Natural Language Processing (NLP)

# Tokenization (splitting text into words/sentences)

# Part-of-speech (POS) tagging
# Text cleaning (removing punctuation, stop words, etc.)
# Stemming/Lemmatization (reducing words to their root form)

Additional Libraries
● Hugging Face Transformers: Powerful library for state-of-the-art NLP
models (BERT, GPT, etc.)
● spaCy: Industrial-strength NLP library with efficient text processing
capabilities
● Gensim: Topic modeling and word vector library
● PyTorch: Another popular deep learning framework with dynamic
computation graphs

NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING BASICS

What's NLP?
Think of NLP as teaching computers to understand and work with human
language, just like we do. It's the technology behind things like:
● Chatbots: Those helpful online assistants that answer your questions.
● Translation Apps: The magic that turns English into French or any
other language.
● Sentiment Analysis: Figuring out if a piece of text is positive, negative,
or neutral.
Introduction to Natural Language Processing (NLP):
● What is NLP? It's the field of computer science that focuses on
teaching computers to understand, interpret, and generate human
language in a way that's meaningful and useful.
● Why is it Important? NLP powers a wide range of applications,
including:
○ Chatbots and virtual assistants
○ Machine translation (e.g., Google Translate)
○ Sentiment analysis (understanding emotions in text)
○ Text summarization
○ Spam filtering
○ Search engines
○ And much more!
● Challenges: Human language is complex, ambiguous, and full of
nuance. NLP aims to overcome these challenges.

Roadmap to Learn NLP for Machine Learning

1. Fundamentals of NLP:
○ Linguistic Concepts: Grasp the basics of language structure (syntax,
morphology, semantics).
○ Machine Learning Basics: Understand core concepts like
supervised and unsupervised learning, classification, and regression.
○ Python Programming: Get comfortable with Python, the language of
choice for NLP.
2. Text Preprocessing:
○ Tokenization: Splitting text into words or subwords (using NLTK,
spaCy).
○ Stopword Removal: Removing common words that carry little
meaning.
○ Stemming/Lemmatization: Reducing words to their base or root
form (NLTK).
○ Text Cleaning: Removing punctuation, special characters, and other
noise.
○ Practice: Work on text preprocessing projects with real-world
datasets.
3. Feature Engineering:
○ Bag-of-Words (BoW): Representing text as a count of word
occurrences.
○ TF-IDF: Weighing terms based on their importance.
○ Word Embeddings (Word2Vec, GloVe): Learning dense vector
representations of words.
 ○Practice: Experiment with different feature engineering techniques
and evaluate their impact on model performance.
4. NLP Tasks:
○ Text Classification: (e.g., spam detection, sentiment analysis)
○ Named Entity Recognition (NER): (e.g., extracting names,
locations, organizations)
○ Text Summarization: (e.g., news summarization, document
summarization)
○ Question Answering: (e.g., building a chatbot)
○ Machine Translation: (e.g., translating text from one language to
another)
○ Practice: Build projects for each task, using appropriate datasets and
evaluation metrics.
5. Deep Learning for NLP:
○ Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs): Understanding sequential
data.
○ Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks: Handling long-term
dependencies.
○ Transformers (BERT, GPT): State-of-the-art architectures for NLP.
○ Practice: Fine-tune pre-trained models on specific NLP tasks.
6. Advanced Topics (Optional):
○ Topic Modeling (LDA): Discovering hidden topics in text corpora.
○ Text Generation: Creating new text using language models.
○ Information Extraction: Extracting structured information from
unstructured text.
○ Dialogue Systems: Building conversational agents (chatbots).
○ Research and Development: Explore cutting-edge NLP research
papers and projects.

Practical Use Cases of NLP

● Sentiment Analysis: Analyze customer reviews, social media posts to
understand public opinion.
● Chatbots and Virtual Assistants: Create automated customer support
systems or conversational agents.
● Machine Translation: Translate text between different languages.
● Spam Filtering: Automatically filter spam emails or messages.
● Text Summarization: Summarize news articles, research papers, or legal
documents.
● Recommender Systems: Suggest products, movies, or books based on user
preferences.
● Search Engines: Improve search relevance and understand user intent.
● Fraud Detection: Identify fraudulent activity in financial transactions or
online reviews.
● Healthcare: Extract information from medical records or analyze clinical
notes.
● And many more! The possibilities are vast and constantly expanding.
What is Natural Language Processing?
● Core Tasks: NLP involves several fundamental tasks:
○ Tokenization: Breaking text into words or phrases (covered
below).
○ Part-of-Speech (POS) Tagging: Identifying the grammatical role
of each word (e.g., noun, verb, adjective).
○ Named Entity Recognition (NER): Recognizing named entities
like people, places, organizations, etc.
○ Dependency Parsing: Analyzing the grammatical structure of a
sentence.
○ Sentiment Analysis: Determining the emotional tone of text.
○ Text Classification: Assigning categories or labels to text (e.g.,
spam/not spam).
Spacy Basics:
● Loading Models: Once installed, you load a Spacy model using
spacy.load().
● Processing Text: You then create a Doc object by passing your text to
the loaded model. The Doc object is the main data structure in Spacy,
and it stores all the linguistic information about the text.
Spacy Setup and Overview:
● Spacy: A powerful and efficient NLP library for Python. It provides
tools for various tasks like tokenization, part-of-speech (POS) tagging,
named entity recognition (NER), dependency parsing, and more.
● Installation: You can install Spacy using pip: pip install spacy
● Models: Spacy comes with pre-trained models for different languages.
You can download them using the spacy download command.

Tokenization
● What is Tokenization? The process of breaking down text into smaller
units called tokens. These tokens can be words, punctuation marks, or
even subword units.
● Why is it Important? Tokenization is the first step in most NLP tasks.
It allows us to analyze and manipulate text at a granular level.
 ● Spacy Tokenization: Spacy's tokenizer is highly optimized and
provides additional features like sentence segmentation and merging
punctuation with words.
Stemming:
● What is Stemming? Reducing words to their base or root form (e.g.,
"running" -> "run").
● Why Use It? Helps group similar words together, useful for search,
text analysis, and machine learning.
● Limitations: Can sometimes produce non-words (e.g., "studies" ->
"studi").

Lemmatization:
● What is Lemmatization? A more sophisticated way to reduce words to
their base form, taking into account the part of speech (e.g., "better" -
> "good").
● Why Use It? More accurate than stemming, but slower.
Stop Words:
● What are Stop Words? Common words like "the," "and," "a," that don't
carry much meaning.
● Why Remove Them? To focus on more important words and improve
the efficiency of NLP tasks.

Phrase Matching and Vocabulary (Part One & Two):

● What is Phrase Matching? Identifying specific phrases or terms in
text.
● Vocabulary: A set of words or phrases that you want to match against.
● Spacy's PhraseMatcher: A tool for efficiently finding multiple phrases
in text.

Regular Expressions (Regex) for Pattern Searching:

● Power of Patterns: Regex is a way to define patterns in text using
special characters.
● Common Uses:
○ Find phone numbers, email addresses, dates, etc.
 ○ Replace specific words or phrases
○ Validate input data (e.g., check if a password meets certain
requirements)

Spacy for Ultra-Fast Tokenization:

● Tokenization: The process of breaking text down into smaller units
(words, punctuation, etc.).
● Spacy's Speed: Spacy is known for its blazing-fast tokenization,
making it a great choice for large datasets.

Stemming and Lemmatization:

● Normalization: Both techniques reduce words to their base or root
form.
● Stemming: A simple rule-based approach that chops off the end of
words (e.g., "running" -> "run").
● Lemmatization: A more intelligent approach that uses dictionaries and
grammar to find the correct base form (e.g., "better" -> "good").
● Why Use Them: They help group similar words together, which is
useful for searching, text analysis, and machine learning.

Vocabulary Matching with Spacy:

● Matching Terms: Spacy can help you find specific words or phrases in
your text quickly and efficiently.
● Custom Vocabularies: You can even create your own lists of terms to
match against.
Part-of-Speech (POS) Tagging:
● Identifying Word Roles: POS tagging tells you what role each word
plays in a sentence (noun, verb, adjective, etc.).
● How Spacy Helps: Spacy provides powerful POS tagging capabilities.
● Why It's Useful: POS tags help you understand the structure of
sentences, filter words, and extract meaningful information.

Named Entity Recognition (NER):

● Finding Important Stuff: NER identifies named entities like people,
places, organizations, dates, and more.
 ● Spacy's Strength: Spacy has excellent NER models for many
languages.
● Applications: NER is used in a wide range of tasks like information
extraction, question answering, and text summarization.

Visualizing POS and NER with Spacy:

● displaCy: Spacy's built-in visualizer. It creates interactive HTML
visualizations of dependency parse trees and NER tags. You can hover
over words to see their POS tags and entities.
● Custom Visualizations: You can use libraries like matplotlib or
networkx to create your own custom visualizations of POS tags and
entity relationships.

Scikit-Learn for Text Classification:

● Supervised Learning: Scikit-Learn provides a variety of algorithms for
text classification, including Naive Bayes, Support Vector Machines
(SVM), and Logistic Regression.
● Feature Extraction: You'll need to convert your text into numerical
features before feeding it into these models. Common techniques
include:
○ Bag-of-Words (BoW): Represents text as a count of word
occurrences.
○ TF-IDF: Weights words based on their frequency in a document
and across the corpus.

Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) for Topic Modeling:

● Unsupervised Learning: LDA discovers hidden topics in a collection of
documents.
● Probabilistic Model: It assumes that each document is a mixture of
topics, and each topic is a distribution of words.
● Implementation: Scikit-Learn also provides tools for LDA topic
modeling.

Non-Negative Matrix Factorization (NMF):

● Another Topic Modeling Technique: NMF is an alternative to LDA. It
also decomposes a document-term matrix into a topic matrix and a
word matrix.
 ● Applications: NMF is often used in recommendation systems and
image analysis.

Word2Vec Algorithm:
● Word Embeddings: Word2Vec creates numerical representations
(vectors) of words based on their context in a large corpus of text.
● Semantic Relationships: Words with similar meanings are closer
together in the vector space.
● Applications: Word embeddings are used in various NLP tasks like
text classification, sentiment analysis, and machine translation.
NLTK for Sentiment Analysis:
● Pre-trained Models: NLTK comes with several pre-trained sentiment
analysis models like VADER (Valence Aware Dictionary and sEntiment
Reasoner).
● Custom Models: You can also train your own sentiment analysis
models using NLTK's tools and your own labeled data.

Deep Learning for Building Chatbots:

● Sequential Models: Chatbots often use recurrent neural networks
(RNNs) or transformers (like GPT) to process sequential input.
● Encoder-Decoder Architecture: The encoder understands the user's
input, and the decoder generates a response.
● Training Data: Chatbots require a lot of training data in the form of
conversational dialogues.

● introduction to Spacy3 for NLP

● Spacy 3 Introduction
● Spacy 3 Tokenization
● POS Tagging in Spacy 3
● Visualizing Dependency Parsing with Displacy
● Sentence Boundary Detection
● Stop Words in Spacy 3
● Lemmatization in Spacy 3
● Stemming in NLTK - Lemmatization vs Stemming in NLP
● Word Frequency Counter
Text to Speech Generation
Libraries like gTTS or pyttsx3 can convert text to speech

● Text cleaning and preprocessing :

● Introduction
● Word Counts
● Characters Counts
● Stop Words Count
● Count #hashtag and @mentions
● Numeric Digit Count
● Upper case Words Count
● Lower case Conversion
● Contraction to Expansion
● Count and Remove Emails
● Count and Remove URLs
● Remove RT from Tweeter Data

Introduction to Text Cleaning and Preprocessing

Raw text data is often messy and contains noise that can hinder NLP analysis. Text
cleaning and preprocessing steps aim to transform raw text into a standardized
format, making it more suitable for machine learning algorithms or linguistic
analysis.
Word Counts
Counting words is a fundamental text analysis task. We can use regular
expressions or libraries like nltk or spaCy
Character Counts
Character counts, including spaces and punctuation, can provide insights into text
length and complexity
Stop Words Count
Stop words are common words like "the," "and," "is" that are often removed as
they carry little meaning
Count #hashtags and @mentions
These are common in social media data
Numeric Digit Count
Upper Case Words Count
Lowercase Conversion
Contraction to Expansion
Libraries like contractions can help expand contractions like "don't" to "do not":
Count and Remove Emails
Count and Remove URLs
Remove RT from Twitter Data
Important Considerations
● Language-Specific Cleaning: Adapt your cleaning steps to the specific
language you're working with (e.g., different stop words, character sets).
● Domain-Specific Cleaning: Consider the domain of your text data. For
example, medical texts may require different cleaning rules than social
media posts.
● Custom Rules: Create custom rules for your specific NLP tasks.
Example: Cleaning a Tweet

Special Characters and Punctuation Removal

There are several ways to remove special characters and punctuation:
● Regular Expressions:
● String's translate() method: (Faster for large texts)
● Remove Multiple Spaces
● Remove HTML Tags
● Remove Accented Characters
● Remove Stop Words
● Convert into Base or Root Form of Words (Lemmatization)
● Common Words Removal
You can use a frequency counter and set a threshold for common
words:
● Rare Words Removal
Similar to common words removal, but keep words above a certain
frequency threshold.
● Tokenization with TextBlob
● Nouns Detection
● Language Translation and Detection
● Sentiment Prediction with TextBlob

Binary Cross Entropy and Categorical Cross Entropy

Both are loss functions used in classification tasks:
 ● Binary Cross Entropy: For binary classification (two classes, e.g.,
spam vs. not spam).
● Categorical Cross Entropy: For multi-class classification (more than
two classes, e.g., cat vs. dog vs. bird).
○
● Pros and Cons of Neural AI
● Word Vectors
● Recurrent Neural Networks
● Long Short-Term Memory
● Encoder-decoder attention
● self-attention
● multi-head attention
● positional encoding
● transfromer heads

Pros and Cons of Neural AI

Pros:
● High Performance: Neural networks often achieve state-of-the-art results
on complex tasks like image recognition, natural language processing, and
game playing.
● Adaptability: They can learn from data without explicit feature engineering,
making them versatile for various applications.
● Scalability: Neural networks can leverage massive datasets and
computational resources to improve performance.
Cons:
● Black Box: Their inner workings are often difficult to interpret, making it
hard to understand their reasoning or debug errors.
● Data Hungry: They typically require large amounts of labeled data to train
effectively.
● Computationally Expensive: Training large neural networks demands
significant computing power.
● Overfitting Risk: They can memorize the training data instead of learning
generalizable patterns, leading to poor performance on new data.

Word Vectors (Word Embeddings)

Word vectors represent words as dense numerical vectors in a high-dimensional
space. The position of a word in this space captures its semantic meaning and
relationships with other words.
● Example: Words like "king" and "queen" would be close to each other in the
vector space, as would "cat" and "dog."
● Applications: Word vectors are essential for tasks like machine translation,
sentiment analysis, and information retrieval.
Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs)
RNNs process sequences of data (like sentences or time series) by maintaining an
internal state (memory) that captures information from previous steps.
● Example: In a language model, an RNN could predict the next word in a
sentence based on the words it has already seen.
● Challenges: Vanishing and exploding gradients, difficulty capturing long-
term dependencies.
Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)
LSTMs are a type of RNN designed to overcome the limitations of traditional
RNNs. They use a more complex architecture with gates that control the flow of
information, allowing them to capture long-term dependencies more effectively.
● Applications: LSTMs are widely used in language modeling, machine
translation, speech recognition, and time series forecasting.
Encoder-Decoder Attention
This mechanism is used in sequence-to-sequence models (e.g., machine
translation).
● Encoder: Processes the input sequence (e.g., a sentence in one language)
and creates a representation (context vector).
● Decoder: Generates the output sequence (e.g., a sentence in another
language) based on the context vector and its own internal state.
● Attention: Allows the decoder to focus on different parts of the input
sequence at each step of the generation process.
Self-Attention
Self-attention allows a model to attend to different positions within the same
sequence, capturing relationships between words regardless of their distance.
● Example: In the sentence "The cat, which was already tired, fell asleep,"
self-attention allows the model to connect the words "cat" and "fell asleep"
directly, despite the intervening words.
Multi-Head Attention
Multi-head attention extends self-attention by allowing the model to attend to
different aspects of the input sequence simultaneously.
 ● Analogy: Imagine multiple readers focusing on different parts of a text,
each highlighting different information and then sharing their findings.
Positional Encoding
Positional encoding adds information about the position of each word in the input
sequence, allowing models like transformers to understand word order.
● Technique: Often implemented by adding sinusoidal functions of different
frequencies to the word embeddings.
Transformer Heads
Transformer heads are individual attention mechanisms within a multi-head
attention layer. Each head focuses on different aspects of the input sequence and
produces its own representation. These representations are then combined to
provide a comprehensive understanding of the input.
DEEPER DIVE

Word Vectors: A Closer Look

Word vectors, also known as word embeddings, aren't just abstract
representations of words. They capture nuanced semantic relationships that enable
machines to understand language more deeply. For example, the word vector for
"king" might be mathematically closer to the vector for "queen" than it is to
"castle," reflecting the semantic connection of royalty.
Word2Vec and GloVe: Two prominent algorithms used to create word vectors are
Word2Vec and GloVe. Word2Vec learns word representations by predicting
surrounding words in a text, while GloVe leverages global word co-occurrence
statistics. Both methods produce high-quality embeddings that capture semantic
and syntactic patterns in language.
Applications: Word vectors are the backbone of many NLP tasks, including:
● Semantic Similarity: Measuring how similar two words or phrases are in
meaning.
● Word Analogies: Finding relationships between words, like "king" is to
"man" as "queen" is to "woman."
● Machine Translation: Mapping words and phrases across languages based
on their semantic similarity.
● Sentiment Analysis: Determining the emotional tone of text by analyzing
the embeddings of words.
RNNs and LSTMs: Beyond Language Modeling
While RNNs and LSTMs excel at language modeling, their applications extend far
beyond predicting the next word in a sentence.
● Sentiment Analysis: RNNs can be used to analyze the sentiment of entire
reviews or social media posts, considering the context of each word.
● Named Entity Recognition (NER): LSTMs can identify named entities like
people, organizations, and locations in text.
 ● Machine Translation: RNNs and LSTMs are key components of many
machine translation systems, handling the complex task of translating
sequences of words across languages.
● Text Generation: RNNs can generate creative text, such as poetry, code, or
even entire articles.
Transformers: The New Frontier
Transformer models, which rely on self-attention and multi-head attention
mechanisms, have revolutionized NLP in recent years. They have proven superior
to RNNs in many tasks due to their ability to parallelize computations and capture
long-range dependencies more effectively.
The Power of Attention: Attention mechanisms allow transformers to focus on
the most relevant parts of the input sequence when making predictions. This is
particularly useful in machine translation, where the model can attend to specific
words in the source sentence while generating the corresponding words in the
target language.
Beyond NLP: Transformers have also been applied successfully to tasks like
image recognition and protein folding, demonstrating their potential beyond
language processing.

Text Processing, Text Analysis, Natural Language Understanding, Text Mining,

Text Classification, Sentiment Analysis, Named Entity, Speech Recognition,
Language Modeling, Text Generation, Text Summarization, Text Clustering, Text
Similarity, Text Preprocessing, NLTK, spaCy, Gensim, Scikit-learn, TensorFlow,
Keras, Numpy, Pandas, Data Visualization.

Text Processing: The manipulation of raw text data for further analysis.

○ Example: Removing punctuation, converting text to lowercase,

splitting text into sentences or words (tokenization).
● Text Analysis: Extracting meaningful information from text data.
○ Example: Identifying the main topics of a document (topic modeling),
counting word frequencies.
● Natural Language Understanding (NLU): Enabling computers to
comprehend the meaning of human language.
○ Example: Determining the sentiment of a review (sentiment analysis),
identifying named entities (people, organizations, locations) in text.
● Text Mining: Discovering patterns and knowledge from large collections of
unstructured text.
○ Example: Analyzing customer reviews to identify product
improvement areas, extracting information from social media posts.
NLP Tasks
 ● Text Classification: Assigning predefined categories to text documents.
○ Example: Spam filtering (spam vs. not spam), sentiment classification
(positive, negative, neutral).
● Sentiment Analysis: Determining the emotional tone of text (positive,
negative, neutral).
○ Example: Analyzing movie reviews, social media posts, or customer
feedback.
● Named Entity Recognition (NER): Identifying and classifying named
entities in text (people, organizations, locations, dates, etc.).
○ Example: Extracting names of people mentioned in news articles,
identifying medical terms in clinical notes.
● Speech Recognition: Converting spoken language into text.
○ Example: Voice assistants like Siri and Alexa, dictation software.
● Language Modeling: Predicting the probability of a sequence of words or
characters.
○ Example: Autocomplete in search engines, suggesting the next word
in a text message.
● Text Generation: Creating new text that is coherent and meaningful.
○ Example: Chatbots, automatic summarization, creative writing tools.
● Text Summarization: Condensing a long document into a shorter version
that retains the most important information.
○ Example: Summarizing news articles, research papers, or legal
documents.
● Text Clustering: Grouping similar text documents together.
○ Example: Clustering news articles by topic, organizing customer
reviews by product.
● Text Similarity: Measuring how similar two pieces of text are.
○ Example: Plagiarism detection, finding duplicate content,
recommending similar products.
● Text Preprocessing: Cleaning and normalizing text data before analysis.
○ Example: Removing stop words, lemmatization (reducing words to
their base form), converting text to lowercase.
NLP Libraries and Tools
● NLTK (Natural Language Toolkit): A comprehensive Python library for
text processing and analysis.
○ Example: nltk.tokenize for tokenizing text, nltk.corpus for accessing
various corpora (collections of text data).
● spaCy: A fast and efficient library for industrial-strength NLP.
○ Example: spacy.load('en_core_web_sm') to load a pre-trained English
model for tasks like tokenization, POS tagging, and dependency
parsing.
● Gensim: A library for topic modeling and document similarity analysis.
○ Example: gensim.models.Word2Vec for training word embeddings,
gensim.models.LdaModel for Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic
modeling.
● Scikit-learn: A versatile machine learning library with tools for text
classification, clustering, and more.
 ○ Example: sklearn.feature_extraction.text.CountVectorizer for
converting text to numerical features,
sklearn.linear_model.LogisticRegression for text classification.
● TensorFlow and Keras: Deep learning frameworks widely used for
building neural networks for NLP tasks.
○ Example: keras.layers.Embedding for creating word embedding
layers, keras.layers.LSTM for building LSTM networks for text
generation.
● NumPy: A fundamental library for numerical operations in Python, often
used for array manipulation in NLP tasks.
○ Example: Creating numerical representations of text data (feature
vectors), calculating word embeddings.
● Pandas: A data manipulation and analysis library frequently used for
working with structured text data.
○ Example: Loading text data from CSV files, cleaning and
transforming text data.
● Data Visualization Libraries (e.g., Matplotlib, Seaborn): Used to create
visualizations for exploring text data and interpreting NLP results.
○ Example: Visualizing word clouds, plotting sentiment scores, creating
graphs of topic distributions.

● explain Preprocessing for NLP in theory with examples as many as possible

to clarify the concepts:
● stopwords, token introduction, model specific special tokenk, stemming,
lemmatization,

Stopwords
What are they? Stopwords are common words (e.g., "the," "and," "is") that
typically carry little meaningful information for analysis. Removing them helps
reduce noise and focus on the more significant terms in your text.
Examples:
● English stopwords: the, a, an, in, of, to, for, with, on, at, from, by, etc.
● Other languages: Each language has its own set of stopwords.

Tokenization
What is it? Tokenization is the process of breaking down text into smaller units
called tokens. These tokens can be words, phrases, sentences, or even characters,
depending on the task.
Types of Tokenization:
● Word Tokenization: Splitting text into individual words.
 ● Sentence Tokenization: Splitting text into sentences.
● Subword Tokenization: Breaking words into smaller units (e.g., "unlikely"
becomes "un" and "likely").
Examples:
● Word tokenization: "This is a sentence." -> ["This", "is", "a", "sentence", "."]
● Sentence tokenization: "This is a sentence. This is another." -> ["This is a
sentence.", "This is another."]
Libraries for Tokenization:
● NLTK: word_tokenize, sent_tokenize
● spaCy: The nlp object's tokenization pipeline

Model-Specific Special Tokens

What are they? Special tokens are added to the vocabulary of a language model
to indicate specific meanings or functions.
Examples:
● [CLS]: Used to indicate the start of a sequence in BERT models.
● [SEP]: Separates different segments of text in BERT models.
● [UNK]: Represents unknown words not present in the model's vocabulary.
● [PAD]: Used to pad sequences to a uniform length for batch processing in
neural networks.

Stemming
What is it? Stemming is a heuristic process that reduces words to their root or
stem. It's a crude way to normalize words and can be useful for tasks like
information retrieval.
Examples:
● "running" -> "run"
● "studies" -> "studi"
Libraries:
● NLTK: PorterStemmer, SnowballStemmer
Lemmatization
What is it? Lemmatization is a more sophisticated method than stemming that
reduces words to their base form (lemma) using vocabulary and morphological
analysis. It usually results in real words.
Examples:
● "better" -> "good"
 ● "studies" -> "study"
Libraries:
● NLTK: WordNetLemmatizer
● spaCy: The lemma_ attribute of tokens
Why preprocessing is important:
● Noise Reduction: Removing irrelevant information improves model
accuracy.
● Feature Engineering: Transforming text into a format that algorithms can
understand.
● Normalization: Reducing the variability of word forms to improve matching
and comparison.

● Working with word vectors :

● What are vectors? what is word analogy, text classification with word
vectors,
● introduction to deep learning for NLP
● The basic perceptron model
● introduction to neural network
● keras basics
● recurrent neural network overview
● lstms, GRU and Text Generation
● Text Generation with LSTMs with Keras and python
● chatbot overview
● creating chatbot with python.

Introduction to Deep Learning for NLP

Deep learning, a subset of machine learning, involves using artificial neural
networks (ANNs) to model complex patterns in data. In the context of NLP, deep
learning has revolutionized tasks like language translation, text generation,
sentiment analysis, and more.
The Basic Perceptron Model
The perceptron is the simplest form of a neural network. It takes multiple inputs,
each multiplied by a weight, and sums them up. Then, it applies an activation
function (e.g., step function) to produce an output. The weights are adjusted
during training to learn patterns in the data.

Introduction to Neural Networks

Neural networks are interconnected groups of nodes, or neurons, organized into
layers. Information flows from the input layer through hidden layers (where
complex representations are learned) to the output layer, producing predictions.
Keras Basics
Keras is a high-level neural network API that simplifies building and training
models. It provides a user-friendly way to define layers, compile models, and fit
them to data.
Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) Overview
RNNs are designed to process sequential data (like text) by maintaining an
internal hidden state that captures information from previous steps. This allows
them to model temporal dependencies and learn patterns over time.
LSTMs (Long Short-Term Memory) and GRUs (Gated Recurrent Units)
LSTMs and GRUs are types of RNNs that address the vanishing gradient problem,
making them better suited for learning long-range dependencies in sequences.
They have gating mechanisms that control the flow of information, allowing them
to remember or forget past inputs selectively.
Text Generation with LSTMs and Keras
LSTMs can be trained on large corpora of text to learn the statistical properties of
language. Once trained, they can generate new text by sampling from the learned
distribution.

Chatbot Overview
Chatbots are computer programs that simulate conversation with human users.
They can be rule-based (following predefined rules) or AI-based (using machine
learning to understand and respond to user input).
Creating a Chatbot with Python
Python offers various libraries for building chatbots, including ChatterBot, Rasa,
and DeepPavlov. These libraries provide tools for tasks like intent recognition,
entity extraction, and dialogue management.
Working with Word Vectors
● What are Vectors? Vectors are mathematical representations of points in
space. In the context of NLP, word vectors represent the meaning of words
as points in a high-dimensional space.

● Word Analogy: Word analogies involve finding relationships between words

based on their vector representations. For example, the relationship
between "king" and "man" is similar to the relationship between "queen" and
"woman" in terms of their vector differences.
 ● Text Classification with Word Vectors: Word vectors can be used as
features for text classification tasks. By averaging the word vectors of the
words in a document, we can create a fixed-length vector representation of
the document, which can then be fed into a classifier (like logistic regression
or a neural network).

Deep Learning for NLP in Practice

Deep learning models for NLP can be computationally demanding and require
large amounts of training data. However, with the increasing availability of
computational resources and pre-trained models, it has become more accessible to
apply these powerful techniques to real-world problems.
Here are some practical considerations when working with deep learning for NLP:
● Choose the right model architecture: Select a model (RNN, LSTM, GRU,
Transformer) that best suits your task and data.
● Pre-train your model: Leverage pre-trained models like BERT or GPT to
save training time and improve performance.
● Fine-tune on your data: Adapt the pre-trained model to your specific task
by fine-tuning it on your labeled data.
● Experiment with hyperparameters: Tune the learning rate, batch size,
and other hyperparameters to optimize your model's performance.
● Evaluate your model: Measure your model's accuracy, precision, recall,
and other relevant metrics on a held-out test set.

Text Feature Extraction Overview

Feature extraction is a crucial step in NLP, transforming raw text into numerical
representations that machine learning models can understand. Here's an overview
of common techniques:
1. Bag-of-Words (BoW): Represents text as a count of word occurrences,
disregarding grammar and word order.
2. Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency (TF-IDF): Weighs terms
based on their importance in a document relative to a corpus.
3. Word Embeddings (Word2Vec, GloVe): Learns dense vector
representations of words that capture semantic relationships.
4. n-grams: Captures sequences of n words to consider context.
5. Topic Modeling (LDA, NMF): Discovers latent topics in a corpus of
documents.
Code Example (TF-IDF with scikit-learn)
Introduction to Semantics and Sentiment Analysis
● Semantics: The study of meaning in language. Semantic analysis focuses on
understanding the relationships between words, phrases, and sentences.
● Sentiment Analysis: A specific type of semantic analysis that determines
the emotional tone (positive, negative, neutral) expressed in text.
Overview of Semantics and Word Vectors
Word vectors (or word embeddings) represent words as numerical vectors in a
high-dimensional space. Words with similar meanings are closer together in this
space. This allows us to quantify semantic relationships between words.

Semantics and Word Vectors with spaCy

Sentiment Analysis Overview

Sentiment analysis has various approaches:
1. Rule-based: Uses lexicons (dictionaries of words with associated sentiment
scores) and handcrafted rules.
2. Machine learning: Trains models on labeled data to classify sentiment.
3. Deep learning: Leverages neural networks like RNNs and Transformers for
state-of-the-art performance.
Sentiment Analysis with NLTK

Sentiment Analysis Code-Along (Movie Review Project)

Here's a simplified project outline:
1. Data Collection: Gather movie reviews (labeled with sentiment).
2. Preprocessing: Clean the text (remove stopwords, punctuation, etc.).
3. Feature Extraction: Convert text into numerical features (e.g., using TF-
IDF or word embeddings).
4. Model Training: Choose a machine learning algorithm (e.g., Naive Bayes,
SVM) or a deep learning model and train it on the labeled data.
5. Model Evaluation: Assess the model's performance using metrics like
accuracy, precision, and recall.

Description of a Sentiment Analyzer

A sentiment analyzer is a natural language processing (NLP) tool that determines
the emotional tone (positive, negative, or neutral) expressed in text data. It's
widely used to analyze customer reviews, social media posts, survey responses,
and other forms of text-based feedback.
Preprocessing: Tokenization
Tokenization is the first step in most NLP pipelines. It involves breaking down a
text document into smaller units, such as words or phrases, called tokens. This is
essential for subsequent analysis, as it allows us to work with individual units of
meaning.

Preprocessing: Tokens to Vectors

Once we have tokens, we need to convert them into numerical representations that
machine learning models can understand. This process is called vectorization.
Common methods include:
● Bag-of-Words (BoW): Represents text as a count of word occurrences,
disregarding grammar and word order.
● Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency (TF-IDF): Weights
terms based on their importance in a document relative to a corpus.
● Word Embeddings (Word2Vec, GloVe): Learns dense vector
representations of words that capture semantic relationships.

Sentiment Analysis in Python using Logistic Regression

Logistic regression is a simple yet effective classification algorithm that can be
used for sentiment analysis. Here's the general workflow:
1. Data Collection and Preprocessing: Gather labeled text data (e.g.,
reviews labeled as positive or negative) and preprocess it (tokenization,
vectorization).
2. Model Training: Train a logistic regression model on the labeled data,
using the text features (e.g., TF-IDF vectors) as input and the sentiment
labels as output.
3. Model Prediction: Use the trained model to predict the sentiment of new,
unseen text.
How to Improve Sentiment Analysis
● Use more sophisticated models: Explore deep learning models like
Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) or Transformers for better accuracy.
● Incorporate context: Consider the context of words in a sentence or
document, as the same word can have different meanings depending on its
context.
● Handle negation: Negation words like "not" can reverse the sentiment of a
sentence.
● Address sarcasm and irony: These can be challenging for sentiment
analyzers to detect.
 ● Use domain-specific lexicons: If you're analyzing text from a specific
domain (e.g., finance, healthcare), using a lexicon tailored to that domain
can improve accuracy.
FAQ
● What is the difference between polarity and subjectivity in sentiment
analysis?

Polarity: Refers to the direction of sentiment (positive, negative, or

○
neutral).
○ Subjectivity: Refers to the degree to which the text expresses
personal opinions or feelings.
● Can sentiment analysis be used for languages other than English?

○ Yes, sentiment analysis techniques can be applied to other languages,

but you may need to use language-specific models and resources.
Classification Metrics and Confusion Matrix
To evaluate the performance of a sentiment analyzer, we use various metrics:
● Accuracy: The overall proportion of correct predictions.
● Precision: The proportion of positive predictions that were actually correct.
● Recall: The proportion of actual positive cases that the model correctly
identified.
● F1 Score: A balanced measure that combines precision and recall.
A confusion matrix is a table that summarizes the model's predictions versus the
actual labels, showing how often the model correctly or incorrectly predicts each
class (e.g., positive, negative).

● Latent Semantic Analysis - What does it do?

● Latent Semantic Analysis in Python
● What is Latent Semantic Analysis Used For?
● Build your own spam detector - description of data
● Naive Bayes Concepts
● AdaBoost Concepts
● SMS Spam Example

Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA): Unveiling Hidden Meanings

LSA, also known as Latent Semantic Indexing (LSI), is a technique used in Natural
Language Processing (NLP) to analyze the relationships between a set of
documents and the terms they contain.
What Does It Do?
 ● Uncovers Latent Semantic Structure: LSA identifies underlying topics or
concepts that are not explicitly mentioned in the text but are inferred from
the way words co-occur across documents.
● Dimensionality Reduction: It reduces the dimensionality of the original
term-document matrix, making it easier to process and analyze.
● Enhances Information Retrieval: LSA improves information retrieval by
finding documents that are conceptually similar to a query, even if they don't
share the exact same words.
Latent Semantic Analysis in Python
You can implement LSA in Python using libraries like scikit-learn:

What is Latent Semantic Analysis Used For?

● Information Retrieval: Finding relevant documents based on conceptual
similarity rather than exact keyword matches.
● Recommendation Systems: Recommending items based on the latent
features they share with user preferences.
● Text Summarization: Identifying the most important sentences or concepts
in a document.
● Topic Modeling: Discovering the underlying topics in a corpus of text.
Building Your Own Spam Detector
Description of Data
● Labeled Dataset: A collection of SMS messages labeled as "spam" or "ham"
(not spam).
● Features: The text of the SMS messages, potentially with additional
features like message length, sender information, etc.
Naive Bayes Concepts
● Probabilistic Classifier: Calculates the probability of a message being
spam or ham based on the probabilities of its words appearing in spam or
ham messages.
● Bayes' Theorem: The foundation of Naive Bayes, used to combine prior
probabilities and likelihoods to calculate posterior probabilities.
● Assumption of Independence: Assumes that the presence of one word in a
message is independent of the presence of other words.
AdaBoost Concepts
● Ensemble Method: Combines the predictions of multiple weak classifiers
(models that perform slightly better than random guessing) to create a
stronger classifier.
● Boosting: A technique where each weak classifier focuses on the examples
that the previous classifiers misclassified.
● Weighting: Each weak classifier is assigned a weight based on its
performance, with better-performing classifiers given higher weights.
SMS Spam Example
1. Preprocessing: Clean the text data (remove punctuation, lowercase, etc.).
2. Feature Extraction: Extract features from the text (e.g., bag-of-words, TF-
IDF).
3. Model Training:
○ Naive Bayes: Train a Naive Bayes classifier on the labeled data.
○ AdaBoost: Train an AdaBoost classifier using multiple weak learners
(e.g., decision trees) on the labeled data.
4. Model Evaluation: Assess the performance of both models on a test set
using metrics like accuracy, precision, and recall.
5. Comparison: Compare the performance of Naive Bayes and AdaBoost to
determine which model is more effective for spam detection on your dataset.

DEEPER DIVE

Beyond its core functionality of revealing hidden meaning and reducing

dimensionality, LSA also plays a crucial role in other NLP applications.
Semantic Search: LSA can enhance search engines by considering the conceptual
similarity between documents and search queries. Instead of relying solely on
keyword matching, LSA enables search engines to retrieve documents that are
semantically related to the query, even if they don't contain the exact same words.
This leads to more relevant search results and a better user experience.
Text Summarization: LSA can be used to identify the most important sentences
or concepts in a document. By analyzing the latent semantic structure, LSA can
determine which sentences are most representative of the overall meaning of the
text. This information can then be used to create concise and informative
summaries of long documents.
Recommender Systems: LSA can power recommendation systems by identifying
latent features shared between items and user preferences. For example, a movie
recommender system could use LSA to analyze movie descriptions and user
reviews to uncover hidden similarities between movies and recommend movies
that a user is likely to enjoy, even if they haven't watched similar movies before.
Automated Document Categorization: LSA can automatically classify
documents into predefined categories based on their latent semantic structure.
This is useful for organizing large collections of documents, such as news articles
or scientific papers, into meaningful categories.
Limitations and Challenges
While LSA is a powerful tool, it has some limitations. One challenge is that it can
be computationally expensive for large datasets. Additionally, LSA may not always
accurately capture the nuances of language, particularly in cases where words
have multiple meanings (polysemy).
Alternative Techniques
There are several alternative techniques to LSA that address some of its
limitations. These include:
● Probabilistic Latent Semantic Analysis (PLSA): A probabilistic model
that extends LSA by incorporating probabilities to better handle polysemy.
● Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA): A Bayesian model that discovers latent
topics in a corpus of documents and represents documents as mixtures of
these topics.
● Non-Negative Matrix Factorization (NMF): A technique that decomposes
a matrix into two non-negative matrices, often used for topic modeling and
image analysis.
In conclusion, Latent Semantic Analysis is a powerful technique with a wide
range of applications in NLP. By uncovering hidden relationships between words
and documents, LSA enables us to extract meaning from text data and perform
various tasks such as information retrieval, text summarization, recommendation,
and document categorization. While it has its limitations, LSA remains a valuable
tool in the NLP toolbox and continues to be an area of active research and
development.

● NLTK Exploration: POS Tagging

● NLTK Exploration: Stemming and Lemmatization
● NLTK Exploration: Named Entity Recognition
● Article Spinning Introduction and Markov Models
● Principal Components Analysis (PCA) / Singular Value Decomposition (SVD)
● Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA)

NLTK Exploration
NLTK (Natural Language Toolkit) is a versatile Python library for working with
human language data. Let's delve into some of its key features:
POS Tagging:
● Purpose: Identifies the grammatical role (part of speech) of each word in a
sentence.
Stemming and Lemmatization:
● Purpose: Normalize words by reducing them to their base or root form.
○ Stemming: Uses heuristic rules to chop off affixes. Faster but less
accurate.
○ Lemmatization: Uses vocabulary and morphological analysis. Slower
but more accurate.
Named Entity Recognition (NER):
● Purpose: Identifies and classifies named entities (people, organizations,
locations, dates, etc.) in text.
Article Spinning Introduction and Markov Models
Article spinning is the process of creating multiple versions of an article by
replacing words or phrases with synonyms or paraphrases. This is often done to
avoid plagiarism or to generate content for SEO purposes.
● Markov Models: A common approach to article spinning. They generate
text by predicting the next word based on the previous sequence of words.
● Example: A Markov model might generate "The quick brown rabbit jumps
over the lazy dog" from the original sentence "The quick brown fox jumps
over the lazy dog."
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) / Singular Value Decomposition (SVD)
These techniques are used for dimensionality reduction. They transform data into a
lower-dimensional space while preserving the most important information.
● Applications in NLP:
○ Reducing the dimensionality of word embeddings.
○ Topic modeling (finding hidden topics in a corpus of documents).
Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA)
A probabilistic model used for topic modeling. LDA discovers latent topics in a
corpus of documents and represents each document as a mixture of those topics.
● Example: LDA might identify topics like "sports," "politics," and
"entertainment" in a collection of news articles. It would then tell you the
probability of each article belonging to each topic.

History of NLP and the Rise of Transformers

The roots of Natural Language Processing (NLP) can be traced back to the 1950s
with early attempts at machine translation. However, for several decades, progress
was limited due to the reliance on rule-based systems and the limitations of
computational power.

In the 1980s and 1990s, statistical methods started to emerge, leading to

significant advances in areas like speech recognition and machine translation. This
period saw the development of techniques like Hidden Markov Models (HMMs)
and n-gram language models.

The 2010s marked a turning point with the advent of deep learning and neural
networks in NLP. Models like word2vec and recurrent neural networks (RNNs)
enabled significant progress in tasks like sentiment analysis, machine translation,
and question answering.

However, RNNs struggled with capturing long-range dependencies and

parallelizing computations. This led to the development of transformers in 2017, a
revolutionary architecture that leveraged self-attention mechanisms to overcome
these limitations. Transformers quickly became the state-of-the-art for a wide
range of NLP tasks, enabling breakthroughs in language understanding and
generation.

Common Preprocessing Techniques for NLP

1. Tokenization: Breaking text into words, subwords, or characters.
2. Lowercasing: Converting all text to lowercase to reduce vocabulary size.
3. Stopword Removal: Removing common words (e.g., "the," "and") that carry
little meaning.
4. Punctuation Removal: Removing or normalizing punctuation marks.
5. Stemming/Lemmatization: Reducing words to their base or root form.
6. Special Character Removal: Removing unwanted characters (e.g., emojis,
HTML tags).
The Theory Behind Transformers
Transformers are based on the self-attention mechanism, which allows each word
in a sequence to attend to all other words, weighing their importance based on
their relevance to the current word. This enables transformers to capture long-
range dependencies more effectively than RNNs.

Key components of transformers include:

● Attention Heads: Multiple attention heads in parallel allow the model to
focus on different aspects of the input sequence simultaneously.
● Positional Encoding: Since transformers lack inherent positional
information, positional encodings are added to the input embeddings to
indicate the position of each word.
● Encoder-Decoder Architecture: Transformers typically have an encoder
that processes the input sequence and a decoder that generates the output
sequence.
● Layer Normalization and Residual Connections: These help stabilize
training and improve performance.

How to Fine-Tune Transformers

Fine-tuning is a powerful technique for adapting pre-trained transformers to
specific tasks. Here's the general process:
 1. Choose a pre-trained model: Select a model that has been pre-trained on
a large corpus of text data, such as BERT or GPT.
2. Prepare your data: Create a dataset of examples for your task, with input
text and corresponding labels (e.g., sentiment labels for sentiment analysis).
3. Add task-specific layers: Add a classification head (for classification tasks)
or a regression head (for regression tasks) on top of the pre-trained model.
4. Train the model: Train the model on your labeled data, adjusting the
weights of the pre-trained model and the added task-specific layers.
5. Evaluate and tune: Assess the model's performance and fine-tune
hyperparameters like learning rate, batch size, and the number of training
epochs to achieve optimal results.

Tokenization and Basic Terminologies

● Tokenization: The process of splitting text into smaller units called tokens.
● Types of Tokens: Words, subwords (e.g., "un-like-ly"), punctuation marks,
etc.
Text Preprocessing with NLTK
● Stemming: Reducing words to their base form (e.g., "running" -> "run").
● Lemmatization: Similar to stemming, but produces real words (e.g.,
"better" -> "good").
● Stopwords: Removing common words with little meaning (e.g., "the,"
"and").
● Parts of Speech (POS) Tagging: Assigning grammatical tags to words
(e.g., noun, verb, adjective).
● Named Entity Recognition (NER): Identifying and classifying named
entities like people, organizations, and locations.

Bag of words Intuition, advantages and disadvantages of BOW, BOW

Implementation using NTLK, N Grams, Gram Bow Implementation using NTLK, TF
IDF Institution, advantages and disadvantages of TF-IDF, TFIDF Practical
Implementation python, word Embeddings, Word2vec intuition, word2vec cbow
intuition, SkipGram indepth intuition, advantages of word2vec, word2vec pratical
implementation gensim, spam ham project using BOW.
Bag of Words (BoW)
Intuition: Imagine throwing all the words from a document into a bag and
counting how often each word appears. That's essentially the idea behind the Bag
of Words model. It represents text as a fixed-length vector, where each element
corresponds to a word from the vocabulary and its value is the word's frequency in
the document.
Advantages:
● Simple to understand and implement.
● Computationally efficient.
● Effective for basic text classification and information retrieval tasks.
Disadvantages:
● Ignores word order and grammar, losing valuable context information.
● Assumes independence between words, which is not true in natural
language.
● Suffers from the curse of dimensionality with large vocabularies.

N-Grams
Intuition: N-grams are contiguous sequences of n items from a text. They can be
characters, words, or even subwords. N-grams capture some context information
by considering the relationships between neighboring words.
Types:
● Unigrams (n=1): Single words.
● Bigrams (n=2): Pairs of consecutive words.
● Trigrams (n=3): Triplets of consecutive words.
● ...and so on.

TF-IDF (Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency)

Intuition: TF-IDF assigns weights to terms in a document based on their
frequency and rarity across a collection of documents. Terms that are frequent in a
document but rare across the corpus are considered more important.
Advantages:
● Accounts for the importance of terms within a document and across the
corpus.
● Reduces the impact of common words like "the" and "a."
● Effective for text classification, information retrieval, and topic modeling.
Disadvantages:
 ● Still ignores word order and semantic relationships.
● Requires a corpus of documents for calculating IDF.
Word Embeddings
Intuition: Word embeddings are dense vector representations of words. They
capture semantic and syntactic relationships between words, allowing us to
perform tasks like finding similar words, analogies, or predicting the next word in
a sentence.
Word2Vec (Continuous Bag-of-Words and Skip-gram):
● CBOW: Predicts the target word given its context (surrounding words).
● Skip-gram: Predicts the context words given the target word.
Advantages:
● Captures semantic relationships between words.
● Low-dimensional representations compared to sparse BoW/TF-IDF vectors.
● Can be used for a wide range of NLP tasks.

Spam Ham Project Using BoW

1. Data Collection: Gather a dataset of spam and ham (not spam) emails.
2. Preprocessing: Clean the text (remove stopwords, punctuation, etc.).
3. Feature Extraction: Create BoW vectors for each email.
4. Model Training: Train a classifier (e.g., Naive Bayes, SVM) on the BoW
features and corresponding labels (spam/ham).
5. Model Evaluation: Assess the model's performance using metrics like
accuracy, precision, and recall.

Vector Models and Text Preprocessing: A Comprehensive Guide

Basic Definitions for NLP
● Natural Language Processing (NLP): The field of artificial intelligence
concerned with the interaction between computers and human language.
● Text: The raw, unstructured data in the form of words, sentences,
paragraphs, or documents.
● Corpus: A collection of text documents used for training or analysis.
● Tokenization: The process of breaking down text into smaller units called
tokens (words, subwords, or characters).
● Vocabulary: The set of unique tokens found in a corpus.
What is a Vector?
● A vector is a mathematical object that has both magnitude and direction.
● In NLP, we use vectors to represent words or documents as points in a
multidimensional space.
 ● The distance and direction between vectors capture semantic and syntactic
relationships between words and documents.
Bag of Words (BoW)
● A simple but effective model that represents a text as a bag (unordered
collection) of its words.
● Ignores grammar and word order, focusing solely on the frequency of word
occurrence.
● Each document is represented as a vector, where each element represents
the count of a specific word in the vocabulary.

Count Vectorizer (Theory)

● A tool for converting text documents into numerical vectors using the BoW
model.
● Creates a vocabulary of all unique words in the corpus.
● For each document, it constructs a vector with the count of each word from
the vocabulary.

Tokenization
● The process of breaking down text into tokens.
● Crucial for NLP tasks as it forms the basis for further analysis and modeling.
● Common tokenization techniques include:
○ Whitespace tokenization: Splitting text based on spaces.
○ Rule-based tokenization: Using linguistic rules to split text.
○ Subword tokenization: Splitting words into smaller meaningful units
(e.g., BPE).

Stopwords
● Common words that occur frequently in language but carry little meaning
(e.g., "the," "and," "is").
● Often removed during preprocessing to reduce noise and focus on more
informative words.

Stemming and Lemmatization

 ● Techniques for reducing words to their base or root form.
● Stemming: Uses heuristic rules to chop off affixes, can produce non-words
(e.g., "running" -> "run").
● Lemmatization: Uses vocabulary and morphological analysis to find the
lemma (dictionary form) of a word (e.g., "better" -> "good").

Vector Similarity
● Measures how similar two vectors are in a multidimensional space.
● Common similarity metrics include:
○ Cosine similarity
○ Euclidean distance

TF-IDF (Theory and Code)

● Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency (TF-IDF) is a weighting
scheme that assigns higher weights to terms that are frequent in a
document but rare across a corpus.
● It is used to enhance the Bag of Words model by down-weighting common
words.

Interactive Recommender Exercise Prompt

"Imagine you have a dataset of movie descriptions and user ratings. Design an
interactive recommender system that suggests movies to users based on their
preferences. Use TF-IDF to represent movies and user profiles."

Word to Index Mapping

● A dictionary that maps each unique word in the vocabulary to a unique
integer index.
● Essential for converting text data into numerical format for machine
learning models.
How to Build TF-IDF from Scratch
1. Calculate term frequency (TF) for each term in each document.
2. Calculate inverse document frequency (IDF) for each term in the corpus.
3. Multiply TF and IDF to get the TF-IDF weight for each term in each
document.

Neural Word Embeddings

● Word embeddings learned using neural networks (e.g., Word2Vec, GloVe).
● Capture semantic relationships between words more effectively than
traditional methods.

Vector Models and Text Preprocessing Summary

1. Preprocess text data: Tokenization, stopword removal,
stemming/lemmatization.
2. Create numerical representations: Bag of Words, TF-IDF, Word Embeddings.
3. Utilize vector models for various NLP tasks: Text classification, sentiment
analysis, information retrieval, etc.

Probabilistic Models
In NLP, probabilistic models aim to quantify the uncertainty inherent in language.
They assign probabilities to different linguistic phenomena, such as the likelihood
of a certain word appearing after another or the probability of a document
belonging to a particular topic.

Markov Property and Markov Models

● Markov Property: The assumption that the probability of the next state
depends only on the current state and not on the entire past history.
● Markov Models: Probabilistic models that leverage the Markov property to
make predictions about sequences.
○ N-gram Language Models: Predict the next word in a sequence
based on the previous n-1 words.
○ Hidden Markov Models (HMMs): Model sequences with underlying
hidden states (e.g., part-of-speech tags).

Article Spinning - N-gram Approach

Article spinning aims to generate multiple versions of an article by replacing words
or phrases with synonyms or paraphrases. An n-gram approach can be used to
identify potential replacements based on the context of surrounding words.

Applications of Probabilistic Models in NLP

● Spam Detection: Naive Bayes classifiers are commonly used for spam
filtering, modeling the probability of an email being spam based on the
words it contains.
● Sentiment Analysis: Probabilistic models can estimate the probability of a
text expressing positive or negative sentiment.
● Text Summarization: Hidden Markov Models can identify key sentences in
a document to generate a concise summary.
● Topic Modeling: Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) is a probabilistic model
that discovers latent topics in a corpus of documents.

Text Classification
Assigning predefined categories or labels to text documents based on their
content. Common methods include:
● Naive Bayes: A simple but effective probabilistic classifier that assumes
feature independence.
● Support Vector Machines (SVM): A powerful classifier that finds a
hyperplane that maximally separates different classes.
● Deep Learning (e.g., CNNs, RNNs): Neural network-based models that
can learn complex patterns in text data.

The Neuron
The basic building block of neural networks. It receives input signals, processes
them using weights and an activation function, and produces an output signal.

CNN Architecture
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are specialized neural networks designed
for image processing. They consist of:
● Convolutional Layers: Apply filters to extract features from the input data.
● Pooling Layers: Reduce the spatial dimensions of the feature maps.
● Fully Connected Layers: Perform classification or regression tasks.

CNNs for NLP

CNNs have also found applications in NLP, particularly for tasks like text
classification and sentence modeling. They can learn to recognize patterns in word
sequences, such as n-grams, to make predictions about the text.

CNNs for Text

1. Input: Convert text into a numerical matrix representation (e.g., word
embeddings).
2. Convolution: Apply filters (kernels) to the input matrix to extract features.
3. Pooling: Reduce dimensionality and capture the most salient features.
4. Fully Connected: Make predictions based on the extracted features.

Convolution (Pattern Matching and Weight Sharing)

● Pattern Matching: Convolutional filters act like pattern detectors,
scanning the input for specific features.
● Weight Sharing: The same filter is applied across the entire input,
reducing the number of parameters and allowing the model to generalize
better.

Convolution on Color Images

For color images, CNNs typically have multiple filters that operate on each color
channel (red, green, blue) separately. The feature maps from each channel are
then combined to form a single representation of the image.