C O U R S E : I S T 4 0 6 0 – T E L E C O M M U N I C AT I O N S A N D N E T WO R K S

TOP I C: B AS I C S OF NETWORKING

SUBTOPICS
1. Definition of networks
2. Simple Computer network (project 15 marks)
3. importance of networks
4. Communications protocols
5. The layered model
6. OSI
7. TCP/IP

8. Robbinson C. Masinde, School of Science & Technology, USIU

9. BSc. Physics & Computer Science, Maseno University, MSc. Computer Science, University of Nairobi, PhD Information Systems & Technology, USIU (In progress)
 1. DEFINITION OF NETWORKS
A computer network
An interconnection of computing devices able to communicate and share resources.
These devices include; computers, servers, printers, smartphones, and other hardware.
The connection is established using various mediums, such as physical cables or wireless signals.
The purpose of a computer network include; Efficient exchange of data, information, and resources. This allows for various
applications like:
1. Communication: Email, instant messaging, video conferencing, online chat.
2. Resource Sharing: Sharing printers, scanners, and storage devices among multiple users
3. File Sharing: Easily transferring and accessing files between different devices
4. Centralized Management: Allowing administrators to manage and control multiple devices from a central location
5. Internet Access: Connecting multiple devices to the global internet.
An example is home Wi-Fi network made of laptop, printer, smart phone and smart TV.
These devices connect to Wi-Fi router.
The router acts as the central hub, allowing your laptop to communicate with your printer to print a document, your smartphone
to stream a movie to your smart TV, and all of them to access the internet.
This interconnected system, facilitated by your Wi-Fi router, forms a Local Area Network (LAN) within your home.
 1. SETTING UP A SIMPLE COMPUTER NETWORKS
It primarily involves connecting your devices to a central point that manages traffic and provides internet access.
Devices Required for a Simple Computer Network (Home Network)
1. Modem: This is the device that connects your home network to your Internet Service Provider (ISP). It translates signals
from your ISP (e.g., cable, fiber, DSL) into a format your network can understand. Your ISP usually provides this, or it
might be combined with your router in a single "modem/router combo" unit.
2. Router (Wireless Router recommended for modern homes): The brain of your home network. It acts as a central hub,
directing traffic between your connected devices and the internet. A wireless router also broadcasts a Wi-Fi signal,
allowing devices to connect wirelessly. It creates a Local Area Network (LAN) within your home, assigns IP addresses to
your devices, and often includes basic firewall features for security.
3. Network Cables (Ethernet Cables - Cat5e or Cat6 recommended): Physical cables used to connect wired devices to
your router or modem. They provide a stable and fast connection. Used to connect your computer directly to the router,
or a smart TV, gaming console, etc., if you prefer a wired connection.
4. Network Adapters (Built-in or External): Hardware components that allow devices to connect to a network. Most
modern laptops, smartphones, and smart TVs have built-in Wi-Fi adapters. Desktops have built-in Ethernet ports, and can
also use USB Wi-Fi adapters. Without a network adapter, a device cannot communicate on the network.
5. Devices to Connect: Laptops, desktop computers, smartphones, tablets, smart TVs, gaming consoles, printers
 1. SETTING UP A SIMPLE COMPUTER NETWORKS
Procedure for Setting Up a Simple Computer Network
Here's a step-by-step guide, assuming you have a separate modem and wireless router (the most common setup):
1. Set up your Modem:
a) Connect to ISP line: Connect the modem to the appropriate wall jack (cable, phone line for DSL, or fiber optic terminal)
using the cable provided by your ISP.
b) Power on: Plug in the modem's power adapter and turn it on.
c) Wait for connection: Allow the modem a few minutes to boot up and establish a connection with your ISP. Look for
steady indicator lights (often "Internet" or "Online") that confirm a successful connection.
2. Position your Wireless Router:
a) Central location: Place your router in a central location ideally off the floor and away from appliances that might cause
interference (like microwaves). This helps ensure good Wi-Fi coverage throughout your house.
3. Connect Router to Modem:
a) Take an Ethernet cable and connect one end to the WAN (Wide Area Network) or Internet port on your router (this
port is often a different color or clearly labeled).
b) Connect to modem: Connect the other end of that Ethernet cable to one of the LAN (Local Area Network) ports on
your modem. If your modem only has one Ethernet port, use that one.
c) Power on Router: Plug in the router's power adapter and turn it on. Wait for it to boot up.
 1. SETTING UP A SIMPLE COMPUTER NETWORKS
4. Configure your Router (Initial Setup):
a) Access router's admin page: Using a computer or smartphone, connect to the router's default Wi-Fi network (the SSID
and password are usually printed on a sticker on the router itself).
b) Open web browser: Open a web browser (Chrome, Firefox, Edge, etc.) and type the router's default IP address into the
address bar. Common default IP addresses include 192.168.0.1, 192.168.1.1, 192.168.2.1
c) Login: Enter the default username and password (also usually on the sticker or in the manual). It's crucial to change these
default credentials immediately for security
d) Run setup wizard: Most routers have a setup wizard that will guide you through: Changing the Wi-Fi Network Name
(SSID): Choose a unique name for your Wi-Fi network.
e) Setting a strong Wi-Fi Password (Network Security Key): Use WPA2 or WPA3 encryption. This is vital for securing your
network from unauthorized access.
f) Updating firmware (recommended): Check if there are any firmware updates available for your router and install them
for better performance and security.
 1. SETTING UP A SIMPLE COMPUTER NETWORKS
5. Connect your Devices:
a) Wireless Devices: On your smartphones, tablets, laptops, smart TVs, etc., search for available Wi-Fi networks, select the
new SSID you created, and enter the password.
b) Wired Devices: For devices like desktop computers, gaming consoles, or network printers that you want to connect via
cable, plug an Ethernet cable from the device's Ethernet port to any of the available LAN ports on your router.
6.Test your Network:
a) Internet access: Open a web browser on different connected devices to confirm they can access the internet.
b) Internal communication: If you have multiple computers, try sharing files or printing to a network printer to ensure
devices can communicate within your local network.
c) Speed test: Run an online speed test (e.g., speedtest.net) on various devices and locations to check your internet speed
and Wi-Fi signal strength.
 3. IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER NETWORK
Their importance stems from their ability to connect devices and facilitate the seamless flow of information and resources.
Importance of a Computer Network:
1. Resource Sharing: Networks allow multiple users to share hardware (like printers, scanners, hard drives) and software
applications, reducing costs and maximizing utility. Example: In an office, instead of buying a separate printer for every
employee, a single network printer can be shared by everyone connected to the network.
2. Improved Communication and Collaboration: Networks provide various tools for instantaneous communication
and collaboration, regardless of geographical distance. Example: A team working on a project across different cities (like
Nairobi and Mombasa) can use video conferencing tools (e.g., Google Meet, Zoom) and shared document platforms (e.g.,
Google Docs, Microsoft 365) to collaborate in real-time, share ideas, and edit documents simultaneously.
3. Efficient Data Management and Sharing: Data can be stored centrally on servers, making it easily accessible to
authorized users from any networked device. This ensures data consistency, simplifies backups, and improves data security.
Example: A hospital in Nairobi uses a network to store Electronic Health Records (EHRs) on a central server. Doctors and
nurses can access a patient's medical history, lab results, and medication records instantly
4. Enhanced Productivity: By streamlining communication, enabling resource sharing, and providing quick access to
information, networks significantly boost overall productivity. Example: In a retail store, sales associates can quickly check
inventory levels, process transactions, and access customer information from networked point-of-sale (POS) systems, leading
to faster service and increased sales efficiency.
 3. IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER NETWORK
5. Cost Efficiency: Sharing resources and centralizing data reduces the need for individual purchases of hardware and
software, leading to significant cost savings for organizations and individuals. Example: A small business avoids buying a
separate copy of expensive design software for each of its five designers. Instead, they purchase a network license that allows
all five designers to access and use the software over the network, drastically cutting down on software costs.
6. Remote Access and Flexibility: Networks enable users to access resources, files, and applications from remote
locations, supporting flexible work arrangements like telecommuting and hybrid work models. Example: During a public
holiday, an employee working from rural home can securely access company files, emails, and internal applications through
the company's Virtual Private Network (VPN) over the internet, allowing them to continue their work effectively
7. Scalability: Computer networks can be easily expanded to accommodate more users, devices, or services without
requiring a complete overhaul of the existing infrastructure. Example: As USIU grows and enrolls more students, its campus
network can be scaled up by adding more Wi-Fi access points, switches, and servers to support the increased number of
devices and data traffic, without needing to rebuild the entire network from scratch.
8. Access to Information and Services (Internet):Networks, especially the global Internet, provide access to a vast
amount of information, online services, and entertainment. Example: Anyone with an internet connection in Nairobi can
access news from around the world, conduct online research for academic purposes, stream movies from platforms like
Netflix, or perform online banking transactions. The internet, at its core, is the largest computer network.
 4.NETWORK COMMUNIC ATIONS PROTOCOLS
Sets of rules and standards that dictate how data is formatted, transmitted, received, and interpreted between different
devices on a network. Think of them as the "languages" that computers speak to each other. Without these protocols,
devices wouldn't understand how to communicate.
Network communication protocols often work together in a layered approach, with each protocol handling a specific aspect
of the communication.
The most famous example of this is the TCP/IP Protocol Suite, which forms the foundation of the internet. These
protocols ensure:
1. Order and Structure: Data is sent and received in a predictable manner.
2. Reliability: Ensure data reaches its destination correctly, or to request retransmission if errors occur.
3. Security: Some protocols include features for encryption and authentication to protect data.
4. Interoperability: Different types of devices and operating systems can communicate with each other.
 4.NETWORK COMMUNIC ATIONS PROTOCOLS
1. Core Internet Protocols (Often part of the Internet/Network Layer and Transport Layer)
a) Internet Protocol (IP): Responsible for addressing and routing data packets across networks. It's like the postal service
that ensures data packets get from one location (IP address) to another. IP doesn't guarantee delivery or order. Example:
When you type "google.com" into your browser, DNS translates it to an IP address e.g. 142.250.190.46. IP is then used to
route the data packets containing your request to Google's servers and bring back their response. Versions: IPv4 (older, 32-
bit addresses) and IPv6 (newer, 128-bit addresses, designed to handle the increasing number of internet-connected devices).
b) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): A connection-oriented protocol that provides reliable, ordered, and error-
checked delivery of a stream of bytes between applications. It establishes a connection (a "handshake") before data transfer,
ensures all packets arrive, and reassembles them in the correct order. Example: When you download a file from a website,
TCP ensures that all parts of the file arrive correctly and are put back together in the right sequence, even if some packets
were lost or arrived out of order during transmission. This makes file transfers reliable.
c) User Datagram Protocol (UDP): A connectionless protocol that offers faster but less reliable data transmission. It
doesn't establish a connection or guarantee delivery, making it suitable for applications where speed is more critical than
absolute reliability, and some data loss is acceptable. Example: Online gaming, live video streaming, and Voice over IP (VoIP)
often use UDP. A slight delay due to retransmission (as with TCP) would be more noticeable and disruptive in these
applications than the occasional dropped packet, which the application can gracefully handle
d) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): Used by network devices to send error messages and operational
information, such as when a requested service is not available or a host cannot be reached. Example: The Ping command
uses ICMP. When you ‘ping google.com’ your computer sends ICMP Echo Request messages, and if Google's server is
reachable, it sends back ICMP Echo Reply messages, indicating connectivity and measuring round-trip time.
 4.NETWORK COMMUNIC ATIONS PROTOCOLS
2. Application Layer Protocols (Protocols for specific applications)
a) Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): The foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web. It defines
how web browsers request web pages and how web servers respond. Example: When you type a website address like
usiu.co.ke into your browser, HTTP is used by your browser to request the web page from the usiu server.
b) Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): The secure version of HTTP. It encrypts the communication
between your browser and the website using SSL/TLS protocols, protecting sensitive information like passwords, credit card
details and personal data from eavesdropping. Example: When you log into your online banking portal in Kenya, the URL
will start with https://The 'S' indicates that your connection is encrypted, so your username and password are sent securely.
c) File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Used for transferring files between a client and a server on a computer network. It
allows users to upload, download, and manage files on remote servers. Example: A web developer in Nairobi might use an
FTP client to upload the website files (HTML, CSS, images) from their local computer to a web hosting server.
d) Secure File Transfer Protocol (SFTP): An extension of FTP that uses SSH (Secure Shell) to provide secure file
transfer capabilities. It encrypts both commands and data during transmission. Example: Companies often use SFTP to
securely transfer sensitive business documents or financial reports between their internal systems and external partners.
e) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): The standard protocol for sending email messages from a client to an email
server, and between email servers. Example: When you compose and send an email from your Gmail account, SMTP is the
protocol that pushes your email from your device to Google's mail servers, and then from Google's servers to the recipient's
mail server.
 4.NETWORK COMMUNIC ATIONS PROTOCOLS
e) Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3): Used by email clients to retrieve (download) email messages from a mail server to a
local device. Once downloaded, emails are typically removed from the server. Example: If you configure an email client (like
Outlook) to use POP3, it will download all new emails to your laptop and then delete them from the mail server. This means
you primarily access your emails from that one device
f) Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP): Allows email clients to access and manage email messages on a mail
server. Unlike POP3, IMAP keeps emails on the server, allowing access from multiple devices and synchronizing changes
across them. Example: If you access your Gmail account on your smartphone, laptop, and work computer, IMAP ensures
that all devices see the same set of emails, and if you read an email on one device, it's marked as read on all others.
g) Domain Name System (DNS): Translates human-readable domain names (like www.usiu.co.ke) into numerical IP
addresses that computers use to identify each other on the network. It's often called the "phonebook of the internet.“
Example: When you type nation. Africa into your web browser, your computer sends a DNS query to a DNS server, which
then provides the corresponding IP address for the Nation Media Group's website, allowing your browser to connect to the
correct server.
h) Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): Automatically assigns IP addresses and other network
configuration parameters (like subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS server addresses) to devices connecting to a network.
This eliminates the need for manual IP configuration. Example: When you connect your new smartphone to your home Wi-
Fi network, your router (acting as a DHCP server) automatically assigns an available IP address to your phone, allowing it to
immediately communicate on the network and access the internet.
 THE LAYERED MODEL PROTOCOL
The layered model protocol in computer networking is a conceptual framework that divides the complex task of network
communication into a series of smaller, more manageable sub-tasks, each handled by a distinct layer. Each layer performs a
specific set of functions and interacts with the layers immediately above and below it. This layered approach offers several
significant benefits:
1. Modularity: Each layer can be developed and modified independently without affecting other layers, as long as the
interfaces between layers remain consistent. This simplifies development and troubleshooting.
2. Abstraction: Each layer provides services to the layer above it, hiding the complexities of the underlying mechanisms. An
application doesn't need to know how data is physically transmitted; it just needs to send it to the transport layer.
3. Interoperability: By defining standard interfaces and protocols for each layer, different vendors can develop hardware and
software that can communicate with each other, even if their internal implementations differ
4. Scalability: Networks can be easily expanded and new technologies integrated by adding or updating specific layers
without overhauling the entire system.
5. Easier Troubleshooting: When a network issue arises, administrators can isolate the problem to a specific layer,
significantly speeding up diagnosis and resolution.
While several layered models exist, the two most widely recognized and used are:
a) OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model:
b) TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Model:
 OSI (OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION) MODEL
Conceptual framework that standardizes the functions of a communication system into seven distinct layers.
It was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in the early 1980s as a universal language for
computer networking and promote interoperability between different vendor products and to simplify the understanding
and troubleshooting of complex network systems.
Each layer in the OSI model has a specific set of responsibilities and interacts only with the layer directly above it and the
layer directly below it. Data flows down the stack on the sender's side (encapsulation) and up the stack on the receiver's side
(decapsulation).
The OSI model serves as an excellent reference point for understanding how different networking technologies fit together
and how data moves across a network, making it a foundational concept in computer networking education.
The OSI model describes the process of data flowing from an application on one computer, down through the layers, across
the network medium, and then up through the layers of the receiving computer to its application.
Each layer adds (encapsulates) or removes (decapsulates) information to the data as it moves up or down the stack
While the more practical TCP/IP model is what the internet primarily runs on, the OSI model remains invaluable for:
• Understanding Network Concepts: It provides a clear, logical structure for learning how networks function
• Troubleshooting: It helps network professionals isolate problems to a specific layer, making diagnosis easier
• Standardization: It promotes interoperability by defining standard functions and interfaces for each layer, allowing
different vendors' hardware and software to communicate.
• Product Development: Manufacturers can design products that operate within specific layers, ensuring compatibility.
 OSI (OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION) MODEL
Seven layers of the OSI model, from top to bottom (i.e., from the user's application down to the physical wire):
7. Application Layer (Layer 7):
This is the layer closest to the end-user.
It provides network services directly to user applications.
It identifies communication partners, determines resource availability, and synchronizes communication.
Analogy: The user interface of an application, like your web browser or email client.
Examples of Protocols/Services:
1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for web Browse (e.g., when you visit www.usiu.ac.ke)
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): For transferring files (e.g., uploading photos to a website).
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): For sending emails.
4. POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) / IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): For receiving emails.
5. DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names (like google.com) ) into IP addresses.
6. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Automatically assigns IP addresses to devices on a network.
7. Telnet, SSH (Secure Shell): For remote terminal access.
 OSI (OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION) MODEL
6. Presentation Layer
• Responsible for data formatting, translation, encryption/decryption, and compression/decompression.
• It ensures that data sent from the application layer of one system is readable by the application layer of another system, by
handling syntax and semantics of the information.
• Analogy: A translator or a data formatter. It ensures the data's "language" is understood.
• Examples of Standards/Formats/Protocols (that operate or utilize this layer):
1. JPEG, MPEG, GIF, PNG, TIFF: Common formats for images and video.
2. ASCII, EBCDIC: Character encoding schemes.
3. SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security): Provides encryption for secure communication (often thought
of as bridging Presentation and Session, and sometimes Transport)
4. XML, JSON: Data representation formats.
 OSI (OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION) MODEL
5. Session Layer
Establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions between applications.
It provides dialogue control (e.g., full-duplex or half-duplex communication) and synchronization points to allow for recovery
from interruptions without losing data.
Analogy: A session manager or a traffic cop for a conversation, ensuring a smooth back-and-forth.
Examples of Protocols/Services:
1. NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System): Used for network communication on local networks.
2. RPC (Remote Procedure Call): Allows a program to cause a procedure (subroutine) to execute in another address
space.
3. NFS (Network File System): Allows access to files over a network.
4. SIP (Session Initiation Protocol): Used for voice and video calls (VoIP).
5. PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol): Used for VPN connections.
 OSI (OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION) MODEL
4.Transport Layer
Provides reliable (or unreliable) end-to-end data delivery between processes on different hosts.
It segments data from the session layer into smaller units (segments), adds sequence numbers, performs error checking, and
controls data flow to prevent overwhelming the receiver.
Analogy: A reliable postal service that ensures the whole message (not just parts) arrives correctly and in order.
Examples of Protocols:
1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Connection-oriented, reliable, ensures data delivery and order, flow control, and
error correction. Used for web Browse, email, file transfer.
2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Connectionless, unreliable, faster, no flow control or error correction. Used for
streaming video, online gaming, VoIP, DNS queries.
 OSI (OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION) MODEL
Network Layer
Handles logical addressing (IP addresses) and routing of data packets across different networks (inter-networking).
It determines the best path for data to travel from source to destination, even if they are on different physical networks.
Analogy: A global positioning system (GPS) and a road network that directs traffic across different cities or countries.
Examples of Protocols/Devices:
1. IP (Internet Protocol): The primary protocol for routing packets on the Internet (IPv4 and IPv6).
2. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for sending error messages and operational information e.g. ping
3. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Maps IP addresses to MAC addresses within a local network segment.
4. Routing Protocols (e.g., OSPF, RIP, BGP): Used by routers to exchange routing information and build routing tables.
5. Devices: Routers, Layer 3 Switches.
 OSI (OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION) MODEL
2. Data Link Layer
Provides error-free transmission of data frames over a single network link.
It deals with physical addressing (MAC addresses), error detection and correction within the link, and flow control for the
specific physical medium.
It also defines how devices access the physical medium (e.g., CSMA/CD for Ethernet).
This layer is often divided into two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC).
Analogy: A local delivery service that ensures packages get from one specific point to another point within the same
building or neighborhood.
1. Examples of Protocols/Technologies/Devices:
2. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3): The most common wired LAN technology.
3. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): Wireless local area network standard.
4. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol): Used for direct connections between two nodes (e.g., dial-up, some broadband).
5. Frame Relay, ATM: Older WAN technologies.
6. Devices: Switches, Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges.
 OSI (OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION) MODEL
1. Physical Layer
This is the lowest layer and deals with the physical characteristics of the network medium and how raw bits (0s and 1s) are
transmitted. It defines specifications for cables, connectors, electrical signals, radio frequencies, voltages, and data rates. It's
concerned with the actual transmission of unstructured raw data bits over a physical medium.
Analogy: The actual roads, wires, and airwaves that the delivery trucks (data) travel on, along with rules for driving on them.
Examples of Hardware/Standards:
1. Cables: Copper cables (e.g., Cat5e, Cat6 Ethernet cables with RJ45 connectors), fiber optic cables.
2. Wireless: Radio frequencies for Wi-Fi, Bluetooth.
3. Connectors: RJ45, coaxial connectors, fiber optic connectors.
4. Signals: Electrical voltages, light pulses, radio waves.
5. Devices: Hubs, Repeaters, Modems (in their role of converting digital to analog signals for transmission over the ISP's
physical medium).
 T C P / I P ( T R A N S M I S S I O N C O N T RO L P ROTO C O L / I N T E R N E T P ROTO C O L ) M O D E L

Conceptual framework that describes how data is transmitted over networks, particularly the Internet.
Unlike the OSI model, which is a more theoretical and comprehensive reference, the TCP/IP model is more practical and
directly reflects the protocols that are actually used to power the internet.
It was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1970s.
The TCP/IP model consists of four layers, though some interpretations may show five by splitting the Network Access Layer.
from bottom to top they include (how data is physically transmitted and then processed up to the application);
 T C P / I P ( T R A N S M I S S I O N C O N T RO L P ROTO C O L / I N T E R N E T P ROTO C O L ) M O D E L

1. Network Access Layer (also called Link Layer or Host-to-Network Layer)

This is the lowest layer and combines the functionalities of the OSI model's Physical and Data Link layers.
It's responsible for the physical transmission of data over a specific network medium.
It defines how data is put onto the network cable or transmitted wirelessly, including details like electrical signals, physical
addressing (MAC addresses), and access methods (e.g., how devices share the network medium).
Analogy: The actual roads, wires, and airwaves, along with the rules for driving on them within a local
Examples of Protocols/Technologies/Devices:
1. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3): The standard for wired local area networks (LANs). When you connect your computer to a
router with a cable.
2. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): The standard for wireless local area networks. When your phone connects to your home Wi-Fi.
3. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Used to map an IP address to a physical (MAC) address on a local network.
4. Devices: Network Interface Cards (NICs) in your computers, switches, wireless access points, modems (in their role of
mediating physical access to the ISP's network).
e.g., 192.168.1.100 or 2001:0db8::1
T C P / I P ( T R A N S M I S S I O N C O N T RO L P ROTO C O L / I N T E R N E T P ROTO C O L ) M O D E L

2. Internet Layer (also called Network Layer)

This layer is responsible for logical addressing (IP addresses) and routing of data packets across different, interconnected
networks (the "internetwork").
It determines the best path for data to travel from the source host to the destination host, even if they are on different
physical networks.
It doesn't guarantee delivery, only best-effort forwarding.
Analogy: A global positioning system (GPS) and a system of highways that directs traffic across different cities or countries.
• Examples of Protocols/Devices:
1. IP (Internet Protocol): The most fundamental protocol of this layer. It defines IP addresses e.g. 192.120.8.12 and is responsible for
addressing and routing packets.
2. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for sending error messages and operational information (e.g., when a destination is
unreachable, or for the ping command
3. Routing Protocols (e.g., OSPF, BGP, RIP): Protocols that routers use to exchange information about network topology and determine
the best routes for data
4. Devices: Routers
 T C P / I P ( T R A N S M I S S I O N C O N T RO L P ROTO C O L / I N T E R N E T P ROTO C O L ) M O D E L

3.Transport Layer
This layer provides end-to-end communication services between applications running on different hosts. It handles data
segmentation (breaking data into smaller pieces), reassembly, and flow control. It also distinguishes between different
applications on the same host using port numbers. It offers two main protocols with different reliability levels.
Analogy: A reliable (or unreliable) delivery service that ensures messages from one specific house to another specific house
arrive, and that parts of the message are put back together correctly.
Examples of Protocols:
1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Connection-oriented, reliable, ensures data segments arrive in order, no data
loss, and includes flow control and error checking. Example: When you browse a website (HTTP runs over TCP),
download a file (FTP runs over TCP), or send an email (SMTP runs over TCP), TCP ensures all data arrives correctly and
in sequence.
2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Connectionless, unreliable, faster, no guarantees of delivery or order. Example:
Used for online gaming, live video streaming, and VoIP (Voice over IP) where speed is more critical than retransmitting
every lost packet. A slight lag is preferable to a frozen screen. DNS queries also use UDP for speed.
 T C P / I P ( T R A N S M I S S I O N C O N T RO L P ROTO C O L / I N T E R N E T P ROTO C O L ) M O D E L

4. Application Layer
This is the highest layer and corresponds to the top three layers of the OSI model (Application, Presentation, and Session).
It provides services for user applications and processes. It deals with specific application-level protocols that users interact
with.
Analogy: The actual applications you use, like a web browser, email program, or file transfer utility.
Examples of Protocols/Services: HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure): For web Browse. When
you visit www.nation.africa in your browser
1. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): For transferring files between computers.
2. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): For sending emails.
3. POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) / IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): For receiving and managing emails.
4. DNS (Domain Name System): Resolves human-readable domain names to IP addresses.
5. SSH (Secure Shell): For secure remote command-line access to servers.
6. Telnet: Older, insecure remote terminal access.
7. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): For managing network devices.
 T C P / I P ( T R A N S M I S S I O N C O N T RO L P ROTO C O L / I N T E R N E T P ROTO C O L ) M O D E L

How the Layers Interact (Example: Sending a WhatsApp Message from Nairobi to a friend in London)
• Application Layer: You type your message in the WhatsApp application. WhatsApp uses its own application-level
protocol, which then passes the data to the Transport Layer.
• Transport Layer: TCP takes the message data, breaks it into segments, adds a header with port numbers (to identify
WhatsApp on both ends), sequence numbers, and error-checking information. It ensures the message parts are reliably
delivered and reassembled.
• Internet Layer: IP takes the TCP segments, adds an IP header (with your phone's IP address and WhatsApp server's IP
address), and determines the best route across the internet. These are now IP packets.
• Network Access Layer: Your phone's Wi-Fi (or mobile data) hardware takes the IP packets, adds a Wi-Fi (802.11)
header (with MAC addresses), and converts the digital data into radio signals. These signals are transmitted to your Wi-Fi
router or cell tower.
N/B: The data then travels across various networks (your home Wi-Fi, your ISP, internet backbone, WhatsApp servers, your
friend's ISP, your friend's home Wi-Fi/mobile network), with routers processing at the Internet Layer and switches/Wi-Fi
devices at the Network Access Layer. At each hop, headers are added and removed as needed. When the data reaches your
friend's phone, the process reverses: the Network Access Layer receives the signals, passes to the Internet Layer, then to the
Transport Layer (TCP reassembles), and finally to the Application Layer, where the WhatsApp app displays your message.
 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN OSI AND TCP/IP
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) and TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) models are both
foundational conceptual frameworks that describe how network communication works. While they share the common goal
of facilitating communication, they have distinct differences in their structure, purpose, and practical application.
Similarities between OSI and TCP/IP
1. Layered Architecture: Both models organize the complex process of network communication into a series of logical
layers. This modularity simplifies design, development, and troubleshooting.
2. Protocol Stacks: Both define a set of protocols that operate at each layer, with specific responsibilities for handling data at
that stage.
3. Encapsulation: Both models use the concept of encapsulation, where data from an upper layer is wrapped with a header
(and sometimes a trailer) from the current layer before being passed down to the next lower layer. This continues until
the data is ready for physical transmission.
4. End-to-End Communication: Both models are designed to enable reliable (or unreliable) communication between two
end devices across a network.
5. Packet-based Transmission: Both models break down data into smaller units (packets or segments) for efficient
transmission across the network.
6. Interoperability: Both models aim to promote interoperability, allowing devices and software from different vendors to
communicate effectively.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OSI AND TCP/IP
OSI TCP/IP
Theoretical/Reference, protocol-independent standard for Practical/Implementation, immediate networking needs and became the
Origin/Purpose how networking should work. foundation of the Internet.

Number of Layers 7 Layers: More detailed and granular. 4 or 5 Layers: Simpler, combines several OSI layers.

No separate Presentation or Session layers (their functions are absorbed into

Distinct Presentation and Session layers. Separate Physical the Application layer). Combines Physical and Data Link into a single
Layer Naming/Grouping and Data Link layers. "Network Access" or "Link" layer.

Protocol-independent: It's a conceptual guide, not tied to Protocol-dependent: Built around the TCP/IP protocol suite itself. The
Protocol Dependency specific protocols. Protocols can be swapped out. protocols are the model.
Developed before the proliferation of the Internet, as a
Development post-facto model. Developed alongside the growth of the Internet, as a de facto standard.
Vertical: Emphasizes strict separation of functions for each
Approach layer. Horizontal: More streamlined, with some functionalities shared or combined.
Transport layer guarantees delivery of packets (TCP).
Network layer can be connection-oriented or Transport layer offers both reliable (TCP) and unreliable (UDP) services.
Reliability/Guarantees connectionless. Internet layer is always connectionless (best-effort delivery).
Primarily used as a reference model for teaching,
understanding, and troubleshooting network concepts. The working model for the Internet and most modern networks. It's what's
Usage Less in direct implementation. actually implemented.
Less robust in the face of protocol changes as changes More robust because of its simpler design and adaptability to new
Robustness might ripple through specific layers. technologies within existing layers.

Complexity More complex due to more layers and strict definitions. Simpler, with fewer layers and more integrated functionalities.
 OSI AND TCP/IP
In summary, while the OSI model provides a valuable academic and troubleshooting framework with its meticulous
breakdown of networking functions.
The TCP/IP model is the practical, real-world suite of protocols that underpins the vast majority of today's network
communications, including the entire Internet.
You might learn about the OSI model to understand the theory of networking, but you work with the TCP/IP model when
configuring actual networks.