HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

The field of developmental psychology is concerned with age-related changes in behaviour and
abilities not just during conception and childhood but throughout the entire life span. The
changes that occur in us as developing human organisms during the course of our lives have
been identified as growth and development. The terms growth and development are often used
interchangeably but they are not the same. However, each does not occur in isolation
Terms related to growth and development
Growth: This refers to the physical changes that occur in an organism over time. In humans,
it often refers to increases in size or quantity such as height, weight or the development of
organs and systems in the body
Development: Development encompasses changes that occur over time not only physically
but also emotionally intellectually, socially and morally. It involves qualitative progressions
in skills, behaviours, knowledge and understanding often influenced by both biological
maturation and environmental experiences
Forms or domains of development
- Physical or biological development: It includes changes in the body (with brain, sense
organs, muscles, bones etc.), that is, internal organs grow and develop in order to cope
with the increasing demands on it. It also includes the effects of ageing such as changes
in eye sight or in muscular strength. Physical growth and development are influenced
by the growth hormones and thyroxine, nutrition, genetic factors and diseases. The main
parametres in physical growth include height, weight, head growth, appearance of teeth,
posture etc.

- Emotional development: Emotion is a term used to describe feeling. Typical examples

of emotions are anger, fear, sorrow, hatred, joy, greed etc. Emotional development
depends most on factors like hereditary, socialisation, environmental, age, learning etc.
Although, some forms of emotional development appear inborn, a good number of them
are learned by the individual to enable him to conform to the patterns approved by a
particular culture

- Cognitive or intelligence development: It is a process by which a child becomes an

intelligent person through the acquisition of knowledge and thinking, learning,
reasoning, abstract ability. This has to do with changes in reasoning, thinking, language
acquisition and with how individuals store knowledge of their environment

- Social or psychosocial development: This refers to the degree to which an individual

internises the culture of his people. It is concerned with how an individual relates to
other people. It includes relationship with family, peer and teachers as well as
individual’s personal identity or sense of self

- Moral development: This involves understanding standards of behaviours. Here,

children establish moral code in consistent with the social norms as to what is good or
bad

- Spiritual development: This is children’s ability to have meaning, purpose and hopes
in life as they grow. They realise and understand that behaviours whether good or bad
are rewarded
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Maturation: Maturation refers to the biological process of development in which an
individual naturally acquires certain abilities or characteristics as they grow older. It is the
unfolding of genetically programmed sequences of change within the individual leading to
increased functionality or readiness for certain tasks or skills
Developmental task: A developmental task is a specific challenge or achievement that an
individual is expected to accomplish during a certain stage of development. These tasks can
be physical, cognitive, emotional or social in nature and vary according to different
developmental theories and stages
Developmental milestone: This refers to a significant achievement or marker that indicates a
child's progress in acquiring specific skills or abilities within a certain timeframe. These
milestones can include actions like a baby's first words, a toddler's ability to walk or a child's
attainment of certain cognitive or social abilities
Principles of growth and development
Development is an individual process: Every child has his own rate of development. This
applies to all areas of life of development like physical, mental, emotional and social. For
example, if we observe 12-year-old children, we will notice great difference in their levels of
intelligence, weight, height etc. Each child’s own growth record is the best standard by which
to evaluate his present growth data. Therefore, variations amongst children are entirely normal.
However, a child who is relatively small or heavier in comparison with children of the same
age may be experiencing growth abnormality or may be simply following his own appropriate
individual’s growth pattern

The rate of development differs in male and female children: Boys and girls differ in their
rate of growth. Girls mature earlier than boys. During the pre-adolescence period, girls grow
taller and heavier than boys. However, by the end of adolescence, boys surpass them

Growth follows an orderly normative sequence: Although individuals differ in their rates of
development, they still have general universal timetable. This is why it has been possible to
identify developmental milestones. Psychologists have reported the following directional
trends in development;
- Cephalocaudal: Cephalocaudal (from the Latin word, head-to-tail) dictates that
development shall proceed from the head to the lower parts of the body. This means
that the greatest growth always occurs at the top (the head) with physical growth in size,
weight and feature differential gradually working its way down from top to bottom
(neck, shoulder, middle, trunk and feet). Thus, infants can control their heads before
they can control their trunks, they learn to do many things with their hands before their
legs are useful, they learn to sit alone before they can stand alone

- Proximodistal: The proximodistal (from the Latin word, near-to-far) dictates that
development shall proceed from central parts of the body to the peripheral. This means
that growth starts at the centre of the body and moves towards the extremities. An
example of this principle is the infant’s ability to use his upper arm before his forearms
(the former being closest to the central axis), ability to use the upper leg before the
foreleg, the ability to use hands before the fingers and finally, his feet before the toes

- Locomotion: All infants in the all cultures most pass through a specific sequence of
locomotion (movement). These sequences are creeping, crawling and walking. The

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 time taken for each child might vary but every child must pass through them in that
sequence
Development is asynchronous: Developments in the individual are at not a uniform rate. Each
body part has it only rate of development. For example, the brain growth dominates during the
early development and puberty at the age of twelve

Development is a continuous process: It begins from the time of conception in the womb till
death. It is not always smooth and gradual. It is characterised by spurt in physical, social and
psychological development. For example, there is a sharp increase in vocabulary during pre-
school years and a sudden improvement in problem solving

All aspect of development is interrelated: Development is only artificially divided into

physical, psychological, social etc for easy assimilation. In actual fact, each area of
development is inseparably integrated with each other. For example, if a child is physically
handicapped, the other parts become interdependent and help each other

Development is epigenetic: This is the appearance of new features on the existing ones which
had no prior relation. For example, the development of pubic hair on the pubis which had no
hair and the development of breast on the chest of girls

Development is a production of interaction: Development is a process resultant from the

interaction of genetic constitution of an individual and the environmental forces. It is difficult
to separate them

Development is cumulative: Any skills that a child achieves do not normally emerge all of a
sudden. The child has to go through a series of traits which will eventually cumulate into the
actual performing of the task. For example, a child’s first step is a result of cumulative progress
he made for it. Each task achieved is a culmination of his prior growth and experience

Development is characterised by mass differentiation and integration: This principle states

that development is directional and involves combining simple, differentiated skills into more
complex skills. For example, the complex skill of walking involves combining simpler skills
learnt in standing, crawling, pulling up and so on. On normal circumstances, new abilities arise
from older ones

Newly learned skills predominate: The individual’s mind is pre-occupied with practicing and
perfecting a newly learnt skill. A child will use majority of his working hours practicing a
newly acquired skills. For example, if a child is learning to talk, he will talk a great deal thus,
practicing word pronunciation

Development is characterised by critical or sensitive period: A critical period is a specific

time the child is most vulnerable or sensitive on a particular incoming stimulus. The same
stimulus provided before or after the critical period will have less impact on the child. For
example, during the first trimester of pregnancy, the embryo and foetus are most vulnerable to
harmful stimuli. For example, rubella, thalidomide etc. After this period, substances are no
longer harmful to that child. Critical periods also exist for psychological development. Recent
researchers have it that mother-child bonding starts within minutes after birth to six months

Stages of human growth and development

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Human growth and development can be classified into two main stages, the stage spanning
from conception to birth (prenatal stage) and the stage after birth to death (postnatal stage)
1. Prenatal stage

Prenatal development begins when a sperm successfully fertilises an egg or ovum. The many
changes that transform the fertilised egg into a newborn human are known as prenatal
development. Prenatal development takes average of 38 weeks. Prenatal stage human
development is divided into three periods. They are;
The period of zygote or germinal stage (week 0-2): After the ovum is united with the sperm,
it is called a zygote. It then enters the period of zygote or the germinal stage that lasts for
about two weeks. This period is a time of rapid cell division (the zygote is composed of
approximately 100 to 150 cells 1 week after conception) and differentiation

Occasionally, the zygote separates into two clusters that develop identical twins. Fraternal
twins which are more common are created when two eggs are released and each one is fertilised
by different sperm cell. By the end of the first week, the zygote reaches the uterus

The next step is implantation in which the zygote attaches itself to the uterine wall and
establishes connections with a woman’s blood vessels. Implantation takes about a week to
complete and triggers hormone that prevents menstruation, letting the woman know that she is
pregnant or has conceived. Implantation and differentiation of cells mark the end of the
period of the zygote. Comfortably settled in the shelter of the uterus, the zygote is well prepared
for the remaining 36 weeks of the marvelous journey leading to birth

The period of the embryo or embryonic stage (week 3-8): Once the zygote is completely
embedded in the uterine wall, it is called embryo. This new period typically begins the third
week after conception and lasts until the end of the eight weeks

It is during this period that the body structures and organs are formed. At the beginning of this
period, three layers begin to form in the embryo. The outer layer (trophoblast or ectoderm)
becomes the hair, the outer layer of the skin and the nervous system. The middle layer
(mesoderm) forms the muscles, bones and the circulatory system. The inner layer (blastocyst
or endoderm) forms the digestive system and lungs

By the end of this period, the embryo has almost all the basic organs except the sex organs and
it is recognisable a partially functioning human being. One can see the jaw, arms and legs. The
brain and the nervous system are developing rapidly and the heart has been beating for nearly
a month. Yet, being only an inch long and weighing a fraction of an ounce, the embryo is much
too small for the mother to feel its presence

Growth in the embryonic period follows two important principles. First, the head develops
before the rest of the body. Such growth from the head to the base of the spine illustrates the
cephalocaudal (head to tail) principle. Second, the arms and legs develop before the hands
and feet. This growth of parts near centre of the body occurs before those that are distant. Such
growths that proceed from near to far is called the proximodistal (near to far principles)

The embryo’s environment consists of three structures. The embryo rests in an amniotic sack
which is filled with amniotic fluid that cushions the embryo and maintains a constant
temperature. The embryo is linked to the mother via two structures. The umbilical cord houses

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blood vessels that join the embryo to the placenta. The placenta is a disc-shaped mass of tissues
that forms along the wall of the uterus and allows nutrients, oxygen, vitamins and waste
products to be exchanged between mother and embryo

Miscarriage (the detachment and expulsion of the embryo from the uterine wall) can occur
easily at this stage because rapidly developing organisms are most vulnerable to adverse
environmental factors. The embryonic period is the phase most environmental factors such as
maternal illnesses etc happen. Poor maternal diet and maternal drug use can also result in
devastating, irreversible deviations in development. It is estimated that the rate of miscarriages
is as high as 1 in 4 of pregnancies but remain undetected because they occur in the first few
weeks of pregnancy

The period of the foetus or foetal stage (week 9-38): This is the final and the longest stage
of prenatal development. It begins at the ninth week after conception and ends at birth. At the
beginning of this period, the foetus weighs less than one ounce. By the end of this period, the
foetus will gain additional seven or eight pounds

During this period, the structures that were formed in the embryonic period are enlarged and
filled out. The finishing touches are placed on the many systems that are essential to human
life such as respiration, digestion and vision. All organs mature and become functional. For
example, by the fifth month of pregnancy, the brain has begun to function. Some simple
reflexes like sucking and swallowing are present and mothers will sometimes feel the foetus
hiccupping. Although the central nervous system develops rapidly, development is not
complete until several years after birth

By about seven months, most systems function well enough so that a foetus born at this age
has the chance to survive, which is why seven months is called the age of viability. At seven
months, the lungs are not fully mature, so babies born this early will not be fully matured. So,
babies born this early have trouble in breathing. Also, they cannot regulate their body
temperature very well because they lack the insulating layer of fat that appears in the eight
months after conception

Chromosomes and genes

At conception, egg and sperm unite to create a new organism that incorporates some
characteristics of each parent. Each egg and sperm cell has 23 chromosomes. Chromosomes
are threadlike structures in the nucleus that contain genetic materials. When a sperm penetrates
an egg, their chromosomes combine to produce 23 pairs of chromosomes (i.e. 46
chromosomes). The first 22 pairs are called autosomes. The male and female possess them
equally and each pair of autosomes determines the same traits. But the 23rd pair of
chromosomes is known as the sex chromosomes as it produces either male or female. They
differ in both male and female. In males, the 23rd pair consists of XY known as heterozygotic
cell. In the female, the 23rd pair is XX called homozygotic cell

Both XY in male and XX in female, that is, 23rd pair of chromosomes is called sex cell (sex
gamete) because they combine to determine the sex of a child. Since the mother is XX, the sex
chromosomes she can contribute through her ovum is always X. However, the father can
contribute either X or Y. This means that the zygote has a chance of being XX or XY, that is a
male or female. If a Y bearing sperm fertilises the ovum, the product will be a boy because of
the XY chromosome combination. Also, the fusion of two XX each from the mother and father

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produces a girl. This indicates that it is always the father who determines the sex of a child. It
is also clear that the determination of sex of a child is highly a matter of chance

Only one gene, known as testes determining factor on the sex chromosomes determines
biological sex. In other words, the genetic difference between men and women is 150,000 genes
and genetically, the two are 99.8% the same

Generally, in the first weeks of gestation, female and male embryos look alike and are identical
in development. Male sex organ starts to differ from the female sex organs when the testes
determining factor gene triggers secretion of androgens, the main class of male hormones,
in the male embryo. Low levels of androgens in the female embryo allow the normal
development of female sex organs

It is important to note however that, sometimes there is imbalance in the system of hormone
secretion during the development of the foetus. There could be for example, insufficient
secretion of androgen in the male embryo or too much of it in the female embryo resulting in
individual having ambiguous genitals, that is, the sex organs may appear male and female
mixed resulting in a condition referred to as pseudo hermarphroditism. This can be corrected
through surgery early in life. Therefore, it is widely known that genetic factors underlie
differences between men and women

Located on each chromosome are hundreds of genes. Each gene is composed of

deoxyribonucleic acid. The genes transmit instructions guiding growth and development.
Thus, genes are functional units of hereditary, because they determine production of chemical
substances such as protein enzymes that are ultimately the basis for all human characteristics
and abilities. Hair colour, eye colour and many other inherited characteristics depend on the
type of protein synthesised. The complete set of genes makes up a person’s genotype

Mutation of a gene may occur as a result of radiations or degeneration. Mutant genes may
produce a variety of hereditary diseases, congenital defects and constitutional weakness.
Defective genes have been found to be related to such mental disorders like schizophrenia,
mood disorders, dementia, Huntington’s chorea, mental retardation and alcoholism

Genetic instructions in conjunction with environmental influences produce a phenotype which

is an individual’s physical, behavioural and psychological features

Genetics can derail development in two ways. First, sometimes eggs or sperms do not include
the usual 23 chromosomes but have more or fewer chromosomes instead. Second, a gene may
be defective and fail to code for the appropriate protein or enzyme

Below are some of the abnormalities that can occur in genes and chromosomes;
i. Chromosomal abnormalities

As noted above, sometimes, individuals do not receive the normal complement of 46

chromosomes (23 from each parent). These individuals may be born with missing, extra or

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damaged chromosomes thereby affecting their development. The following are five of the more
frequent disorders associated with chromosomal abnormalities;
Kleinfelter syndrome: This is a chromosomal disorder in which males have extra X
chromosome making them XXY instead of XY. So instead of normal 46 chromosomes, there
are 47 or more in the male. Males with this disorder have undeveloped testes or testicular
atrophy and they usually have female characteristics in body shape and glandular development
such as large breast (gynaecomastia), girlish voice etc because of the extra X chromosomes.
They may be sterile, mentally retarded (passive and below intelligence), suffer personality
disorders or alcohol abuse

Turner syndrome: This is a chromosomal disorder in which females are missing an X

chromosome making them XO instead of XX. So instead of normal 46 chromosomes, the
female will have 45 chromosomes because of one missing X. These females are short in stature
or dwarfism and have a webbed neck or cubitus valgus, low set ears, ovarian agenesis and little
sexual differentiation particularly after the onset of secondary sexual characteristics. Mental
retardation frequently accompanies these defects. This is a rare condition

Fragile X syndrome: This is a chromosomal disorder that results from an abnormality in the
X chromosome. It occurs often in males. There is a damaged X chromosome which becomes
constricted and often breaks. Mental deficiency often is an outcome

Down syndrome, Trisomy 21 or Mongolism: This is a common genetically transmitted form

of chromosomal abnormality. The chromosome in down syndrome is 47 instead of the normal
46. The extra chromosome is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of a third
copy of chromosome 21st of the 23 pairs making them XXX instead of XX. It is typically
associated with physical growth delays and low intelligent quotient (IQ). Characteristic facial
features include a moonlike face, a flattened skull, an extra fold of skin over the eyelids, a
protruding tongue and broad nose with poorly developed bridge and short limbs. NB: This
condition was first discovered by Dr. Langdon Down in 1866 so it is called Down’s syndrome.
The incidence is about 1:750

ii. Genetic abnormalities

An abnormality is produced when a defective gene does not code for the appropriate enzyme
or protein. Here are some well-known examples of genetic abnormalities;
Phenylketonuria: This is metabolic disorder in which babies are born lacking an important
liver enzyme called phenylalanine hydroxylase as a result of transmitted or inherited
recessive gene. This prevents the conversion of phenylalanine, one of the amino acids present
in many proteins found in dairy products, bread and fish into tyrosine that are required for
normal body functioning. Without this enzyme, phenylalanine accumulates in the body and
produces poisons that harm the nervous system resulting in severe mental illness retardation.
Phenylketonuria can be detected by urinalysis and controlled using strict dietary measures
(very low protein diet) that limit intake of phenylalanine until the infants have safely past the
first years of life

Galactosaemia: This is a metabolic disorder in babies are born lacking galactose-1-phosphate

uridytransferase as a result of transmitted or recessive gene. These prevent the conversion of
carbohydrates into glucose. This may result in damage to the central nervous system leading to

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mental retardation, low birth weight and neurological disease like epilepsy. When diagnosed
early, it can be treated with milk free diet

Tay Sach’s disease: This is a recessive gene metabolic disorder in which fatty substances in
foods accumulate in the brain and other tissues causing mental retardation. This occurs when a
baby is born lacking an important digestive enzyme known as hexosaminidase A. This
prevents the conversion of fat and oil into fatty acid and glycerol

Kernicterus, Rhesus incompatibility or Rh disease: Rhesus factor is a blood component

found in almost 85% whites and nearly 100% blacks. Its presence makes a person’s blood Rh-
positive. Its absence makes a person’s blood Rh-negative or genetically inherited and is
incompatible under certain conditions. Blood incompatibility becomes a problem when the
mother’s blood is Rh-negative and the father Rh-positive and their child inherits the dominant
Rh-positive. This makes problems to occur because of blood incompatibility
Usually, the first Rh-positive baby of a Rh-negative mother has no problem but the subsequent
Rh-positive will have problems. Such incompatibility leads to the destruction of the foetus red
blood cells resulting in inadequate supply of oxygen to the foetus. The consequences of this
blood incompatibility between mother (Rh-negative) and foetus (Rh-positive) are jaundice,
anaemia, blood agglutination or coagulation and in extremes cases, it results in death. If the
child survives, the baby may become mentally retarded or have cerebral palsy
Fortunately, Rhesus incompatibility can be managed through medical interventions such as
Rhesus immunoglobulin injections (RhoGAM) during pregnancy and after childbirth. These
injections can prevent the mother's immune system from producing antibodies against the
Rhesus factor, thereby reducing the risk of complications in future pregnancies

Sickle cell anaemia: This occurs most often in people of African descent is a genetic disorder
affecting the red blood cells. A red blood cell is usually shaped like a disk but in sickle cell
anaemia, a defective gene modifies its shape to a hook-shaped sickle. These cells die quickly
causing anaemia and early death of the individual because of their failure to carry oxygen to
the body’s cells

Cystic fibrosis: This is a severe genetic disease marked by digestive and respiratory problems.
If the individual who inherits this disorder survives, fertility is affected. For example, most
males are sterile and the women although fertile have continuing respiratory problems
throughout pregnancy that affect foetal health. Because of the severity of this defect, sufferers
often die by early adulthood

Haemophilia: This is a blood disease that affects male children only although it is carried
genetically by females. The defective gene is located on the X chromosome. Thus, it is sex-
linked. The condition is due to a deficiency of antihaemophilic globulin which is needed for
blood coagulation or clothing. Sufferers are called bleeders because slight cuts or scratches as
well as internal bruises can lead to unstopped bleeding, severe anaemia and eventually death

Colour blindness: Colour blindness or colour vision deficiency is a condition where an

individual has difficulty distinguishing between certain colours. The most common type is red-
green colour blindness where someone may have problem differentiating between red and
green shades. This condition is often genetic and occurs more frequently in males typically
because the genes responsible for colour vision being located on the X chromosome. It happens

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due to abnormalities or deficiencies in the photogigments within the cones of the retina
impacting the perception of specific colours

Albinism: This genetic disorder characterised by lack of melanin pigment in skin and hair and
often leads to vision problems such as sensitivity to light and vision impairments. People with
albinism may have vision difficulties due to lack of pigment in the retina which can affect the
development and function of the optic nerve

2. Postnatal stage

This begins after birth. It is divided into eight stages. They are;
a. Infancy stage (birth-1 year)
- Newborn is dependent but competent
- All senses operate at birth
- Preoccupied with sleep and feeding during the day and night
- Eventually becomes active during the day
b. Toddlerhood stage (2-3 years)
- Physical and development of motors skills are rapid
- Ability to learn and remember is present even in early weeks of life
- Comprehension and speech develop rapidly
- Self-awareness develops in the second year
- Attachment to parents and others forms towards the end of the first year
- Interest in others increases

c. Early childhood (3-5 years)

- Fine and gross motor skills and strength improve. Boys are generally superior to girls
in gross motor or skills activities while girls are generally superior to boys in fine motor
activities or skills
- Behaviour is largely egocentric, but understanding of other people’s perspective grows
- Cognitive immaturity leads to some illogical ideas about the world
- Play, creativity and imagination become more elaborative
- Independence, self-control and self-care increase
- The family becomes the focus of his life although other children become more
important to him as well

d. Middle childhood (6-12 years)

- Physical grow slows down. However, physical maturation occurs faster in girls than
boys. Boys have slight advantage over girls in terms of weight and height from birth
until age 10 or 11
- Strength and athletic skills improve
- Egocentric diminishes
- Children begin to think logically although largely concretely
- Memory and language skills increase
- Cognitive gained enable children to benefit from formal schooling
- Self-control develops, affecting self-esteem
- Peers assume central importance in his life

e. Adolescence (12-20 years)

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 - Physical changes are rapid and profound
- Reproductive maturity arrives. Girls enter puberty earlier than boys. However, boys
overtake girls in height and weight after 15 years and remain taller and heavier
- Ability to think abstractly and use scientific reasoning develops
- Adolescent egocentrism persists in some behaviour
- Search for identity becomes central at this period
- Peer groups help develop and test self-concept
- Relationships with parents are generally good

f. Young adulthood (20-40 years)

- Physical health peaks and then declines slightly
- Cognitive abilities assume more complexity
- Decisions are made about intimate relationship
- Most people marry or become parents
- Career choices are made

g. Middle age (40-65 years)

- Some deterioration of physical health, stamina and prowess take place
- Women experience menopause
- Wisdom and practical problem-solving skills are high but the ability to solve novel
problems declines
- Sense of identity continues to develop
- Double responsibilities of caring for children and early parents cause stress
- Launching of children typically leave empty nest
- For some, career success and earning powers peak, for others, burnout occurs
- The search of meaning in life assumes central importance
- For some, there may be middle life crisis

h. Late adulthood (65 years and above)

- Most people are healthy and active, although their health and physical abilities decline
somewhat
- Slowing of their reaction time affect many aspects of their functioning
- Most people are mentally alert. Although their intelligence and memory deteriorate in
some areas, most people find ways to compensate it
- Retirement from work force may create more leisure time but may reduce economic
circumstances
- People need to cope with losses in many areas (loss of one’s own faculties, loss of loved
ones) and their own impending death

Nature-nurture influence on development

• Nature influence on development

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Nature or heredity refers to a biological mechanism as a result of which a child obtains
something in terms of specific species or ancestral characteristics by which he can trace his
individuality from his ancestral stock through his parents. It can also refer to the transmission
of genes or traits of physical, mental and other characteristics from parents to the child at
conception. The medium of this transmission is primarily through sexual intercourse between
the male and female
Nature has influence on development through the following;
Nature determines the rate of a person’s development. For example, if a child inherited a
short-height, he may never become tall. It is nature that sets the upper and lower limits of an
individual’s developmental potentials
The sex of every individual is determined by nature. The nucleus of every human cell contains
structures called chromosomes. Usually a fertilised egg contains 46 chromosomes, 23 of which
come from the female cell and 23 from the male cell. The female sex cells are both X and that
of male are made up of combination of X and Y chromosomes. Whether the child will be a boy
or a girl depends on which of the chromosomes from the male X and Y fertilises the egg. If a
male contributes X chromosomes, the result will be a female (XX). If on the other hand, a male
produces a Y chromosome, the result will be a male (XY). This indicates that it is always the
father who determines the sex of a child. It is also clear that the determination of sex of a child
is highly a matter of chance

Chromosomes and genetic abnormalities are inherited. At conception, the zygote so formed
is supposed to have a total of 46 chromosomes. That is, 23 from the male and 23 from the
female. In certain cases, however, a child may be born with one chromosome more or less,
giving rise to what is known as chromosomal abnormality. Abnormal number of chromosomes
can lead to Down syndrome, Turner syndrome or Kleinfelter syndrome
The blood group of an individual comes into the world with is inherited or influenced by nature
Certain diseases are inherited. Diseases such as sickle cell, diabetes and certain heart diseases
such as leukemia may actually be inherited from parents. In other cases, the child may inherit
the potential for developing heart diseases
Inherited traits that can be inherited from both parents include colour of the skin and hair,
distribution of hair on the body, longevity, intelligence and temperament
• Nurture influence on development
Nurture or environment implies any and every influence with which an individual comes into
contact after it has received hereditary patterns through the genes. This influence first starts
from the womb of the mother (prenatal environment). It also includes the effect of training,
trial-error learning and the influence of the home, school, neighbourhood, hospital, church,
playground, climate, geographical location and anything else that stimulate the sense in any
way. In short, nurture is the sum total of all external conditions and influences that affect the
life and development of a person

Nurture has influence on development through the following;

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Nurture determines the level to which the limits of developmental potential set by nature
will reach
Environmental factors do not start operating only after the child is born. The first environmental
factors are found in the mother’s womb where nutrition, illness etc. exert an influence on the
development of the child. Throughout an individual’s life, the type of environment he or she is
brought up influences his or her inherited potentials either positively or negatively. For a proper
development of the child at the prenatal (before birth) stage, the conditions of the mother’s
womb must be conducive. The environment of the mother’s womb can affect the potentials
and characteristics the individual through the genes. For instance, if a pregnant woman is
attacked by diseases such as rubella (German measles), small pox, mumps etc. the unborn child
in the womb will be affected and can be born mentally retarded, physically disabled or blind.
Veneral diseases such as gonnorhoea and HIV/AIDS may be passed on to the unborn child
with far reaching effects
After birth, a lot of environmental dangers such as injuries, poison threaten the smooth
growth and development of the child. The child should be guarded against diseases and
infections, accidents and malnutrition
Nature-nurture debate (controversy)
The issue of hereditary and environment has brought about two schools of thoughts, namely,
the nativists (predeterminists) and the empiricists (environmentalists). The predeterminists
believe that hereditary is the only factor that influence one’s personality. Research conducted
in identical twins by some predeterminists support the supposition that genes affect many
aspects of development. Example, research on identical twins who grew up in different areas
separately found that their races of maturation, hobbies, choice of friends and academic
achievements were quite similar. The environmentalists also argue that the environment is the
only factor that influences one’s personality
From our discussion of nature-nurture issues in human development, it is clear that both nature
and nurture are important in human development. Human growth and development depend
exclusively on the mutually interactive role between the individual’s genetic code (nature) and
the environment (nurture) in which the individual develops
The genetic code that an individual inherits from the parents sets the upper and lower limits of
that individual’s developmental potentials. The eventual level he or she attains depends on the
specific environment in which he or she grows and develops (Anasthasis, 1958)
These two opposing views have existed for some time and this is what is usually referred to as
nature-nurture debate (controversy) in psychology
Factors that influence growth and development
A. General risk factor

As the name implies, general risk factors can have widespread effects on prenatal development.
Some of the factors are discussed below;
Parental age: The age of both mother and father can affect prenatal development. For women,
the prime childbearing years are the 20s and early 30s. The incidence of prenatal defects is
higher for first time mothers over 35 years of age than for mothers between these ages. The
risk of Down syndrome, for instance, is almost 10 times greater at age 40 than age 30. For older
mothers, problems typically appear among women who are poor in health. The older mother is

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more likely to have high blood pressure, diabetes and other illnesses. For teenage mothers,
problems are usually linked to poverty, poor health care and poor education. Teenage mothers
are less likely to have access to high quality prenatal care. Paternal age is also very important.
Genetic mutations in sperm occur more frequently as a man age and may be responsible for
some birth defects that have traditionally been blamed on mothers. Advanced paternal age is
associated with increases in several rare conditions including Achondroplastic or Dwarfism
(a congenital abnormal bone growth), Marfian syndrome (causing extreme height, thinness
and heart abnormalities) and Apert syndrome (deformities of the head and limbs). In studies
of these conditions, the mean paternal age was late 30s. Genetic mutations in sperm may be
caused by irritation, infection, drugs and chemicals

Maternal nutrition: Mothers are sole sources of nutrition for the foetus throughout prenatal
development so a proper diet is vital. Poor prenatal diet is associated with intellectual
deficiencies or intelligent quotient, low birth weight, smaller head size and vulnerability of
babies to illness. Malnourished pregnant women also have spontaneous abortions, lose their
babies shortly after birth or have babies who are born dead (still birth)

Maternal stress: Pregnant women who experience severe, prolonged stress often give birth to
premature and irritable babies. Studies have shown that a mother who is under stress or become
emotionally upset secretes hormones such as adrenaline that pass through the placenta and have
significant effects on the foetus’s motor activity. When a woman is under extreme stress for a
significant amount of time during pregnancy, she is at increased risk for such complications as
a miscarriage, long and painful labour and premature delivery

Prenatal care: One of the best predictors of a full-term, healthy baby is frequent prenatal visits
to a doctor or health care facility beginning in the first trimester. Good prenatal care beginning
trimester includes a careful health history, a full medical examination and counselling for the
parents on potential risks. A woman who visits a clinic in the first trimester may also be one
who takes good care of her health and nutrition

B. Teratogens

Beside general risk factors, prenatal development can be derailed by other more specific agents.
These are called teratogens. A teratogen is an agent that causes birth defects or abnormal
prenatal development. Most teratogens fall into one of these three categories. They are;
1. Drugs

Most drugs we use routinely including alcohol, tobacco, caffeine and even aspirin when
consumed by pregnant women do present special dangers. Physicians now assume that all
drugs can enter the foetal blood stream and cause harmful effects on the foetus
Alcohol: Pregnant women who consume large quantities of alcoholic beverages run a 50% risk
of having babies with foetal alcohol syndrome. Such babies have low birth weight, small head
size, misshapen face, thin upper lip, short nose and widely spaced eyes. They usually grow
more slowly than normal and often mentally retarded. Even moderate drinking can affect the
foetus in the form of foetal alcohol effects. This syndrome includes retarded growth, several
learning cognitive disabilities

Tobacco: The inhaled products of tobacco smoke across the placenta. Each time the mother
smokes, the heart of the foetus beats more quickly. Smoking in pregnancy is linked to risk of

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premature birth, low birth weight, spontaneous abortion and sudden infant death syndrome.
Sudden infant death syndrome is a condition in which an infant under six months of age and
apparently healthy suddenly stops breathing and dies. Exposure to smoke in the environment
called passive smoking is also related to low birth weight

Narcotics: The use of cocaine during pregnancy is associated with infant mortality, premature
birth, low birth weight and a number of medical problems including neurological damage and
malformed heart, lung and digestive system. Cocaine-addicted mothers show poor parenting
techniques. They are rigid, irresponsive and show very little emotional involvement with their
birth

Heroin: Addicted mothers give birth to babies addicted to heroin. They show withdrawal
symptoms characterised by shrill crying, vomiting, shaking or tremours, disturbed sleep
patterns and disturbed attention span. Because these are infants are frequently premature and
very small, this is sometimes a life-or-death situation

Marijuana: Marijuana affects the central nervous system and hence neurological and motor
control of the infant

Over the counter drugs: Many ordinary drugs appear to be hazardous to the foetus. Caffeine
readily crosses the placenta and stimulates the foetus. It retards the growth of the foetus and
causes low birth weight and decrease muscular tone. Aspirin in large doses can lead to
excessive bleeding, spontaneous abortion, deficit in intelligence, attention and motor skills.
Even normal doses of aspirin in the final month of pregnancy can prolong labour and
pregnancy. Many heart medications, tranquilisers, vaccine, cough-medicine, laxatives, codeine
and antacid tablet also appear to have toxic effects on the foetus and therefore can cause
behavioural problem to it. So, pregnant women are advised to avoid drugs of any sort without
any prescription by a physician. Many of these substances are not particularly safe during
pregnancy

2. Maternal diseases and illness

Sometime women become ill when pregnant. Many diseases do not affect the embryo or the
foetus at all. For example, most kinds of bacteria do not cross the placenta so even a severe
bacterial infection in the mother may have little or effect on the foetus. On the other hand, many
viruses such as HIV, syphilis and rubella do cross the placental barrier and attack the embryo
or foetus directly. Others such as herpes simplex, gonnorhoea and HIV attack during birth. The
virus is present in the lining of the birth canal and the babies are infected as they pass through
the canal during delivery. Most teratogenic diseases fall into one of three categories. They are;
i. Infectious diseases

Rubella: This disease which is also known as German measles is caused by a virus. The virus
crosses the placental barrier and attacks the foetus directly. Rubella is very mild in the person
who has it, but when that person is a woman, in the first four months of pregnancy, it has a
devastating effect on the newborn. However, there is almost no probability of abnormalities
occurring when it is contracted after this time. The child born to rubella mother during this
critical period is likely to suffer vision and hearing defects, mental retardation, central nervous
system damage, heart defects and growth retardation. A vaccine against rubella is now
available to be given to girls before puberty, thus protecting them from the diseases once they

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come of childbearing age. Other viral infections seem to be implicated in the birth of
handicapped children. For example, more mothers of children with birth defects have
tuberculosis than mothers of normal babies. Chicken pox, small pox, mumps, measles, hepatitis
and influenza A are all transmissible from the mother to the foetus, occasionally resulting in
the babies contracting these diseases in utero, often with fatal results such as malformations,
foetal death and heart diseases

ii. Veneral disease

Veneral diseases are contracted through sexual intercourse. Well known examples are;
Syphilis: When a mother has syphilis, the bacteria can enter the embryo and cause miscarriage
and foetal death. If the child survives at all, he may be born with syphilis that can cause
blindness, mental retardation, deafness and facial deformities. If Syphilis is contracted before
18 weeks after conception, the effects are less serious, because the bacteria (syphilis) can cross
the placenta during the period. The disease can be treated by blood test and cured with antibiotic
before the foetus is affected. So, early prenatal cares including laboratory tests are vital during
pregnancy

Herpes simplex: Is contracted by the baby during the passage through the birth canal. Herpes
causes blindness, deafness, mental retardation, motor abnormalities and even death. If detected
before labour, caesarean delivery is recommended to prevent the infant from coming into
contact with the virus in the birth canal

Gonnorhoea: Many women who have gonnorhoea may be unaware of it since they often do
not show outward symptoms. Foetuses exposed to gonnorhoea are often born prematurely. It
can cause blindness. In most hospitals, penicillin or silver nitrate is dropped into the eyes of
the newborn

HIV/AIDS: Today, the greatest concern on sexually transmitted diseases is centered on AIDS
which is fatal disease which affects the human immune system thereby making the victim
vulnerable to infections and diseases. The specific consequences of AIDS are frequent
infections, neurological disorders and death. There is at moment, no cure for AIDS. The AIDS
virus can be transmitted to a baby in three ways;
- Prenatally, that is, the virus crosses the placenta and attack the foetus directly
- Postnatally, that is, during birth as the infant passes through the birth canal
- Through the breast milk of an HIV positive mother

iii. Non-infectious diseases

Some non-infectious diseases or conditions can be hazardous to the developing foetus. Perhaps
the most famous pre-existing chronic maternal medical conditions affecting the foetus are;
Anaemia: This may lead to still birth, death and brain damage

Maternal hypertension: This can influence the growth of the children during the intra-uterine
life which can lead to poor foetal growth, miscarriage, still birth, neonatal death and cerebral
palsy

Maternal diabetes: This is linked to miscarriages, still birth, foetal death, metabolic
disturbances and respiratory difficulties, children born larger than normal. These effects are

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associated with women who receive insulin treatment. But it is difficult to determine whether
this relatively high incidence of malformation is due to the mother’s high blood sugar level or
the effects of insulin in which the mother takes as a medication for diabetes

Parity: This is defined as the classification of a woman with regards to the number of children
that have been born live to her. According to Davies, Butter & Goldstein 1972, multiparous
women who have been given birth as many as four babies pre-dispose such children to lower
rate of development throughout their childhood

Mechanical problems during delivery: These are maternal factors that make the delivery of
the child protracted. These include abnormal pelvis, weak muscle contractions from the mother
during delivery

Attempted abortion: Unsuccessful attempted abortions can lead to several complications that
may not seem serious outwardly. However, various forms of mental and physical handicaps or
deformities may result from such attempted abortions

Maternal accident: Some physical agents like motor accidents or heavy falls cause damage to
foetus. The degree of the effect depends on the severity and the time of the accident. Accidents
that occur during the early part of pregnancy tend to have the greatest effects

Kernicterus, Rhesus incompatibility or Rh disease: Rhesus factor is a blood component

found in almost 85% whites and nearly 100% blacks. Its presence makes a person’s blood Rh-
positive. Its absence makes a person’s blood Rh-negative or genetically inherited and is
incompatible under certain conditions. Blood incompatibility becomes a problem when the
mother’s blood is Rh-negative and the father Rh-positive and their child inherits the dominant
Rh-positive. This makes problems to occur because of blood incompatibility

Usually, the first Rh-positive baby of a Rh-negative mother has no problem but the subsequent
Rh-positive will have problems. Such incompatibility leads to the destruction of the foetus red
blood cells resulting in inadequate supply of oxygen to the foetus. The consequences of this
blood incompatibility between mother (Rh-negative) and foetus (Rh-positive) are jaundice,
anaemia, blood agglutination or coagulation and in extremes cases, it results in death. If the
child survives, the baby may become mentally retarded or have cerebral palsy

Today, women with such problems receive a short of the vaccine RhaGam which blocks the
production of antibodies by the mother that might injure the foetus. Modern medicine has made
this possible

3. Environmental hazards

Environmental hazards are the toxins in the environment found in the food we eat, fluids or we
drink, cosmetic we use, the air we breathe, chemicals used in industrial production and in the
preparation of cosmetic and certain pesticides and paints. These toxins/chemicals have been
found to be teratogenic. Some of these environmental hazards are;
Mercury: Mercury is found in mercury laden fish and arsenic contaminated water. Mercury
poisoning or consumption although the quantity involved is usually minute and taken unnoticed
in an adult can cause deformities or serious damage to the foetus, mental retardation, immature

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motor responses, behavioural abnormalities and deficit in information processing such as visual
discrimination

Radiations or x-ray: Radiations or x-ray have been linked to foetal deaths as well as a number
of structural defects in infants. There is no safe level of radiation. Because radiation accumulate
in the body, repeated or excessive exposure to x-rays may be dangerous especially in the first
few months of pregnancy. Although there are times when an x-ray is medically required,
pregnant women should avoid radiations as much as possible because abuse of it may expose
the foetus to various kinds of malformation

C. The child factors

The sex of the child: Males are normally born heavier and shorter than their female
counterparts. Boys tend to be heavier until 12 years when the girls surge ahead. This is because
girls reach their growth spurt earlier. The boy then also reaches their growth spurts by 14-16
years and take over the advantage of height and weight over the females. That is, they maintain
throughout their life. Bone development is also advanced in girls than in boys. This is
demonstrated by the early eruption of the permanent teeth in girls

The nutrition of the child: A child’s nutrition during his growing years has a great impact on
his ultimate health and stature. Children who take lack of balanced diets will show inadequate
physical growth. Children who take mostly carbohydrates will develop Kwashiorkor and
acquire motor skills slowly than other children. Such children may be taunted by their
playmates and may become loners or have more difficulty relating to others than children with
better nutrition

Anoxia: During labour and delivery, all infants go through some deprivation of oxygen. In
certain cases, the infants are deprived of so much oxygen that they suffer serious consequences
like brain damage leading to mental retardation, miscarriage, still birth, neonatal death and
cerebral palsy (a disorder characterised by involuntary, uncontrolled jerky movements or
tremours)

Injuries to the brain or nervous system of the child during delivery: Pressure on the head
during delivery may cause some blood vessels in the brain to break resulting in bleeding. This
can cause various damages whose effects may be temporary or permanently depending on their
severity resulting in mental retardation

Anxiety and emotions in the child: Emotional disturbance influence growth since the
disturbed child neither sleeps nor eats well unlike the happy child. The child therefore is likely
to be stunted

Childhood diseases: All childhood infections lead to poor appetite which interferes with
growth of the individual. If the infections are too close, one after the other, a catch-up of growth
cannot occur. The common childhood diseases include; the six childhood killer diseases (i.e.
diphtheria, measles, poliomyelitis, chicken pox, whooping cough, tetanus), malaria, intestinal
worms

Hormonal balance in the child: Normal secretions of the endocrine glands promote normal
growth in the individual. These hormones include the growth hormone, thyroxine,
corticosteroids and sex hormones

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The intelligence of the child: The intelligence of the child goes a long way to influence his or
her growth and development. Both hyper and hypo secretions of these hormones above can
affect the growth rate of the child. For example, over secretion of the growth hormones can
lead to gigantism and underproduction may lead to dwarfism or cretinism or stunted growth

Ordinal position of the child: The ordinal position of the child in the family has a great
bearing on his development. An only child or the eldest child in the family is likely to develop
greatly along intellectual lines than average because he is constantly with adults and stimulated
by their companionship mentally. However, he may not excel in other skills because he has to
learn these from other siblings with which he lacks. The youngest child on the other hand, may
be slow in certain areas of development because he is given little encouragement to express
himself due to overprotection given by the parents

D. Miscellaneous factors

Socioeconomic status of the family members: According to Ebrahim G. J. 1984, all children
in the upper socioeconomic groups are taller and heavier than those in lower class. He ascribes
adequate nutrition and good standards of health as a major contributory factor or the difference
in the growth. Since these two factors cost money, a child born into a family of low
socioeconomic status may not receive adequate health supervision or good nutrition. This poor
supervision might leave the child not immunised against the six killer diseases which can affect
the growth of that child greatly. Dortmaker 1979 has it that, pregnant women in low
socioeconomic status are likely to receive prenatal care later on in the pregnancy if at all. This
therefore puts the foetus under adverse effect during its development. Poor nutrition can also
affect the development the foetus negatively. Studies by Boulding 1979 suggests that the
development of an individual is enhanced by the availability of social amenities like water,
electricity etc which are lacking in the families of low socioeconomic means

Seasonal and climatic conditions: Ebrahim G. J. 1984 asserts that seasonal variations in
growth have been reported in many countries. He said the period immediately before the onset
of rainy season is called the hungry months. During this period, there is a little food, hence
altering the growth of children. In Ghana, the season comes around May-June when the wet
season is being ushered in

Ethnic and racial differences: The physical characteristics of certain people are determined
by the tribe of ethic group they belong to. This is a result of genetic make of present in the
germ cells established at conception. For example, the Fulani’s are slim and taller while the
Zimbabweans are also tall and huge

The influence of mass media: Mass media contribute in many ways in the development of
children. These include books, newspapers and magazines (i.e. printed media) and TV and
radio (i.e. electronic media). Through these, children can model behaviours of the people they
think worthy of. They become exposed to wide range of ideas and current issues. The TV for
instance, has made the world narrower and other cultural practices can be easily assimilated by
children through such media

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