: The force exerted on a body by a fluid at rest

• First discovered by Archimedes

• “a body is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid”

• Let’s prove this on the solid body illustrated below:

𝐅𝐅 = − � 𝐧𝐧𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴
• We consider a solid body which may be separated into two regions by a curve along which

𝐤𝐤 � 𝐧𝐧 = 0

• The normal to the solid surface lies in the 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦

plane along this curve

• Let’s now designate the position of the upper surface

by 𝑧𝑧2 and the lower surface by 𝑧𝑧1 , then the below
equation can be separated into two parts to give

𝐅𝐅 = − � 𝐧𝐧𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴

= − � 𝐧𝐧2 𝑝𝑝|𝑧𝑧=𝑧𝑧2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝐧𝐧1 𝑝𝑝|𝑧𝑧=𝑧𝑧1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴1

• Taking the dot product with the unit vector 𝐤𝐤, we get the buoyancy force,

𝐤𝐤 � 𝐅𝐅 = 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = − � 𝑝𝑝|𝑧𝑧=𝑧𝑧2 𝐧𝐧2 � 𝐤𝐤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝑝𝑝|𝑧𝑧=𝑧𝑧1 𝐧𝐧1 � 𝐤𝐤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴1
 𝐤𝐤 � 𝐅𝐅 = 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = − � 𝑝𝑝|𝑧𝑧=𝑧𝑧2 𝐧𝐧2 � 𝐤𝐤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝑝𝑝|𝑧𝑧=𝑧𝑧1 𝐧𝐧1 � 𝐤𝐤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴1

• Since 𝐧𝐧 � 𝐤𝐤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is the projection of the surface on the 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 plane, we may change the
variables of integration to

𝐧𝐧2 � 𝐤𝐤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧 upper region

𝐧𝐧1 � 𝐤𝐤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧 lower region

• Then 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 can be reduced into the following form,

𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = − � 𝑝𝑝|𝑧𝑧=𝑧𝑧2 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧 + � 𝑝𝑝|𝑧𝑧=𝑧𝑧1 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧

𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧 𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧

• Putting both terms under the same integral sign, and noting that

𝑝𝑝|𝑧𝑧=𝑧𝑧1 − 𝑝𝑝|𝑧𝑧=𝑧𝑧2 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌(𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧1 )

• We obtain,

𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌(𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧1 ) 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧

𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧
 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌(𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧1 ) 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧
𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧

• Here 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 is constant and the volume of the solid 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 is 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = � (𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧1 ) 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧
𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧

• The solid body is buoyed up by the “weight” of the displaced fluid

𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌(𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧1 ) 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠

𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧

𝐅𝐅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = −𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝐠𝐠

 The hydrometer
• Uses the buoyancy principle to determine the ratio of densities of two
fluids
𝜌𝜌
• In general, one of these fluids is water and the ratio of densities, �𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂 , is called the
specific gravity 𝛾𝛾
𝜌𝜌
𝛾𝛾 =
𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂

• A hydrometer floating first in water and then in some other fluid as shown below,

• If the mass of the hydrometer is 𝑀𝑀 and the

density of the air above the liquid is so
small that the air contributes a negligible
amount to the buoyancy force,

• Then, Archimedes’ principle yields,

𝑀𝑀𝑔𝑔 = 𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂 𝑔𝑔𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂

𝑀𝑀𝑔𝑔 = 𝜌𝜌𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

,where 𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 and 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 are the volumes of the
displaced water and oil, respectively
 • Division of the previously mentioned equations give,

𝜌𝜌𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
1=
𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂 𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂

• The specific gravity (비중) of the oil is,

𝜌𝜌𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝛾𝛾𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 =
𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂

• If the cross-sectional area of the

graduated shaft is 𝐴𝐴 then,

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂 + 𝐴𝐴∆ℎ

𝜌𝜌𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂 𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂 1

𝛾𝛾𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = = = =
𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂 + 𝐴𝐴∆ℎ 𝐴𝐴
1+ ∆ℎ
𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂
• If we know the cross-sectional area 𝐴𝐴, ∆ℎ, and the volume 𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 , we can
determine 𝛾𝛾𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
Homework assignment 3
• Due before mid-term exam