1.

​ What are the factors affecting material selection for

pharmaceutical plant construction?
Ans.
1.​ In a pharmaceutical plant, the materials used for building machines, pipes, tanks,
and other equipment must be carefully chosen.
2.​ It must be safe for drug production, strong, easy to clean, and must not
contaminate the product.
3.​ The selection of a material depends upon
a. physical factors
b. chemical factors.
A.​ Physical Factors
These factors are related to the strength, handling, and cleaning of the material.
1. Strength
a.​ Material must be strong to handle pressure, weight, and stress.
b.​ Example: Stainless steel is strong and does not break easily.
2. Mass (Weight)
a.​ Light materials are easier to move and install.
b.​ Heavy materials may need strong support structures.
3. Wear Properties
a.​ Materials should resist damage from repeated use.
b.​ Good wear resistance means longer life and less maintenance.
4. Thermal Conductivity
a.​ Materials should handle heat well if used in heating or cooling systems.
b.​ Metals with good conductivity transfer heat quickly.
5. Ease of Fabrication
a.​ Material should be easy to cut, weld, or bend during construction.
b.​ Saves time and money during equipment manufacturing.
6. Sterilization
a.​ Material must handle high temperatures or chemicals used in sterilization.
b.​ It should not change or degrade during cleaning with steam or chemicals.
7. Ease of Cleaning
a.​ Surface must be smooth and non-porous to allow easy cleaning.
b.​ Prevents bacterial growth and product contamination.

B.​ Chemical Factors

These factors are related to chemical reactions and safety of the material.
1. Contamination of the Product
a.​ Material must not release any particles or chemicals into the product as it
may damage the product.
 b.​ Example: Non-toxic, non-reactive materials are preferred such as glass,
silica, lead, cast iron etc.

2. Corrosion of the Material

a.​ The material used for construction of equipment should be non-corrosion
in nature.
b.​ because if the material is Corrosive then it can cause equipment damage
and contamination.
c.​ We should use stainless steel to prevent this.

2.​ What is corrosion? Explain the theories of corrosion.

Ans. Corrosion is the slow destruction or damage of a metal when it reacts with air,
water, chemicals, or moisture.
It usually results in rusting, weakening, or holes in the metal.
Corrosion is very dangerous in pharmaceutical plants because it can:

a.​ Contaminate medicines

b.​ Damage equipment
c.​ Cause leaks or breakdowns

Theories of Corrosion

There are three main theories that explain how corrosion happens:

a.​ Acid Theory

b.​ Dry (Chemical) Theory
c.​ Electrochemical (Galvanic) Theory

1. Acid Theory of Corrosion

●​ This theory says that corrosion happens because of the presence of acids in
the environment.
●​ Acids like HCl or H₂SO₄ attack the metal and cause it to dissolve.
●​ It is common in acidic environments like chemical plants.

Example Reaction:​
Fe (iron) + 2HCl → FeCl₂ + H₂ (hydrogen gas)

●​ Iron reacts with hydrochloric acid and forms iron chloride and hydrogen gas.
●​ This leads to loss of metal surface.
2. Dry (Chemical) Theory of Corrosion

●​ Also called chemical corrosion.

●​ Happens when metal reacts with dry gases like oxygen or sulfur dioxide.
●​ No water or electrolyte is needed.

How it happens:

●​ A thin oxide layer forms on the metal surface.

●​ If this oxide is protective, like in aluminum, it prevents further corrosion.
●​ If the oxide is non-protective, like in iron (rust), corrosion continues.

Example:​
4Fe + 3O₂ → 2Fe₂O₃ (rust)

●​ Happens mostly at high temperatures.

3. Electrochemical Theory (Galvanic Theory)

●​ This is the most common type of corrosion, also called wet corrosion.
●​ Happens when a metal is in contact with water or moisture and forms a small
electric cell (like a battery).

How it works:

●​ The metal has two areas: Anode and Cathode.

●​ At the Anode: Metal loses electrons and becomes ions (metal dissolves).
●​ At the Cathode: Oxygen or hydrogen ions gain electrons and form gas or water.

Example (Iron in moist air):​

At anode: Fe → Fe²⁺ + 2e⁻​
At cathode: O₂ + 4H⁺ + 4e⁻ → 2H₂O

●​ The flow of electrons from anode to cathode causes rust formation.

●​ This happens faster when:
a.​ Two different metals are in contact (Galvanic corrosion)
b.​ The metal surface has impurities or scratches
 3.​ What are the types of corrosion?​
Ans. The types of corrosion includes
a.​ General Corrosion (Uniform Attack Corrosion)
b.​ Structural Corrosion
c.​ Biological Corrosion
d.​ Localized Corrosion
1. General Corrosion (Uniform Attack Corrosion)

●​ Corrosion happens evenly on the entire surface of the metal.

●​ It is slow and predictable, so easier to detect and control.
●​ It usually happens due to exposure to air and moisture.

Example: Iron rusting slowly in open air.

Effect: The metal becomes thinner over time and loses strength.

2. Structural Corrosion

●​ This type affects the internal structure or grain boundaries of the metal.
●​ Often happens due to welding, heating, or mechanical stress.
●​ It can weaken the metal without visible surface damage.

Example: Stainless steel welded without proper care may suffer from intergranular
corrosion.

Effect: Sudden failure of parts even though they look fine outside.

3. Biological Corrosion

●​ Also called Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC).

●​ Happens when bacteria or microorganisms produce acids or gases that
damage the metal.
●​ Common in water tanks, pipelines, and humid areas.

Example: Sulfate-reducing bacteria in water systems causing pipe corrosion.

Effect: Equipment contamination and foul smell; difficult to clean and control.

4. Localized Corrosion (3 marks)

This type happens in specific small areas on the metal surface. It is more dangerous
because it’s hard to detect and may cause sudden failure.

Here are the main types of localized corrosion:

🔸 a. Pitting Corrosion
●​ Tiny holes or pits form on the surface.
●​ Often caused by chloride ions (salt).
●​ Difficult to detect but very harmful.

🔸 b. Crevice Corrosion
●​ Happens in narrow spaces like joints, gaskets, or under bolts where air or
cleaning solutions cannot reach.
●​ Moisture and dirt stay inside the gap and cause corrosion.

🔸 c. Fretting Corrosion
●​ Caused by friction or rubbing between two metal surfaces.
●​ Tiny movements cause the protective layer to wear off, leading to corrosion.

🔸 d. Galvanic Corrosion
●​ Happens when two different metals touch each other in the presence of a liquid
(electrolyte).
●​ One metal becomes anode (corrodes faster), the other becomes cathode
(protected).

Example: Iron touching copper in water — iron corrodes faster.

🔸 e. Corrosion Fatigue
●​ Happens when a metal is exposed to repeated stress or vibration along with
corrosion.
●​ Cracks slowly grow over time and cause sudden failure.

4.​ Write a detailed note on prevention of corrosion.

Ans.
1. Painting and Coating

●​ Paint and coatings act like a protective layer over the metal.
●​ They prevent air, water, and chemicals from touching the metal surface.

Types of coatings:

●​ Paints – used on steel structures and machines.

●​ Plastic coatings – like PTFE or epoxy, used on pipes and tanks.
●​ Metal coatings – like zinc coating (galvanizing) to protect iron.
Example: Galvanized iron sheets are coated with zinc to prevent rusting.

2. Alloying

●​ In this method, we mix two or more metals to form an alloy that resists
corrosion better.

Examples of corrosion-resistant alloys:

●​ Stainless steel (SS 304 or SS 316L) – contains chromium and nickel.

●​ Hastelloy – used for very strong chemicals.
●​ Brass (copper + zinc) – resists moisture better than plain copper.

Why it helps: Alloying changes the chemical nature of the metal and makes it harder
for corrosion to start.

3. Cathodic Protection (1.5 marks)

This method stops corrosion by making the metal act like a cathode in an
electrochemical cell.

There are two types:

1.​ Sacrificial Anode Method

○​ A more reactive metal (like zinc or magnesium) is attached to the main
metal (like iron).
○​ The anode corrodes instead of the protected metal.​

2.​ Impressed Current Method

○​ A small electric current is passed to stop corrosion reactions.

Example: Underground pipelines and ship hulls are protected this way.

4. Proper Design of Equipment (1.5 marks)

Good design reduces the chances of corrosion by:

●​ Avoiding sharp corners and crevices where moisture can collect.

●​ Using smooth surfaces that are easier to clean.
●​ Allowing proper drainage so water doesn’t stay on the surface.
●​ Avoiding contact between different metals to prevent galvanic corrosion.​
Example: Using proper welding and rounded joints in stainless steel tanks.

5. Use of Corrosion Inhibitors (1.5 marks)

●​ These are chemicals added to liquids (like water or oil) to reduce corrosion.
●​ They form a protective film on the metal surface.

Types of inhibitors:

●​ Anodic inhibitors – slow down metal oxidation.

●​ Cathodic inhibitors – block the cathode reaction.
●​ Volatile inhibitors – used in closed spaces like boilers.

Example: Adding sodium nitrite to cooling water to protect iron pipelines.

5.​ Write about the classification of materials used for plant

construction.
Ans. In pharmaceutical plants, many machines, tanks, pipes, and containers are built
using special materials. These materials must be strong, safe, non-reactive, and easy
to clean.
The materials used for plant construction are mainly divided into two groups: metals
and non-metals.

1. Metals

Metals are widely used in plant construction due to their high strength, durability, and
good thermal conductivity. Metals are further divided into:

A. Ferrous Metals (contain iron)

●​ These metals are strong and tough but may rust or corrode.
●​ Often used when strength and durability are most important.

Examples:

●​ Mild Steel – strong but rusts easily; used for support structures.
●​ Stainless Steel (SS 304, SS 316L) – resistant to rust and corrosion; used in
tanks, pipes, and contact parts.
●​ Cast Iron – used in machine bodies and frames.
Uses in Pharma Industry:

●​ SS 316L is commonly used in drug contact surfaces because it resists chemicals

and is easy to clean.

B. Non-Ferrous Metals (do not contain iron)

●​ These metals are usually lighter and more resistant to corrosion.

●​ They are also good conductors of heat and electricity.

Examples:

●​ Aluminium – lightweight; used in packing machinery.

●​ Copper – good conductor; used in electrical systems and heat exchangers.
●​ Titanium – very resistant to corrosion; used in high-end pharma equipment.
●​ Nickel and Alloys (like Monel) – used for strong acids and bases.

2. Non-Metals

Non-metals are used when we need chemical resistance, insulation, or light weight.
They are divided into two types:

A. Organic Non-Metals (Polymers/Plastics) (2 marks)

●​ These are man-made plastic materials.

●​ They are light, corrosion-resistant, and easy to mold.

Examples:

●​ PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) – used in pipes, valves.

●​ PTFE (Teflon) – used for gaskets and coatings because it resists all chemicals.
●​ Polypropylene (PP) – used in containers and caps.
●​ HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene) – used for storage drums.

Advantages:

●​ Cheap, flexible, and corrosion-proof.

Limitations:

●​ Cannot handle high temperatures or heavy loads.

B. Inorganic Non-Metals

●​ These are natural or mineral-based materials.

●​ Used where high chemical resistance of insulation is needed.

Examples:

●​ Glass (Borosilicate) – used in labware, sight glasses.

●​ Ceramics – used in filters, pumps, and insulators.
●​ Graphite – used in heat exchangers and seals.

Advantages:

●​ High resistance to chemicals and temperature.

●​ Do not react with drugs.

Limitations:

●​ Brittle and can break easily.

6.​ Write a detailed note on the basics of material handling systems.

Ans. Material handling means the movement, protection, storage, and control of
materials during manufacturing, storage, and distribution.​
In pharmaceutical industries, material handling must be done carefully to avoid
contamination, damage, or product loss.

2. Objectives of Material Handling (1 mark)

●​ Prevent contamination of raw materials and products

●​ Improve efficiency in manufacturing
●​ Reduce manual work and accidents
●​ Ensure safety for workers and materials
●​ Speed up the movement of materials

3. Types of Material Handling Equipment (5 marks)

Material handling equipment is divided into different categories:

1. Manual Handling Equipment

●​ Used when materials are moved by human effort.

●​ Suitable for small weights and short distances.
Examples:

●​ Trolleys
●​ Carts
●​ Hand trucks

2. Mechanical Handling Equipment

●​ Used to move heavy or large materials with the help of machines.

Examples:

a. Conveyors

●​ Used for continuous movement of materials.

●​ Can be of different types:
○​ Belt conveyors – used for tablets, capsules.
○​ Screw conveyors – used for powders and granules.
○​ Roller conveyors – used for cartons and packages.

b. Hoists and Cranes

●​ Used to lift heavy equipment or containers vertically.

c. Elevators and Lifts

●​ Move materials up and down between floors.

d. Forklifts and Pallet Trucks

●​ Used in warehouses to move pallets and drums.

e. Vacuum or Pneumatic Systems

●​ Used for dust-free transfer of powders from one container to another.

4. Features of a Good Material Handling System (2 marks)

●​ Easy to clean and maintain

●​ Made with non-reactive materials (like stainless steel or pharma-grade
plastics)
●​ Closed systems to avoid dust and contamination
●​ Quick and smooth transfer of materials
●​ Reduces manual contact to maintain hygiene
5. Importance in Pharmaceutical Industry (1 mark)

●​ Reduces product loss and contamination

●​ Increases production speed
●​ Improves safety for workers
●​ Maintains GMP (Good Manufacturing Practices)
●​ Supports automated and sterile processing​