AHS 104: Anatomy and Physiology II

EMMANUEL NYAABIL ZIYAABA

Contact Information: 0206094615
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
SESSION OBJECTIVES
By the end of this session, students should be able to:
• Identify the organs of the respiratory system
• Differentiate between the upper and lower respiratory system
• Describe the organs of the upper respiratory system
• Describe the organs of the lower respiratory system
• Physiological functions of the organs
Outline
➢ Introduction
➢ Divisions of the respiratory system
➢ Structures of the respiratory system
Nose
Pharynx (throat)
Larynx (voice box)
Trachea (windpipe)
Bronchi and bronchioles (
Lungs
➢ Transport of gases
➢ Mechanism/Physiology of respiration
➢Control of respiration
 INTRODUCTION
• The Cells in the human body need a continuous supply of oxygen to
carryout the metabolic activities that are very essential to their
survival.
• The two main systems that supply oxygen and eliminate carbon
dioxide are the cardiovascular system and the respiratory system.
• The cardiovascular system essentially transports the gases in the blood
between the lungs and the cells.
• The respiratory system on the other hand consists of organs that
exchange gases between the atmosphere and blood.
• The respiratory system comprises a group of organs in the body that
allows for oxygen intake and carbon dioxide removal. These organs
are defined as structures.

• Respiration refers to the exchange of these gases between the body

and the environment, primarily occurring within the lungs as part of
the respiratory system.

• This process is possible due to the use of respiratory muscles.

MUSCLES OF RESPIRATION
• The main muscles of respiration in normal quiet breathing are:
• The intercostal muscles and
• The diaphragm.
• During difficult or deep breathing they are assisted by the muscles of
the neck, shoulders and abdomen.
INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES
• 11 pairs of intercostal muscles occupy the spaces between the 12 pairs
of ribs.
• These muscles are arranged in two layers;
• The external and
• Internal intercostal muscles
• Internal intercostal muscles: Extend in a downward and backward
direction from the lower border of the rib
• above to the upper border of the rib below
• External intercostal muscles: Extend in a downward and
• forward direction from the lower border of the rib
• above to the upper border of the rib below.
THE DIAPHRAGM
• The diaphragm is a double-domed musculotendinous sheet, located at
the inferior most aspect of the rib cage. It serves two main functions:
• Separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity
• Undergoes contraction and relaxation, altering the volume of the
thoracic cavity and the lungs, producing inspiration and expiration.
• It has three peripheral attachments;
• Lumbar vertebrae and arcuate ligaments.
• Costal cartilages of ribs 7-10 (attaches directly to ribs 11-12).
• Xiphoid process of the sternum.
• The parts of the diaphragm that arise from the vertebrae are tendinous
in structure, and are known as the right and left crura:
Divisions of the respiratory system
• The Respiratory Tract Divisions into Upper and Lower Tracts
• Upper Respiratory Tract – nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses,
nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx and larynx are all a
part of the upper respiratory tract.
• Lower Respiratory Tract – Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles,
alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli.
Respiratory Tract Zones
• Functionally, the respiratory system is separated into two zones
• Conducting zone: The conducting zone consists of the nose, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. This zone or region of the
respiratory tract is for the conduction of air to and from the lungs. It
starts from the nose and ends at the terminal bronchioles.
• Respiratory zone: This zone or region of the respiratory tract is
where gas exchange begins. This zone starts from respiratory
bronchioles and ends at the alveoli. The way that the inner epithelial
lining changes in this zone is indicative of its role to maximize gas
exchange.
Alveolar-Capillary Membrane and Gas
exchange
• Exchange of gas occurs from alveoli to blood through the Respiratory
Membrane
➢ The gas pass through four (4) Layers of membrane to be able to cross
• alveolar epithelial wall of type I cells
• alveolar epithelial basement membrane
• capillary basement membrane
• endothelial cells of capillary
General Functions of the Respiratory System
1. Ventilation of air to and from the external environment and the body,
involving:
• a. Inspiration – bring air into the lungs.
• b. Expiration – expelling air from the lungs.
2. Creating a large Surface Area for Gas Exchange
3. Regulation of the pH of body fluids – CO2 content in the blood
effects the body pH by way of the bicarbonate buffer system. Therefore,
the respiratory rate influences the elimination and/or accumulation of
CO2 in the body and this willimpact the pH of body fluids.
• Sound Production – the passage of air through the vocal folds of the
larynx (voice box) can generate different sounds.
• Olfaction - Sense of Smell. Branches of cranial nerve I (Olfactory
Nerve) travel through the olfactory foramina of the cribriform plate in
the ethmoid bone down into the nasal cavity, where the chemical
receptors (chemoreceptors) terminate in the mucosa of the nasal cavity
detecting fragrances and relaying these signals to by way of the
hypothalamus to the temporal lobes.
The lining of the respiratory tract.
• Most of the respiratory tract is lined with “Respiratory Epithelium”
which is composed of Pseudostratified Ciliate Columnar (PSCC)
epithelium and a lamina propria made of areolar connective tissue.
• This lining protects the respiratory tract.
• The mucous secreting goblet cells are also a component of this lining
and the thick sticky mucus secretions delivered to the surface trap any
inhaled debris or particles in the airway.
• Additionally, the cilia (meaning hair) on the exposed surface are
constantly moving this mucus up the “mucus escalator” for expulsion
from the respiratory tract.
ORGANS/STRUCTURE THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
➢ The respiratory system consists of tubes that filter incoming air and
transport it to the alveoli where gases are exchanged. The system Consists of
• Nose
• Pharynx (throat)
• Larynx (voice box)
• Trachea (windpipe)
• Two Bronchi (airways), one to each lung
• Bronchioles and smaller air passages
• Two lungs and their coverings (pleura)
• Muscles of respiration (intercostal muscles, diaphragm)
The Nose/Nasal Cavity
• The beginning of the respiratory system is the nose. The external nares
(nostrils) are the first port of entry and port of exit of air from the
body.
• The nose is the prominent structure between the eyes. The nose is
divided into two regions.
• The external nose, which includes the root, bridge, dorsum, nasi, and
apex
• The internal nasal cavity: consists of a large irregular cavity divided
into two passages by a septum.
THE EXTERNAL NOSE
• The external nose has a pyramidal shape.
• The nasal root is located superiorly, and is continuous with the
forehead.
• The apex of the nose ends inferiorly in a rounded ‘tip’. Spanning
between the root and apex is the dorsum of the nose.
• Located immediately inferiorly to the apex are the nares; openings into
the vestibule of the nasal cavity.
• The nares are bounded medially by the nasal septum, and laterally by
the ala nasi (the lateral cartilaginous wings of the nose)
Skeletal structure
• The skeleton of the external nose is made of both bony and
cartilaginous components:
➢ Bony component – Located superiorly, and is comprised of
contributions from the nasal bones, maxillae and frontal bone.
➢ Cartilaginous component – Located inferiorly, and is comprised of the
two lateral cartilages, two alar cartilages and one septal cartilage.
BLOOD SUPPLY
• The skin of the external nose receives arterial supply from branches of
the maxillary and ophthalmic arteries.
• The septum and alar cartilages receive additional supply from the
angular and lateral nasal artery. These are both branches of the facial
artery.
• Venous drainage is into the facial vein, and then in turn into the
internal jugular vein.
 LYMPHATIC DRAINANGE
• Lymphatic drainage from the external nose is via superficial lymphatic
vessels accompanying the facial vein.
➢ These vessels, like all lymphatic vessels of the head and neck,
ultimately drain into the deep cervical lymph nodes.
NERVE SUPPLY
Sensory innervation of the external nose is derived from the trigeminal
nerve (CN V).
The external nasal nerve, a branch of the ophthalmic nerve, supplies the
skin of the dorsum of nose, nasal alae and nasal vestibule.
The lateral aspects of the nose are supplied by
the infraorbital nerve, a branch of the maxillary nerve
• Motor innervation to the nasal muscles of facial expression is via the
facial nerve (CN VII).
NASAL CAVITY
• Lies in and posterior to the external nose
• It is divided by a midline nasal septum
• It opens posteriorly into the nasal pharynx via internal nares
• Projecting out of the lateral walls of the nasal cavity are curved
shelves of bone called conchae (or turbinates)
• Vibrissae – stiff hairs on the nostrils that filter coarse particles from
inspired air
cont
• DIVISIONS
➢ The nasal cavity extends from the vestibule of the nose to the
nasopharynx, and has three divisions:
• Vestibule – the area surrounding the anterior external opening to the
nasal cavity.
• Respiratory region – lined by a ciliated psudeostratified epithelium,
interspersed with mucussecreting goblet cells.
• Olfactory region – located at the apex of the nasal cavity. It is lined by
olfactory cells with olfactory receptors
NASAL CAVITY
• OPENINGS INTO THE NASAL CAVITY
• The anterior nares, or nostrils, are the openings from the exterior into
the nasal cavity.
• The posterior nares are the openings from the nasal cavity into the
pharynx.
• The paranasal sinuses are cavities in the bones of the face and the
cranium which contain air.
• The nasolacrimal ducts extend from the lateral walls of the nose to
the conjunctival sacs of the eye
FUNCTIONS OF THE NOSE
• During breathing, air enters the nose by passing through the nostrils/nares.
• The nasal cavity, divided by a midline nasal septum.
• The olfactory receptors for the sense of smell are located in the mucosa in
the superior part of the nasal cavity.

• The lining of nasal cavity rests on a rich network of thin-walled veins that
warms the air as it flows past.
• The sticky mucus produced by this mucosa’s glands moistens the air and
traps incoming bacteria and debris
• Lysozyme enzymes in the mucus destroy bacteria chemically.
• The ciliated cells of the nasal mucosa propel the sheet of contaminated
mucus posteriorly toward the throat (pharynx), where it is swallowed and
digested by stomach juices

• The lateral walls of nasal cavity have three bony projections called conchae
• The conchae
• greatly increase the surface area of the mucosa exposed to the air
• increase the air turbulence in the nasal cavity.

• As the air swirls through the twists and turns, inhaled particles are deflected
onto the mucus-coated surfaces, where they are trapped and prevented from
reaching the lungs.
• Cold viruses and various allergens can cause rhinitis
• The excessive mucus production causes nasal congestion

• The nasal cavity is connected to the nasolacrimal (tear) ducts and paranasal
sinuses
• Hence nasal cavity infections often spread to those regions as well.

• Sinusitis is difficult to treat and can cause marked changes in voice quality
• When the passageways connecting the sinuses to the nasal cavity are blocked with
mucus, the air in the sinus cavities is absorbed.
• The result is a partial vacuum and a sinus headache localized over the inflamed
area.
SINUSES
• The paranasal sinuses are air-filled extensions of the nasal cavity.
• There are four paired sinuses– named according to the bone in which
they are located. These are
• Frontal
• Ethmoid
• Sphenoid
• Maxillary sinuses
FUNCTIONS OF THE SINUSES
• The sinuses are air filled spaces lined with mucous membrane that is
continuous with that of the nose
• They perform two main functions:

• Produce mucus for the nasal cavity

• Support/promote vocal resonance/tone

THE PHARYNX
• The pharynx is a muscular tube, 12-14 cm long and lined by a mucous
membrane
• It extends from the base of the skull to the level of the 6th cervical
vertebra
• It is divided into three regions:
• Nasopharynx
• Oropharynx
• Laryngopharynx
NASOPHARYNX
• The nasopharynx is found between the
base of the skull and the soft palate
• On its lateral walls are the two
openings of the auditory tubes, one
leading to each middle ear
• On the posterior wall there are the
pharyngeal tonsils(ADENOIDS)
consisting of lymphoid tissues
OROPHARYNX

• The oropharynx is the middle part of the pharynx, located between the
soft palate and the superior border of the epiglottis

• The lateral walls of the pharynx blend with the soft palate to form two
folds on each side
• Between each pair of folds there is a collection of lymphoid tissue
called the palatine tonsil
LARYNGOPHARYNX
• The laryngopharynx is located between the superior border of the
epiglottis and the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage (C6)
• It is continuous inferiorly with the esophagus
Structure
• The pharynx is composed of three layers of tissue:
❑ Mucous membrane lining. The mucosa varies slightly in the different
parts.

❑ In the nasopharynx, it is continuous with the lining of the nose and

consists of ciliated columnar epithelium

❑ In the oropharynx and laryngopharynx, it is formed by tougher

stratified squamous epithelium which is continuous with the lining of
the mouth and esophagus.
Structure cont
➢ Fibrous tissue This forms the intermediate layer It is thicker in the
nasopharynx, where there is little muscle, and becomes thinner
towards the lower end, where the muscle layer is thicker
➢ Muscle tissue This consists of several involuntary constrictor muscles
that play an important part in the mechanism of swallowing
(deglutition)
➢ It is thicker in the oropharynx and laryngopharynx but thinner in
the nasopharynx
FUNCTIONS OF THE PHARYNX

➢ Passageway for air and food. The pharynx is an organ involved in

both the respiratory and the digestive functions
air passes through the nasal and oral parts, and food through the oral
and laryngeal parts.
➢ Warming and humidifying. Air is further warmed and moistened as
it passes through the pharynx.
➢ Taste. There are olfactory nerve endings of the sense of taste in the
epithelium of the oral and pharyngeal parts.
Function cont
• Protection: The lymphatic tissue of the pharyngeal and laryngeal
tonsils produces antibodies in response to antigens
• Speech: By acting as a resonating chamber for the sound ascending
from the larynx, it helps (together with the sinuses) to give the voice
its individual characteristics
Blood and Nerve Supply
• Blood is supplied to the pharynx by several branches of the facial
artery
• The venous return is into the facial and internal jugular veins
• The nerve supply is from the pharyngeal plexus, formed by
parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves
• Parasympathetic supply is by the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves
• Sympathetic supply is by nerves from the superior cervical ganglia
THE LARYNX (VOICE BOX)
➢ it is a musculocartilaginous structure, lined with mucous membrane,
It is connected to the superior part of the trachea and the pharynx.
➢ It extends from the root of the tongue and the hyoid bone to the
trachea.
➢ Until puberty, there is little difference in the size of the larynx
between males and females.
After puberty, it grows larger in the male, explaining the
prominence of the “Adam's apple” and manifesting the generally
deeper voice.
STRUCTURE OF THE LARYNX
STRUCTURE OF THE LARYNX
➢ The larynx comprises several irregularly shaped cartilages(9) attached
by ligaments and eight muscles.
It begins at the level of vertebra C5 and ends at the level of vertebra C7.
➢ There are nine cartilages of the larynx; 3 are paired and 3 are
unpaired.
Unpaired Paired
Thyroid cartilage Arytenoid
Cricoid cartilage Corniculate
Epiglottis Cuneiform
Thyroid cartilage
• The largest laryngeal cartilage, “shield shaped”, which forms most of
the anterior and lateral walls of the larynx.
• It appears incomplete when viewed posteriorly.
• The anterior surface bears a thick ridge, that is the laryngeal
prominence
• The thyroid is commonly known as the ADAM’S APPLE.
Cricoid cartilage
• This structure is a ring-shaped cartilage. It appears as a complete ring
with an expanded posteriorly, providing support in the absence of the
thyroid cartilage.
• It forms most of the posterior wall of the larynx.
• The cricoid and thyroid cartilages protect the glottis and the entrance
to the trachea.
Epiglottis
• This is a thin, leaf-like, elastic fibrocartilage that projects upward
behind the tongue and hyoid.
• Neonates and infants have an omega-shaped, long floppy epiglottis.
• During swallowing, the larynx is elevated and the epiglottis folds back
over the glottis, preventing the entry of liquids or food particles into
the respiratory tract.
Paired cartilages
Extrinsic ligaments
Cavity of the larynx
• The larynx cavity contains the vestibular folds, vocal folds, and glottis.
• These vestibular folds and vocal folds divide the cavity into 3
compartments;
• Superior vestibule
• Ventricle/sinus of the larynx
• Subglottic space

GLOTTIS
It is the vocal apparatus of the larynx. It makes up the vocal folds and
processes together with the rima glottidis
Vocal folds (true vocal cords)
• These are the sharp-edged folds of mucus membrane.
• They are the source of sound off from the larynx.
• They produce audible vibrations and act as sphincter when tightly
abducted.
• VESTIBULAR FOLDS(FALSE VOCAL CORDS)
• They are protective in function. It has no function in voice production.
• They become swollen during anaphylactic shock causing suffocation
INTRINSIC MUSCLES
• All the INTRINSIC MUSCLES of the larynx are paired except
tranverse inter arytenoid muscle.
• These include;
1. Abductors of vocal cords------ posterior crico-arytenoid
2. Abductors of vocal cords------ lateral crico-arytenoid, interarytenoid,
thyroarytenoid, cricothyroid.
3. Tensors and abductors of vocal cords-----cricothyroid, vocalis and
thyro-arytenoid
4. Openers of the laryngeal inlet------- thyroepiglottic
5. Closers of laryngeal inlet-------interarytenoid and aryepiglottic
Extrinsic muscles
• These are divided into two groups;
1. cervical muscles; a. suprahyoid muscles which act as elevators of the
larynx b. infrahyoid muscles(strap muscles), which act as depressors of
the larynx
2. pharyngeal muscles, including the inferior constrictor muscle.
FUNCTIONS OF THE LARYNX
• Passageway for air This is between the pharynx and trachea
• Humidifying, filtering, and warming These continue as inspired air
travels through the larynx
• Speech: This occurs during expiration when the sounds produced by
the vocal cords are manipulated by the tongue, cheeks, and lips
Production of sound

• The pitch of the voice depends on the length and tightness of the cords. At
puberty, the male vocal cords begin to grow longer, hence the lower pitch of
the adult male voice
• Volume of the voice depends upon the force with which the cords vibrate
• The greater the force of expired air, the more the cords vibrate and the
louder the sound emitted
• Resonance or tone depends on the shape of the mouth, the position of the
tongue and the lips, the facial muscles, and the air in the paranasal sinuses
THE TRACHEA
• The trachea is a continuation of the larynx and extends downwards to
about the level of the 5th thoracic vertebra
• It divides at the carina into the right and left bronchi, one bronchus
going to each lung.
• It is composed of smooth muscle and C-shaped rings of cartilage
and is lined with ciliated columnar epithelium
• The trachea is composed of C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilages lying
one above the other. The cartilages are incomplete posteriorly
• Connective tissue and involuntary muscle join the cartilages and form
the posterior wall, where they are incomplete
• The soft tissue posterior wall is in contact with the esophagus
• The cartilages have three layers of tissue
• The outer layer This consists of fibrous and elastic tissue and
encloses the cartilage
• The middle layer: This consists of cartilages and bands of smooth
muscle that wind around the trachea
• The inner lining: This consists of ciliated columnar epithelium,
containing mucus-secreting goblet cells
FUNCTIONS OF THE TRACHEA
• Support and patency
• Warming, humidifying, and filtering of air
• Mucociliary clearance/escalator
• Cough reflex
Structures associated with the trachea

• Superiorly, the larynx

• Inferiorly, the right and left bronchi
• Anteriorly, upper part of the isthmus of the thyroid gland; lower part
the arch of the aorta and the sternum
• Posteriorly, the esophagus separates the trachea from the vertebral
column
• Laterally, the lungs and the lobes of the thyroid gland
THE BRONCHI

• The trachea divides into the right and left pulmonary bronchi
• The bronchi are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium
• The bronchial tree consists of the trachea, primary bronchi, secondary
bronchi, tertiary bronchi
• Primary bronchi supply each lung
• Secondary bronchi supply each lobe of the lungs
• Tertiary bronchi supply each bronchopulmonary segment
➢ The right bronchus: This is wider, shorter and more vertical than the
left bronchus and the more likely of the two to become obstructed by
an inhaled foreign body
• It is approximately 2.5 cm long
➢ The left bronchus: This is about 5 cm long and is narrower than the
right
• After entering the lung at the hilum, it divides into two branches, one
to each lobe
BRONCHIOLES AND ALVEOLI

• The bronchi become smaller the closer they get to the lung tissue and
are then considered bronchioles
• The bronchioles progressively subdivide into terminal bronchioles
• The terminal bronchioles divide into respiratory bronchioles, alveolar
ducts, and clusters of microscopic air sacs called alveoli
• The walls of the bronchioles gradually become thinner and are made of a
single layer of simple squamous epithelial cells in the alveolar ducts and
alveoli

• Interspersed between the squamous cells are other cells that secrete
surfactant, a phospholipid fluid that prevents the alveoli from drying out

• Surfactant also reduces surface tension and prevents alveolar walls

collapsing during expiration
FUNCTIONS OF BRONCHI AND
BRONCHIOLES
▪ Warming and humidifying
▪ Support and patency
▪ Removal of particulate matter
▪ Cough reflex.
BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY

➢Blood Supply
Arterial blood supply is through branches of the right and left
bronchial arteries
Venous return is mainly through the bronchial veins. On the right side,
they empty into the azygos vein and on the left into the superior
intercostal vein

Nerve supply.
Parasympathetic stimulation (vagus nerve) cause bronchoconstriction
Sympathetic stimulation causes bronchodilatation
THE LUNGS
• The lungs are a pair of spongy,
air-filled organs located on
either side of the chest (thorax).
Gross Anatomy

• Costal surface –This surface is convex and is closely associated with

the costal cartilages, the ribs and the intercostal muscles.
• Medial surface -This surface is concave and has a triangular-shaped
area called the hilum
• Apex–This is rounded and rises into the root of the neck
• Base–This is concave and semilunar in shape and is closely associated
with the diaphragm.
• There are two lungs(left and right) on neither side of the thoracic
cavity.
• Each lung is divided into lobes
• Left lung –separated into upper and lower lobes by the oblique fissure
• Right lung –separated into three lobes by the oblique and horizontal
fissures
MEDIAL VIEW OF THE LUNGS
The Pleurae space
• The lungs are covered by a thin tissue layer called the pleurae. It is divided
into two layers

Parietal pleura
• Covers the thoracic wall and superior face of the diaphragm
• Continues around the heart and between the lungs

Visceral or pulmonary pleura

• Covers the external lung surface

• In between the two layers is the pleural cavity, which contains a lubricating
fluid
Physiology/Mechanism Of Respiration
• The major function of the respiratory system is to supply the body
with oxygen and to dispose of carbon dioxide.
• At least four distinct events, collectively called respiration, must
occur:

Pulmonary ventilation.
• Air must move into and out of the lungs so that the gases in the
alveoli of the lungs are continuously refreshed.
• This process of pulmonary ventilation is commonly called
breathing.
External respiration.
• Gas exchange (oxygen loading and carbon dioxide unloading)
between the pulmonary blood and alveoli must take place.
• Gas exchanges are being made between the blood and the body
exterior.
Respiratory gas transport.
• Gas exchange occurs between the lungs and tissue cells of the
body via the bloodstream.
Internal respiration.
• At systemic capillaries, gas exchange occurs between the blood and
cells inside the body.
Mechanism of breathing
• Breathing, or pulmonary ventilation, is a mechanical process that
depends on volume changes occurring in the thoracic cavity.
• Rule: Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which leads to the
flow of gases to equalize the pressure.

• BOYLE’S LAW
• Gas pressure in closed container is inversely proportional to
volume of container

• The two phases of breathing are

• inspiration, when air is flowing into the lungs, and
• expiration, when air is leaving the lungs
Inspiration
• Contraction of diaphragm and external intercostals increases the
size of the thoracic cavity
• The dome-shaped diaphragm contracts and flattens causing depth of
the thoracic cavity increases
• Contraction of the external intercostals lifts the rib cage and thrusts
the sternum forward
• increases the anteroposterior and lateral dimensions of the thorax.
• Pressure in lungs is less than atmospheric pressure which causes air
to flow into the lungs.
• Air continues to move into the lungs until the intrapulmonary
pressure equals atmospheric pressure
• Active process
• During quiet breathing, contraction of
diaphragm and external intercostals
expands thoracic cavity
• Decreases pressure (Boyle’s law –
volume inversely related to pressure)
• Air flows down pressure gradient
• Diaphragm & Intercostal muscles contract
• Increases volume in thoracic cavity as muscles contract
• Volume of lungs increases
• Intrapulmonary pressure decreases (758 mm Hg)
Expiration
• Expiration (exhalation) in healthy people is largely a passive process
• The inspiratory muscles relax and resume their initial resting length
• The rib cage descends, the diaphragm relaxes and the lungs recoil

• Thus, both the thoracic and intrapulmonary volumes decrease.

• the gases inside the lungs are forced more closely together,
• the intrapulmonary pressure rises to a point higher than
atmospheric pressure
• This causes the gases to passively flow out to equalize the pressure
with the outside.
• Under conditions such as asthma, chronic bronchitis, or pneumonia,
expiration becomes an active process.
• In such cases of forced expiration,
• The internal intercostal muscles are activated to help depress the rib
cage,
• The abdominal muscles contract and help to force air from the lungs by
squeezing the abdominal organs upward against the diaphragm.

• Normally the pressure within the pleural space, the intrapleural pressure, is
always negative.
• This is the major factor preventing lung collapse.
• If, for any reason, the intrapleural pressure becomes equal to the
atmospheric pressure, the lungs immediately recoil and collapse
Gaseous exchange
• Gaseous exchange between alveolar air and blood occurs via passive diffusion.
Gaseous exchange is governed by;
– Dalton’s Law
• Each gas in a mixture exerts its own pressure in a container
• Dalton's law states that the total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is the
sum of the partial pressure of each individual gas.
– Henry’s Law
• The quantity of gas that dissolves in a liquid is proportional to the partial
pressure and
solubility coefficient
– Solubility of CO2 is greater than O2 (24x)
Patterns of Breathing
• Apnea – temporary cessation of breathing (one or more skipped breaths)

• Dyspnea – labored, gasping breathing; shortness of breath

• Eupnea – normal, relaxed, quiet breathing

• Hyperpnea – increased rate and depth of breathing in response to exercise,

pain, or other conditions

• Hyperventilation – increased pulmonary ventilation in excess of metabolic

demand
• Hypoventilation – reduced pulmonary ventilation

• Orthopnea – Dyspnea that occurs when a person is lying down

•
• Respiratory arrest – permanent cessation of breathing

• Tachypnea – accelerated respiration

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
• Many factors affect respiratory capacity—for example, a person’s size, sex,
age, and physical condition.

• Normal quiet breathing moves approximately 500 ml of air into and out of
the lungs with each breath
• This respiratory volume is referred to as the tidal volume (TV).

• A person is capable of inhaling much more air than is taken in during a tidal
breath.
• The amount of air that can be taken in forcibly above the tidal volume is
the inspiratory reserve volume (IRV), which is around 3,100 ml.
 Cont..
• After a normal expiration, more air can be exhaled.
• The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled beyond tidal
expiration, is the expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

• Even after the most strenuous expiration, some amount of air still
remains in the lungs and cannot voluntarily be expelled.
• This is the residual volume.

• Residual volume air is important because it allows gas

exchange to go on continuously even between breaths and helps
to keep the alveoli open (inflated).
Cont…
• The total amount of exchangeable air in healthy people is the vital
capacity (VC).
• The vital capacity is the sum of the tidal volume plus the inspiratory
and expiratory reserve volumes.

• Note that some of the air that enters the respiratory tract remains in the
conducting zone passageways and never reaches the alveoli.
• This is called the dead space volume.
Cont…
• Respiratory capacities are measured with a spirometer.

• As a person breathes, the volumes of air exhaled can be read on an

indicator, which shows the changes in air volume inside the apparatus.
• Spirometer testing is useful for evaluating losses in respiratory
functioning and in following the course of some respiratory diseases.

• In pneumonia, for example, inspiration is obstructed, and the IRV and

VC decrease.
• In emphysema, where expiration is hampered, the ERV is much lower
than normal, and the residual volume is higher.
Pulmonary Surfactant
• Alveolar surfaces come together during exhalation
• Alveolar surface tension can cause collapse of lungs
• Alveolar surface tension needs reduction, otherwise the lungs would
collapse
• Surface Active Solution (Surfactant) solves the problem. How?
• Reduces the surface tension of alveoli
• Keeps alveolar walls from collapsing
• Keeps capillary fluid from invading lungs
Gas Transport in the Blood

• Oxygen is transported in the blood in two ways.

• Most attaches to hemoglobin molecules inside the red blood cells
(RBCs) to form oxyhemoglobin HbO2
• A very small amount of oxygen is carried dissolved in the plasma.

• Carbon dioxide is twenty times more soluble in plasma compared to

oxygen.
• Most carbon dioxide is transported in plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3−),
• which plays a very important role in buffering blood pH.

• Carbon dioxide is enzymatically converted to bicarbonate ion within red

blood cells
• then the newly formed bicarbonate ions diffuse into the plasma.
Cont..
• A smaller amount of the transported CO2 is carried inside the RBCs
bound to hemoglobin.
• Carbon dioxide binds to hemoglobin at a different site from oxygen, so
it does not interfere with oxygen transport.
• Before carbon dioxide can diffuse out of the blood into the alveoli, it
must first be released from its bicarbonate ion form.
• For this to occur, bicarbonate ions (HCO3 –) must enter the red blood
cells, where they combine with hydrogen ions (H+) to form carbonic
acid (H2CO3).
• Carbonic acid quickly splits to form water and carbon dioxide, and
carbon dioxide then diffuses from the blood into the alveoli.
Impaired oxygen transport
• Inadequate oxygen delivery to body tissues is called hypoxia.

• This condition is easy to recognize in light-skinned people because

their skin and mucosae take on a bluish cast (become cyanotic).
•
• In dark-skinned individuals, this color change can be observed only in
the mucosae and nailbeds.

• Hypoxia may be the result of anemia, pulmonary disease, or

impaired or blocked blood circulation
Carbon monoxide poisoning
• Carbon monoxide poisoning represents a unique type of hypoxia.
• Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odorless, colorless gas that competes
vigorously with oxygen for the same binding sites on hemoglobin.
• Hemoglobin binds to CO more readily than to oxygen
• Carbon monoxide is a very successful competitor so much so that it
crowds out or displaces oxygen
• The victim becomes confused and has a throbbing headache.
• People with CO poisoning are given 100 percent oxygen until the
carbon monoxide has been cleared from the body.
Disorders of the Respiratory System
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) :
• Long term obstruction of airflow and a substantial reduction in
pulmonary ventilation
• Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and emphysema

• Emphysema
• alveolar walls break down and the surface area of the lungs is reduced
• lungs become less elastic, the airways collapse during expiration and
obstruct outflow of air

• Chronic bronchitis
• cilia are immobilized and reduced in number;
• goblet cells increase their production of mucus
• mucus clogs the airways and breeds infection
Cont….
• Asthma – allergens trigger the release of histamine and other
inflammatory chemicals that cause intense bronchoconstriction

• Acute Rhinitis – the common cold

• Laryngitis – inflammation of the vocal folds

• Pneumonia – lower respiratory infection that causes fluid build up in

the lungs
• Sleep Apnea – Cessation of breathing for 10 seconds or longer during
sleep
•
• Tuberculosis – pulmonary infection with Mycobacterium
tuberculosis; reduces lung compliance
REFERENCE
Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2022). Human Anatomy & Physiology (12th ed.). Pearson.

Widmaier, E. P., Raff, H., & Strang, K. T. (2021). Vander’s Human Physiology: The

Mechanisms of Body Function (16th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Silverthorn, D. U. (2022). Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach (8th ed.). Pearson.

Costanzo, L. S. (2022). Physiology (7th ed.). Elsevier