Atomic Structure

and
The Periodic Table

1
 Housekeeping Issues
• Course Coordinator: Dr Margaret Maoni, Co-Lecturer: Dr Jessie Ndala
• Mobile: 0888537364
• Email: [email protected]
• Office: Norris Chokotho Chemistry Laboratories Building
• Lecture times: Tues (15:30), Thur (8:30) and Third (virtual)

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• Assessment
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Housekeeping Issues
• Assessments: 40 % Continuous Assessment (Lab grade:10%, Tests(30
%)), Final Examination (60 %)
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• Register for lab session.
• Attend the lab safety lecture. It’s a MUST.
• Take the Laboratory sessions Seriously.
• Take Tutorials Seriously.

3
 Communication
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– Notes and other materials will also be shared through Google Classroom
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fully
– Avoid – Hie Madam……. And then silence
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– Visit my office for that
 Text Books
 Principles of General Chemistry; Martin S. Silberberg

 Chemistry; Raymond Chang

cooking
nsima
Everything
is washing
clothes
Chemistry

brewing Beer tear gas

bee sting
 Overview
• Development of the atomic theory
• Electromagnetic radiation
• Photoelectric effect
• Bohr's hydrogen model of the atom
• Wave-particle duality (de Broglie equation)
• Quantum theory
– Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
– Schrodinger’s Wave Equation and quantum numbers
– Atomic orbitals
• Nuclear Chemistry
7
 Electron Configuration

How are electrons distributed within an atom?

8
 MODULE 1

Development of the Atomic

Theory

9
10
 Development of Atomic Theory
1. Democritus (460-370BC)
– ancient Greek philosopher
– stated that there was a limit to how far you could divide matter
– eventually end up with a piece of matter that could not be cut any further
(atomos Greek for indivisible)

2. Aristotle (384-322BC)
– very influential ancient Greek philosopher
– rejected Democritus' theory
– matter could be divided into smaller and smaller pieces for ever
11
 Development of Atomic Theory
3. John Dalton (1776-1844) – British Chemist
• made the following postulates:
– all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms
– all atoms of a specific element are identical in mass, size, and other
properties
* however, atoms of different elements exhibit different properties and vary in mass
and size.
– atoms can neither be created, divided or destroyed
– atoms of different elements can combine with each other in fixed whole-
number ratios in order to form compounds
– atoms can be rearranged, combined, or separated in chemical reactions
* generally accepted because it explained the laws of conservation of mass, definite
proportions, multiple proportions, and other observations
12
 Development of Atomic Theory
4. J. J. Thomson (1856-1940) – British; 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics
– discovered the electron and showed that the atom can be split into smaller parts:

The Cathode Ray Tube Experiment

13
 Development of Atomic Theory
– sealed glass tube with metal disks at each end, air removed
– one end charged +, the other –
– beam appears between disks, could be moved with charged metal plates
(repelled by -, attracted by +)
– concluded that particles must be negative because they were attracted to
positive plate, came from inside atom, and had much smaller mass

– proposed the plum pudding model of the structure of the atom

– sphere of positive ions with electrons spread throughout

14
 Development of Atomic Theory
4. J. J. Thomson (1856-1940)
Limitations
– it failed to explain the stability of an atom because his model of atom failed to explain
how a positive charge holds the negatively charged electrons in an atom.
❖therefore, the theory also failed to account for the position of the nucleus in an atom

– Thomson’s model failed to explain the scattering of alpha particles by thin metal foils

– no experimental evidence in its support

15
 Development of Atomic Theory
5. Ernest Rutherford (1871-1967) New Zealander; 1908 Nobel Prize in
Chemistry
– disagreed with Thomson idea of the atom

The experiment
– directed high energy streams of α-
particles from a radioactive source
at a thin sheet (0.00004 cm
thickness) of gold
– in order to study the deflection
caused to the α-particles, he placed
a fluorescent zinc sulphide screen
around the thin gold foil
16
Observations and conclusions
i. a major fraction of the α-particles passed through the gold foil without any
deflection, and hence most of the space in an atom is empty
ii. some of the α-particles were deflected by the gold sheet by very small angles,
and hence the positive charge in an atom is not uniformly distributed. The
positive charge in an atom is concentrated in a very small volume
iii. very few of the α-particles were deflected back, that is only a few α-particles had
nearly 180o angle of deflection. So the volume occupied by the positively
charged particles in an atom is very small as compared to the total volume of
an atom

17
18
Rutherford Atomic Model
Based on the above observations and conclusions, Rutherford proposed
the following model of the atom:
1. the positively charged particles and most of the mass of an atom was
concentrated in an extremely small volume
❖ he called this region of the atom as a nucleus

2. he proposed that the negatively charged electrons surround the nucleus of

an atom
❖ he claimed that the electrons surrounding the nucleus revolve around it with very high
speed in circular paths; he named these circular paths as orbits

3. electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a densely

concentrated mass of positively charged particles are held together by a
strong electrostatic force of attraction
19
Limitations of Rutherford Atomic Model
Although the Rutherford atomic model was based on experimental
observations it failed to explain certain things.
1. the model failed to explain the stability of atoms.
2. according to the model, electrons revolve around the positively charged nucleus. It
is not possible for the long run as we know atoms are stable while any particle in a
circular orbit would undergo acceleration.
• during acceleration charged particles would radiate energy. Revolving
electrons will lose energy and finally fall into the nucleus
3. the model also did not say anything about the arrangement of electrons in an
atom which made his theory incomplete.
Although the early atomic models were inaccurate and failed to explain certain
experimental results, they were the base for future developments in the world of
quantum mechanics.

20
 MODULE 2

Electromagnetic Radiation
1. The Wave Nature

21
 Electromagnetic Radiation
• scientists discovered much of what we know about the structure of the
atom by observing the interaction of atoms with various forms of radiant
energy
– energy associated with the visible light we detect with our eyes
– the infrared radiation we feel as heat
– the ultraviolet light that causes sunburn
– the x-rays that produce images of our teeth or bones

• all these forms of radiant energy should be familiar to you

• we begin our discussion of the development of our current atomic model by

describing the properties of waves and the various forms of electromagnetic
radiation 22
 Fundamental Properties of a Wave
• a wave is a periodic oscillation that transmits energy through a medium
– mechanical waves are disturbances in any medium or substance
– electromagnetic waves do not need to move through a substance in order to
propagate energy
• ordinary light, x-rays etc. are called electromagnetic radiation and have
wave characteristics
– when they pass through a point in space, they produce oscillating electric and
magnetic fields
– mutually perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation through
space

23
 Fundamental Properties of a Wave
i. wavelength is the distance between two successive crests or troughs or
any two points on the wave that are in the same phase
– same phase implies displacement of the points from the mean position are the same
and the wave patterns that follow the 2 points are also the same
– wavelength is denoted by  and measured in units of length

24
 Fundamental properties of a Wave
ii. Period is the time taken by the wave to travel a distance of one complete
wavelength
– the time it takes for two successive crests (one wavelength) to pass a specified point
– it is denoted by T and is measured in units of time

iii. Frequency (f) is the number of waves per second that pass a given point in
space
– it is denoted by  (Greek nu)
– measured in units of Hertz (Hz) or reciprocal time (s-1)

25
 Fundamental properties of a Wave

iv. velocity of a wave is the distance it travels

per unit time
– it is denoted by c and is measured in units of
distance per unit time
– the velocity of all electromagnetic waves is the
same (3.0 x 108 ms-1 in a vacuum)
– they only differ in their wavelength and frequency

Wavelength, frequency and velocity

c=
26
 Fundamental properties of a Wave

v. Amplitude is the maximum

displacement of a wave from the
centre
– it is denoted by A
– tells us about the intensity or
brightness of the light relative to other
light waves of the same wavelength

27
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

nm = 10-9 m
Worked Examples

29
Example 1
Example 1
Example 2
Example 2
 Example 3
• A student uses a ripple tank where all the water is the same depth. She
measures the wavelength of each wave as 0.34 m and the period of each
wave is 0.42 s.
Calculate the speed of the wave
 Example 3
• A student uses a ripple tank where all the water is the same depth. She
measures the wavelength of each wave as 0.34 m and the period of each
wave is 0.42 s.
Calculate the speed of the wave
 Homework
A dental hygienist uses x-rays (= 1.00Å) to take a series of
dental radiographs while the patient listens to a radio station
( = 325cm) and looks out the window at the blue sky ( =
473nm).

What is the frequency (in s-1) of the electromagnetic radiation

from each source? (Assume that the radiation travels at the
speed of light, 3.00x108m/s)
1Å = 10-10m
 Homework

Assume you are 100 km from the Chanco Radio Station

transmitter. Calculate how long it takes for the radio waves to
arrive at your location from the radio station transmitter.

Hint:
Wave speed = frequency x wavelength
Speed of light (radio waves) = c = 3x 108m/sec
Distance = speed x time
Electromagnetic Radiation
1. The Wave Nature

38
 Difference between light and matter (particles)
• light of a given wavelength travels at different speeds through different
media
– vacuum, air, water, quartz etc
– therefore, when a light wave passes from one medium into another, the speed of
the wave changes
– the change in speed causes a change in direction, and the wave continues at a
different angle (refraction)
– in contrast, a particle, like a pebble,
does not undergo refraction when
passing from one medium to
another
– its speed changes abruptly and then
it continues to slow down gradually
in a curved path
 Difference between light and matter (particles)
• in the process of dispersion, white light separates (disperses) into its
component colors e.g. when it passes through a prism
– occurs because each incoming wave is refracted at a slightly different angle
– rainbows result when sunlight is dispersed through water droplets
 Difference between light and matter (particles)
• when a wave strikes the edge of an object, it bends around it in a
phenomenon called diffraction
– if the wave passes through a slit about as wide as its wavelength, it bends around
both edges of the slit and forms a semicircular wave on the other side of the
opening

– in contrast, when a collection of moving

particles encounters a small opening, as
when a handful of sand is thrown at a
hole in a fence, some particles move
through the opening and continue along
their individual paths
 Difference between light and matter (particles)
• if waves of light pass through two adjacent slits, the emerging circular
waves interact with each other through the process of interference
– if the crests of the waves coincide (in phase), they interfere constructively and the
amplitudes add together
– if the crests coincide with troughs (out of phase), they interfere destructively and
the amplitudes cancel

– in contrast, particles passing through

adjacent openings continue in straight
paths, some colliding with each other and
moving at different angles
 MODULE 3

Electromagnetic Radiation
2. The Particle Nature

43
 The Particle Nature of Light

• The wave model of light could not explain all of light’s

characteristics

1. Blackbody radiation
2. Photoelectric effect
3. Atomic spectra
1. Blackbody Radiation and the Quantization of Energy
– when a solid object is heated to about 1000 K, it begins to emit visible light, as you can see
in the soft red glow of smoldering coal
– at about 1500 K, the light is brighter and more orange, like that from an electric heating coil
– at temperatures greater than 2000 K, the light is still brighter and whiter, as from the
filament of a light bulb
– these changes in intensity and wavelength of emitted light as an object is heated are
characteristic of light given off by a hot blackbody
❖a blackbody is an idealized object that absorbs all the radiation incident on it

– all attempts to account for these observed changes by applying classical electromagnetic
theory failed
– classical physics predicted that the intensity of light should continuously increase to infinity as T is
increased
1. Blackbody Radiation
 Planck’s Quantum Theory
• Max Planck (German; 1918 Nobel prize in Physics) proposed that EM can
not be radiated or absorbed in arbitrary amounts but only in discrete
quantities
– called quantum
– the energy of a single quantum is given by:
E = h
– where h is the Planck’s constant (6.63 x 10-34Js and  = frequency of radiation

• later interpretations of Planck's proposal stated that the hot object's

radiation is emitted by the atoms contained within it
– if an atom can emit only certain quantities of energy, it follows that the atom itself can
have only certain quantities of energy
– thus, the energy of an atom is quantized: it exists only in certain fixed quantities,
rather than being continuous
 2. Photoelectric Effect
• electrons are ejected from the surface of certain metals exposed
to light of a certain minimum frequency
– threshold frequency (o)
• for each metal there is a minimum frequency
of light necessary to cause ejection of
electrons (regardless of intensity)
• number of electrons ejected is proportional
to the intensity of light
• E of the ejected electrons is proportional to
the frequency of the light
• if you shine higher frequency light on the
metal, the KE of the electrons ejected
increases but the number of electrons
remains the same
 Photoelectric Effect
• Albert Einstein (German; 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics) suggested that a
beam of light is a stream of particles
– called photons
– each photon possesses energy, E, which is given by Planck’s equation
E = h
where h is Planck’s constant (6.63 x 10-34 Js)
 is the frequency of the light

Received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for this explanation

 Photoelectric Effect
• electrons held in a metal by attractive forces; removing them
requires light of sufficient frequency (energy) to overcome this
force

• if frequency of light is such that h is exactly equal to the energy

that binds the electrons (BE), the light will just have enough
energy to knock out the electrons

• if light of higher frequency is used, the knocked electrons will

acquire kinetic energy (KE)
 Photoelectric Effect - Deductions
• if light of higher frequency is used, the knocked electrons will
acquire kinetic energy

h = KE + BE

– where KE (1/2mev2) is the kinetic energy of the ejected electron and BE

is its binding energy in the metal

– rearranging gives: KE = h - BE; i.e. the more energetic the photon, the
greater the kinetic energy of the ejected electron
 Photoelectric Effect - Deductions
– the higher the intensity of light , the more electrons ejected; the higher
the frequency, the greater the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons

– minimum energy required to remove an electron is called work function

() = BE
 Example 1
• a cook uses a microwave oven to heat a meal. The wavelength
of the radiation is 12.0 cm.
– what is the energy of one photon of this microwave radiation?

– what is the energy (in kJ ) of 1 mole of photons

 Solution
hc
( a ) E = h =

6.626 x10-34 Js x 3.00 x108 ms -1
=
 1m 
12.0cm x  
 100cm 
= 1.65 x 10- 24 J

(b)in kJ mol -1 (1 mole of photons = 6.022 x10 23 photons)

1 photon = 1.65 x10- 24 J
1 mole of photons = 1.65 x10-24 J x 6.022 x1023
= 0.9975443J
= 9.97 x 10- 4 kJ
 Example 2
• the photoelectric work function () of potassium is 3.204 x
10-19 J. Light of a wavelength of 360 nm falls onto the surface
of the potassium
i. calculate the energy of the photons

ii. calculate the velocity of the ejected electrons from the surface of
the potassium under these circumstances

me =9.109 x 10-31kg
Solution
hc
(a ) E = h =

6.626 x10 -34 Js x 3.00 x10 8 ms -1
=
 1x10 - 9 m 
360 nm x  
 1nm 
= 5.52 x 10 - 9 J
(b) h = KE + BE (  )
 KE = h −  = 5.52 x10 −9 J − 3.204 x10 −19 J
= 5.52x10- 9 J = 1/2me v 2
5.52x10- 9 J kgm2 s − 2
 1 / 2v =
2
- 31
x
9.109x10 kg J
v = 1.10 x1011 ms −1
 MODULE 4

The Bohr Theory of the Atom

57
3. Atomic Spectra (The Bohr Theory of the atom

• Prior to the work of Niels Bohr (Danish, 1922 Nobel Prize in Physics)
1. the stability of the atom could not be explained using the then-current
theories
– one view of atomic structure in early 20th century was that an electron (e-) travelled
about the nucleus in an orbit

– classically any orbit should be possible and so is any

energy

– but a charged particle moving in an electric field

should emit energy- electron would spiral into the
nucleus
The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
• Prior to the work of Niels Bohr
2. light spectra from heated gases such as hydrogen

– the light emitted by a heated gas, such as

hydrogen, results in a line spectrum- a
spectrum showing only specific
wavelengths of light

– every element has a unique emission

spectrum; characteristic lines can
therefore be used in chemical analysis to
identify unknown atoms
“Neon Lights”
 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
• Niels Bohr (a Danish physicist) made the following postulates to
account for the line spectrum of an atom
1. energy level postulate: an electron can have only specific energy levels in an
atom ( energy is quantized)

2. transitions between energy levels: an electron in an atom can change energy

levels by undergoing a “transition” from one energy level to another
 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
• Bohr showed that the energies that the electron in the hydrogen atom can
possess are given by:
 Z 2

En = −2.178 x10−18 J 
 n2 

 
where n is an integer (the larger the value the higher the orbit radius; Z is the
atomic number (1 for hydrogen)
2.178 x 10-18 J is called the Rydberg Constant

– negative sign is arbitrary and signifies that energy of electron in atom is lower than
energy of free electron

– energy of free electron arbitrarily set at zero; i.e. n = 

Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
 Z 2

En = −2.178 x10−18 J 
 n2 

 

– as electron gets closer to the nucleus (n decreases) En becomes larger in absolute

value but also more negative

– the most negative value is reached when n = 1; this is called the ground state i.e.
the lowest energy level

– stability of electrons diminishes as n increases; these are called excited states

Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
• energy absorbed by atom causes an electron to move from lower energy state
(i.e. smaller n) to higher energy state (i.e. larger n): nfinal>ninitial

• conversely, radiant energy (as a photon) is emitted when the electron moves from
higher energy state to lower energy state (ninitial>nfinal

• the energy involved in either case depends on the difference in energy levels
between the initial and the final states

E = E f inal − Einitial
 Bohr Theory

Quantum Staircase
Quantum Leaps
 Practice Question
What is the energy change when the electron in a hydrogen undergoes a transition
from the 4th energy level to the second energy level.

 1
−18  −19
E4 = −2.178 x10 J  2  = −1 .36125 x10 J
4 
−18  1  −19
E2 = −2.178 x10 J  2  = − 5 .445 x10 J
2 
E = E2 − E4 = −5.445 x10 −19 J − ( −1.36125x10 −19 J )
= - 4.08 x10 -19 J
 Practice Question
What is the wavelength (in nm) of the photon emitted

hc
E = h =

hc 6.626x10- 34 Js x 3.00 x10 8 ms -1
 = =
E 4.08 x10 -19 J

= 4.87 x10 -7 m
= 487nm
 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
• what happens when a hydrogen atom absorbs one or more quanta of
energy?
– when the atom absorbs one or more quanta of energy, the electron moves from the
ground state orbit to an excited state orbit that is further away
– the energy that is gained by the atom is equal to the difference in energy between
the two energy levels
– when the atom relaxes back to a lower energy state, it releases energy that is again
equal to the difference in energy of the two orbits

– the change in energy, ΔE, then translates to light of a particular frequency being
emitted according to the equation E=hν
– based on the wavelengths of the spectral lines, Bohr was able to calculate the
energies that the hydrogen electron would have in each of its allowed energy levels.
– he then mathematically showed which energy level transitions correspond to the
spectral lines in the atomic emission spectrum
UV visible IR far IR

70
MODULE 5

Quantum Theory

71
Waves Vs Particles
 The Dual Nature of the Electron
• Bohr’s theory established the concept of atomic energy levels
but did not thoroughly explain the “wave-like” behavior of the
electron
• current ideas about atomic structure depend on the principles
of quantum mechanics, a theory that applies to subatomic
particles such as electrons

• the first clue in the development of quantum theory came with

the discovery of the de Broglie relation
 The Dual Nature of Light
• In 1923, Louis de Broglie (French; 1929 Nobel Prize in Physics)reasoned
that if light exhibits particle aspects, perhaps particles of matter
show characteristics of waves
– he postulated that a particle with mass m and a velocity v has an
associated wavelength
Light: E = h (Planck)
Particle (matter): E = mc2 (Einstein)

 h= h(c/) =mc2 (i.e. light = matter)

– the equation  = h/mv is called the de Broglie relation

Nobel prize in Physics in 1929
 The Dual Nature of Light
• if matter has wave properties, why are they not commonly
observed?
– the de Broglie relation showed that a baseball (0.145 kg) moving
at about 60 mph (27 m/s) has a wavelength of about 1.7 x 10-34
m. (Remember J =kgm2s-2

6.63x10 −34 Js kgm2 s −2

= -1
x −34
= 1.7 x10 m
0.145kg x 27ms J

❖ this value is so incredibly small that such waves cannot be detected

 Heisenberg uncertainty principle
• Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle explains:
– why the wave-particle duality nature of the electron makes it difficult to
know its exact position and velocity it is traveling/orbiting around the
nucleus
❖ it is impossible to know simultaneously both the momentum p (defined as
mass x velocity) and the position of a particle with certainty
h
xp 
4
where x and p are uncertainties in measuring position and momentum respectively

❖ to describe a Bohr orbit of an electron would require knowing its exact

position and velocity
Quantum Mechanics
• Bohr’s idea that electrons orbit the nucleus in well defined
path falls apart!!

– we can no longer think of an electron as having a precise orbit in an

atom
 Quantum Mechanics
• although we cannot precisely define an electron’s orbit, we can
obtain the probability of finding an electron at a given point
around the nucleus
– Erwin Schrodinger (Austrian; 1933 Nobel Prize in Physics) defined this
probability in a mathematical expression called a wave function,
denoted ψ (psi)

– the probability of finding a particle in a region of space is defined by ψ 2

– an atomic orbital can be thought of as a wave function of an electron in

atom
 Schrodinger’s Wave Equation

wave function mass of an electron

potential energy at xyz

d2Y d2Y d 2Y 82mQ
+ + + (E-V(x,y,z)Y(x,y,z) = 0
dx2 dy2 dz2 h2

total quantized energy of the

how y changes in space atomic system
 Quantum Mechanics
• the wave equation is designated with a lower
case Greek psi (y)

• the square of the wave equation, y2, gives a

probability density map of where an electron has
a certain statistical likelihood of being at any
given instant in time
Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics
where 90% of the
e- density is found
for the 1s orbital

e- density (1s orbital) falls off rapidly

as distance from nucleus increases
 Quantum Numbers
d 2Y d 2Y d 2Y 82mQ
+ + + (E-V(x,y,z)Y(x,y,z) = 0
dx2 dy2 dz2 h2

• solving the wave equation gives a set of wave functions, or

orbitals, and their corresponding energies

• each orbital describes a spatial distribution of electron density

• an orbital is described by a set of three quantum numbers

 Quantum Numbers
1. Principal Quantum Number, n
• the principal quantum number, n, describes the energy level on which the
orbital resides

• the values of n are integers > 0

– the smaller n is, the smaller the orbital

– the smaller n is, the lower the energy of the electron

 Quantum Numbers
2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number, l

• defines the shape of the orbital

• allowed values of l are integers ranging from 0 to n − 1

• we use letter designations to communicate the different values of l and,

therefore, the shapes and types of orbitals

Value of l 0 1 2 3
Type of orbital s p d f
Quantum Numbers
3. Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
• describes the three-dimensional orientation of the orbital

• values are integers ranging from -l to l:

−l ≤ ml ≤ l

• therefore, on any given energy level, there can be up to 1 s orbital, 3

p orbitals, 5 d orbitals, 7 f orbitals, etc.
 Quantum Numbers
• orbitals with the same value of n form a shell

• different orbital types within a shell are subshells

s Orbitals

• value of l = 0

• spherical in shape

• radius of sphere increases with

increasing value of n
p Orbitals

• value of l = 1

• have two lobes with a node between them

• difference in orientation in space

d Orbitals

• value of l is 2

• four of the five orbitals

have 4 lobes; the other
resembles a p orbital
with a doughnut
around the center.
Energies of Orbitals

• for a one-electron hydrogen atom,

orbitals on the same energy level
have the same energy

• that is, they are degenerate

Energies of Orbitals

• as the number of electrons

increases, though, so does the
repulsion between them

• therefore, in many-electron atoms,

orbitals on the same energy level
are no longer degenerate
 Spin Quantum Number, ms

• in the 1920s, it was discovered that

two electrons in the same orbital do
not have exactly the same energy

• the “spin” of an electron describes its

magnetic field, which affects its
energy
Spin Quantum Number, ms
• this led to a 4th quantum number, the
spin quantum number, ms

• the spin quantum number has only 2

allowed values: +1/2 and −1/2
Electron Configuration
• the 4 quantum numbers enable us to label completely an electron in
any orbital in an atom
• act as an ‘street address’ for each electron

• electron configuration shows distribution of all electrons in an atom

and consists of:
• number denoting the energy level
• letter denoting the type of orbital
• superscript denoting the number of electrons in those orbitals
e.g. for hydrogen atom = 1s1 or use orbital diagram to show spin
Pauli Exclusion Principle

• for many-electron atoms use the Pauli exclusion principle to determine

electron configuration
• “no two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers”

• if 2 electrons in atom have the same n, l and ml values i.e. in the same orbital, then
they must have different spins (i.e. different ms values)

• for example, 3 possible ways of placing two electrons in the 1s orbital of

He
 Pauli Exclusion Principle

He   
1s2 1s2 1s2

(a) (b) (c)

• (a) and (b) ruled out because in both cases the 2 electrons have the
same 4 quantum numbers

• magnetic measurements show that He is diamagnetic and not

paramagnetic
 Allowed Sets of Quantum Numbers for Electrons in Atoms
Level n 1 2 3
Sublevel l 0 0 1 0 1 2
Orbital ml 0 0 1 0 -1 0 1 0 -1 2 1 0 -1 -2
= +1/2
Spin ms
= -1/2
 Pauli Exclusion Principle

• Do the same for all elements in period 2

 NUCLEAR REACTIONS
https://learn.saylor.org/mod/page/view.php?id=31887
 The Nucleus
• the atom is made up of protons, neutrons and electrons

• positively-charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons are located

in the nucleus

• each proton has one positive charge or +1

– so each nucleus has a positive charge equal to the number of protons that it has

– the number of protons is called the element’s atomic number

• protons and neutrons are packed together tightly so that the nucleus
takes up only a tiny part of an atom
 The Nucleus
• protons and neutrons held together by strong
nuclear force
– 100 times stronger than the electric force but only
works over short distances
• in a small nucleus, the particles are close
together
–  the strong force holds the protons and
neutrons very tightly together
• in a large nucleus, the strong force holds
together only the particles that are closest to
one another
– electric force repels protons that are far apart
– increased repulsive force causes the particles in a
large nucleus to be held less tightly
 Radioactivity
• when the strong nuclear force can hold a nucleus together forever, the
nucleus is stable
– if not, the nucleus becomes unstable and can break apart or decay by emitting
particles and energy
• large nuclei are more unstable; all with more than 83 protons are
radioactive
The Atom - Notation

A
X
Z

A = mass number ( number of protons and neutrons)

Z = atomic number (number of protons)
X = element symbol
Isotopes
• atoms of the same
element may have
different numbers of
neutrons in the nucleus

• the atoms of all isotopes

of an element have the
same numbers of
protons and electrons
and the same chemical
properties
 What makes nuclei unstable
• the ratio of neutrons to protons determines whether a nucleus is stable or
unstable
– small isotopes 1 neutron:1 proton
– large isotope 3 neutrons: 2 protons

– generally, nuclei with too many or too few neutrons compared to these numbers
are unstable or radioactive
 Nuclear Radiation
• unstable nucleus may break apart emitting particles and energy as it
decays
– called nuclear radiation

• three types of nuclear radiation:

– alpha particles ()

– beta particles ()

– gamma radiation electromagnetic wave ()

 Alpha particles (42He)
• an alpha particle is made of 2 protons and 2 neutrons

• the decaying nucleus emits an alpha particle (42He)

– occurs when the nucleus is too large
– an alpha particle is the same as the nucleus of a Helium (He) atom

•  particles have much more mass than  or  radiation

– with an electric charge of +2
– attract negatively charged electrons away from atoms they pass
– heavier and move more slowly than β or gamma
– lose energy quickly & slow down; sheet of paper can stop alpha particles
 Alpha particles
• after an  particle is emitted, the nucleus has 2 fewer protons and
electrons than it had

210
84 Po → Pb + He
206
82
4
2

• transmutation is the process of changing one element to a different

element by the decaying process
– polonium atom has become a lead atom

Practice question
Radium-226 transmutates by alpha decay. Write the nuclear equation
that represents this process.
 Beta particles
• a neutron decays into a proton by emitting an electron (0-1e).
– occurs because the nucleus has too many neutrons relative to protons

• an atom that loses a  particle also undergoes transmutation

131
53 I → Xe + e
131
54
0
−1
Practice question
Write the nuclear equation for the beta-decay of boron-12
 Beta particles
•  particles are faster and more penetrative than  particles
– because they are smaller and lighter
– pass through paper
– aluminum foil will stop a beta particle

• can damage human cells if released inside the body

 Gamma rays
• gamma radiation is emitted as electromagnetic waves
– occurs when the nucleus has excess energy

– a gamma ray (packet of energy) is emitted from the nucleus

– the parent and daughter nuclides are the same

87 87
38 Sr * → 38 Sr +  .
the * in the reaction denotes an excited nuclear state
Penetrating Power
 Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
• treatment of cancer
– structure of DNA in the genes of plants and animals can be altered by radiation

– cancer cells are more susceptible than normal cells to destruction by radiation

–  gamma rays can be used in the treatment of cancer

– penetrating radiation used for treating inaccessible growths; less penetrating

radiation for superficial cancers
 Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
• studying metabolic ways
– radioactive isotopes can be used to trace the uptake and metabolism of various
elements by plants and animals

– for example the uptake of phosphate and the metabolism of P by plants can be
studied using fertilizer containing 32P

– radioactive tracer studies using 14C have helped in the elucidation of

photosynthesis and protein synthesis

– 131Ihas been used in the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid diseases and in
research into the working of the thyroid gland
 Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
• thickness gauges and empty-packet detectors
– radiation passing through a material decreases as the material gets thicker

– amount of penetrating beta- or gamma- radiation can be used to estimate

thickness of various materials such as paper, metal and plastic

– radiation can also be used to estimate level of liquid in a closed vessel

 Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
• radioactive dating
– by knowing the rate at which an isotope decays, we can work out the time it takes
for a certain amount of it to disappear e.g. carbon dating
 Carbon -14 Dating
• carbon-14 continuously formed in the upper atmosphere
– collision of neutrons with nitrogen atoms

14
7 N+ n→ C+ H
1
0
14
6
1
1

• at the same time carbon-14 already present is decaying to nitrogen-14 by

emission of electrons

14
6C → N+ e 14
7
0
−1
–  atmosphere contains constant concentration of carbon-14 as 14CO2
– gets to plants via photosynthesis →animals  constant prop C in this form for all
living things
 Carbon -14 Dating
• when the animal or plant dies replacement of 14C ceases
– but decay of 14C continues

• suppose 14C makes up x% of all carbon in living things (1/2 life for 14C is 5700 years)
– 5700 years after the plant or animal dies, only half % of the 14C atoms (i.e. x/2%) will
remain

– after another 5700 years, only x/4% remains

– by comparing the concentration of 14C in specimen and similar materials living at

present time it is possible to estimate the age of a specimen

14
7 N+ n→ C+ H
1
0
14
6
1
1
14
6C → N+ e 14
7
0
−1