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6. LASER
(Light Amplification by Stimulating Emission of Radiation)
6.1 Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated Emission:
Spontaneous Emission
Atom in the Energy state E2 can make a spontaneous transition (∆≈ 10-8 sec) to the energy
E2  E1
state E1 with emission of radiation of frequency  , even in the absence of
h
radiation.

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Stimulated Emission
An atom in exited state can also make transition to lower energy state when triggered by
radiation of appropriate frequency.
Stimulated Absorption
Electromagnetic radiation of an appropriate frequency can jump the atom to its exited
state.

E2 E2 E2
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E1 E1 E1
Spon tan [Link] stimulated emission Absorption

Note:
 The rate of spontaneous emission is proportional to number at atom in the exited state.
 While rate of simulated emission depends on the number of atoms in the exited state as
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well as intensity of external radiation.
 The rate of stimulated absorption depends on both intensity of radiation and number of
atoms in ground state.

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Main component of the Laser

Active Medium
Consists of collection of atom, molecule or ion (in solid, liquid or gas form) capable of
amplifying light. In normal condition the number of atoms in the higher state is less than
the ground state. Laser production takes place only when population inversion takes
place.
The Pumping source
With the help of the pump we achieve population inversion

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(a) Optical Pumping: Achieve by flash lamp. Excitation by absorption of photon.
(b) Electrical pumping: Achieve by direct collision of electrons.
The optical Resonator
It is for oscillation & Amplification of lights which provides feedback. It is pair of mirror
facing each other and enclose active medium. One with fully and other with partial
reflectivity sustain standing wave.
6.2 Population Inversion
When number of atoms in the exited state exceeds the number in ground state.
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Minimum level required for population inversion:
3

2

1
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Minimum three energy levels are required to populate inversion. With two levels it is not
possible
Population inversion achieved between E2 & E1, where E2 is a meta-stable state
( ∆t ≈ 10-3 sec )

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Minimum power required to maintain population Inversion:

Let us consider a three level Ruby Laser with energy level marked as E 1, E2 and E3 with
life of 1 , 2 , 3 . The number of atoms in each level is denoted by N1, N2, and N3, while N
is the total number of ions. We assume a concentration of 0.005% of Cr3+ ions per cm3 in
the Ruby crystal made of Al2O3. This corresponds to a population of N=1.61019 Cr3+
ions/cm3 in the system. Since  2 represents the spontaneous relaxation time of the upper

laser level E2, the number of atoms decaying per unit time from the upper laser level is

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approximately N2/  2 . For each atom lifted to level 2, one has to supply at least an amount
of energy given by hv, where v represents the average pump frequency. Hence to
maintain N2 atoms in level 2, the minimum power P to be spent (per unit volume of the
active material) is given by
N 2 h
P
2
Since, N 2  N1  N , thus we may also write N 2  N / 2 .

N 2 h
P
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2 2

For Ruby levels, the life time of the E2 level is  2  3  103 sec . Now taking the average

pumping frequency of v = 6.25 1014Hz, which is the average of the green and violet
photon. The minimum power required to obtain the population inversion between level 1
and 2 is
1.6  1019 6.6  1034  6.25  1014
P  1100 W / cm2
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3
2 3 10

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6.3. Einstein’s Coefficient

Consider an atom irradiated by white light, with N2 atoms in level 2 and N1 atoms in level

1. The part of spectrum at frequency ν, where hν = (E2–E1), can induce absorption and

stimulated emission transitions. We write the spectral energy density of the light at
frequency ν as u(ν). The transitions occurring are shown in the diagram below.

E2 N2

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Spontaneous Stimulated
Absorption emission emission

E1 N1

In order to treat this situation, Einstein introduced his A and B coefficients. the A
coefficient determines the rates of spontaneous transitions. The introduction of the B
coefficient extends the treatment to include absorption and stimulated emission.
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Referring to the diagram above, the transition rates for three processes are:
Spontaneous emission (2→ 1) dN2/dt = − dN1/dt = − A21 N2

Stimulated emission (2→ 1) dN2/dt = − dN1/dt = − B21 N2 u(ν)

Absorption (1→ 2) dN1/dt = − dN2/dt = − B12 N1 u(ν).

These are effectively the definitions of the Einstein A and B coefficients.

Relationship between the Einstein Coefficients

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We imagine that the atom is inside a box at temperature T with black walls. The atom
will then be bathed in black body radiation. If we leave the atom for long enough, it will
come to equilibrium with the black body radiation. In these steady-state conditions, the
rate of upward transitions must exactly balance the rate of downward transitions. Thus we
must have:
B12N1 u(ν) = A21N2 + B21N2 u(ν)

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In thermal equilibrium at temperature T, the ratio of N2 to N1 is given by Boltzmann's law:

N 2 g2  h 
 exp  
N1 g1  kT 
where g2 and g1 are the degeneracies of levels 2 and 1 respectively, and hν = (E2 − E1).

The spectral energy density of a black body source is given by the Planck formula
8 h 3 1
u   
c3  h 
exp   1
 kT

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
A21 8 h 3
This gives B12 g1  B21 g 2 ; 
B21 c3
This equation shows that the probabilities for absorption and emission are the same apart
from the degeneracy factors, and that the ratio of the probability for spontaneous
emission to stimulated emission increases in proportion to 3 .

6.4 Modes of Resonator and Coherence length

Different Modes of frequency:
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The pumping mechanism creates a state of population inversion in the laser placed inside
the resonator system. The spontaneous emission occurring inside the resonator cavity
excites the various modes of the cavity. The modes for which the gain is higher than the
losses get amplified by drawing energy from the laser medium. The amplitude of the
mode increases rapidly until the upper level population reaches a value when the gain
equals the losses and the mode oscillates in steady state.
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Two mirrors facing each other form a resonant cavity. The discrete frequencies of the
mc
resonator modes are given by   m  .
2 d
Different values of m lead to different oscillation frequencies, which constitute the
longitudinal modes of the cavity. For example, for an optical resonator of length
d = 60 cm operating at an optical frequency of  =5 1014 Hz (corresponding to
 = 6000 Å), we obtain m = 2  106.

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Coherence Length
In discussing the coherence of an optical beam, we must distinguish between spatial and
temporal coherence. Laser beams have a high degree of both.
Spatial coherence refers to whether there are irregularities in the optical phase in a cross-
sectional slice of the beam.
Temporal coherence refers to the time duration over which the phase of the beam is well
defined. In general, the temporal coherence time tc is given by the reciprocal of the

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1
spectral line width  . Thus the coherence length lc is given by: lc  ctc  c

6.5. Ruby Laser
It is a three level laser and also called a 2
solid state laser. Ruby consists of Al2O3
with some of the Al atoms replaced by Cr3+
E1
ions. The energy state of Cr3+ are shown
0
here. Where the energy level E2 & E1 has λ  4000 Α M
λ  6600 A 0
life time of 10-8 sec whereas the life time of G   6943A0
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the metastable state is (∆t ≈ 10-3 sec).
The population inversion is achieved between M and G. Flash lamp with Xe gas used as a
pump to excite atoms in order to achieve population invesrion.
Lasing Mechanism in Ruby Laser: The chromium ion in its ground state can absorb a
photon (whose wavelength is around 6600 Å) and make a transition to one of the states in
the band E1. It could also absorb a photon of  ~ 4000 Å and make a transition to one of
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the states in the band E2—this is known as optical pumping, and the photons which are
absorbed by the chromium ions are produced by flash lamp.
In either case, it immediately makes a nonradiative transition (in a time ~ 10 s) to the
metastable state M in a nonradiative transition, Also since state M has a very long life,
the number of atoms in this state keeps increasing and one may achieve population
inversion between states M and G. Once population inversion is achieved, light
amplification can take place, with two reflecting ends of the ruby rod forming a cavity.

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Spiking in Ruby Laser

The flash operation leads to pulsed output of the laser. The phenomenon of spiking and
can be understood as follows. When the pump is suddenly switched on to a value much
above the threshold, the population inversion builds up and crosses the threshold value,
as a consequence of which the photon number builds up rapidly to a value much higher
than the steady-state value. Since the photon number is higher than the steady-state value,
the rate at which the upper level depletes (because of stimulated transitions) is much
higher than the pump rate. Consequently, the inversion becomes below threshold, and the

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laser action ceases. Thus the emission stops for a few microseconds, within which time
the flash lamp again pumps the ground-state atoms to the upper level, and laser
oscillations begin again. This process repeats itself till the flash lamp power falls below
the threshold value and the lasing action stops.
6.6. He-Ne Laser
It is a gas laser. It consists of He & Ne in a ratio of about 10:1 placed inside a long
narrow discharged tube. Electric discharge in tube generates electrons. EM radiation of
wavelength 6328 A0 is of Red light. EM radiation of wavelength 3.39 & 1.15 lies in IR
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region and these lines are not visible.

F3 21 S 0 6 3s
He-Ne 3.39 m
3 Collision 3p
F2 2 S0 4 2s E5
0
6328 A
1.15 m
Excitation by 2p
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Electron Collision E3
2 1s spon tan eous .emission (6000 A 0 )

1
F1 Ground
He State Ne

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Process
The production of laser light in He-Ne laser involve following process in order
(i) He atom in ground state F1 + collision with electron → He atom in the excited state (F2
or F3) + electron with lesser K.E.
(ii) The excited state of ( F2 & F3) are metastable state they would not readily lose energy
through spontaneous emission. However they can loose energy through collision with Ne
atoms:
 He atom in F3 State + Ne atom in ground state (E1) → He atom in F1 state + Ne atom

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in the excited state E6
similarly, He atom in F2 + Ne in E1 → Ne in E4 + He in F1
This creates population inversion between E6 and E5 or E3 or between E4 and E3. Any
spontaneous emitted photon can trigger laser action.
Paschan Notation:
Electron Configuration Paschan Notation
Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p6 GROUND STATE
Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p53s1 1s
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Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p53p1 2p
Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p54s1 2s
Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p54p1 3p
2 2 5 1
Ne: 1s 2s 2p 5s 3s
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Properties of Laser light

I. Monochromatic

The emission of the laser generally corresponds to just one of the atomic transitions of
the gain medium, in contrast to discharge lamps, which emit on all the transitions. The
spectral line width can be much smaller than that of the atomic transition. This is because
the emission is affected by the optical cavity. In certain cases, the laser can be made to

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operate on just one of the modes of the cavity. Since the Q of the cavity is generally
rather large, the mode is usually much narrower than the atomic transition, and the
spectral line width is orders of magnitude smaller than the atomic transition. This is
particularly useful for high resolution spectroscopy and applications such as
interferometry and holography that require high coherence.

II. Directionality
This is perhaps the most obvious aspect of a laser beam: the light comes out as a highly
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directional beam. This contrasts with light bulbs and discharge lamps, in which the light
is emitted in all directions. The directionality is a consequence of the cavity.

III. Brightness
The brightness of lasers arises from two factors. First of all, the fact that the light is
emitted in a well-defined beam means that the power per unit area is very high, even
though the total amount of power can be rather low. Then we must consider that all the
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energy is concentrated within the narrow spectrum of the active atomic transition. This
means that the spectral brightness (i.e. the intensity in the beam divided by the width of
the emission line) is even higher in comparison with a white light source like a light bulb.
For example, the spectral brightness of a 1 mW laser beam could easily be millions of
time greater than that of a 100 W light bulb.

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Some formulas:
Coherence Length (L)
L = c c  c → coherence time, c = 3x108 m/sec
The Spectral Width
λ2
 
2d
The purity factor

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  1
Q  and  
  c
Lateral Coherence length

L=

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