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AR3621
STEEL, GLASS AND PLASTIC IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
(STUDY MATERIAL)

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SYLLABUS

AR3621

STEEL, GLASS AND PLASTIC IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

OBJECTIVES

 To give an introduction to metals, predominantly iron and in building construction.

 To give an overview about glass and plastics, especially in building envelope/ roofing.
 To give detailed knowledge about the principles, methods of construction and applications of
steel in building construction.
 To enable design and detail using steel, glass and plastic in buildings.

UNIT I METAL, GLASS AND PLASTIC IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 12

Introduction to different types of metals in building construction- iron, steel, aluminium, brass,
etc., Brief history of iron in building construction through examples. Types of iron and their uses in
building. Outline of manufacture of steel and steel alloys. Their properties, types, uses, protection
and finishes. Corrosion of ferrous metals and its prevention. Fire protection of steel. Steel sections
and products for structural and non-structural use including current innovations. Joints in steel-
welding, riveting, bolting. Stainless steel.

Glass as a building material. Brief history of its use through examples. Manufacture, properties and
uses of glass. Types of glass - float glass, cast glass, glass blocks, foamed glass, decorative glass,
solar control, toughened glass, wired glass, laminated glass, fire-resistant glass, glass blocks,
structural glass. Glass and energy efficiency in buildings. Current innovations.

Plastic as a building material. Brief history of their use through examples. Manufacture. properties,
types, uses and application of plastics in building industry. Different types of adhesives and
sealants. Plastic joints. Plastic based materials for roofs such as fibre glass, etc., Specific materials
such as polycarbonate sheet and teflon. Current innovations.

Understanding of product literature and site visits with documentation in the form of sketches/
photos for all the above.

UNIT II STEEL IN BASIC STRUCTURES 21

Construction principles and procedures for structural building components using steel of different
sections. Components to include foundations, columns, beams, staircases, roofs (different types of
trusses, space frames, etc), roofing and glazing material.Connections between the different
components and fixing. Drawings/ models of the principles. Understanding of product literature/
shop drawings. Site visits with documentation in the form of sketches/ drawings/ photos.

UNIT III ADVANCED STEEL STRUCTURES 15

Total structures such as geodesic dome, space frame, diagrid, etc., Outline of prefabrication in steel.
Preco beams, cellular beams, composite slim floor beam. Steel curtain wall glazing. Recent trends in

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roofing materials like corrugated GI Sheets, corrugated hypar shells, pre-coated metal sheets. Cable
Structures.

UNIT IV DESIGN AND DETAILING USING STEEL, GLASS AND PLASTIC 12

A design and detailing exercise involving steel as primary construction material with glass and
plastic in building envelope in an appropriate typology involving a simple scale project. The project
will integrate knowledge from all the previous units. Design and construction details in the form of
sketches/ drawings/ models.

TOTAL: 60 PERIODS

OUTCOME

 Knowledge of properties of ferrous and non ferrous metals as materials for buildings.
 Knowledge of the use of glass and plastics in building industry.
 An understanding of possibilities of steel as an important building construction material.
 Ability to use steel, glass and plastic appropriately in building projects.

TEXTBOOKS

1. Gorenc, Tinyou, Syam, 'Steel Designer’s Handbook', CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi,
Bangalore, 2012.

2. P.C Vargheese, 'Building Materials', Prentice Hall of India, 2015.

3. S.K. Duggal, 'Building Materials', New Age International Publishers, 2016.

4. B.C.Punmia et al, 'Building Construction', Laxmi Publications, 2016.

5. Roy Chudley, Roger Greeno, 'Building Construction Handbook', Routledge, 2010.

REFERENCES

1. Alan Blanc, 'Architecture and Construction in Steel', E and FN Spon, London, 1993

2. Allan Brookes, 'Cladding of Buildings', Taylor and Francis,2008.

3. Mark Lawson, Peter Trebilcock, 'Architectural Design in Steel', Taylor and Francis, 2004.

4. Terri Meyer Boake, 'Understanding Steel Design', Birkhauser, 2011.

5. R.M. Davis, 'Plastics in Building Construction', Battersea College of Technology, Blackie, London,
1966

6. Ralph Monletta, 'Plastics in Architecture– A Guide to acrylic and Polycarbonate', Marcel Dekker
Inc, New York, 1989

7. 'IS 7883. Code of Practice for the Use of Glass in Buildings ', Bureau of Indian Standards,2013.

8. Billie Faircloth, 'Plastics Now: On Architecture’s Relationship to a Continuously Emerging

Material', Routledge, 2015

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UNIT I

METAL, GLASS AND PLASTIC IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Introduction to different types of metals in building construction- iron, steel, aluminium, brass, etc.,
Brief history of iron in building construction through examples. Types of iron and their uses in
building. Outline of manufacture of steel and steel alloys. Their properties, types, uses, protection and
finishes. Corrosion of ferrous metals and its prevention. Fire protection of steel. Steel sections and
products for structural and non-structural use including current innovations. Joints in steel- welding,
riveting, bolting. Stainless steel.

Glass as a building material. Brief history of its use through examples. Manufacture, properties and
uses of glass. Types of glass - float glass, cast glass, glass blocks, foamed glass, decorative glass, solar
control, toughened glass, wired glass, laminated glass, fire-resistant glass, glass blocks, structural
glass. Glass and energy efficiency in buildings. Current innovations.

Plastic as a building material. Brief history of their use through examples. Manufacture. properties,
types, uses and application of plastics in building industry. Different types of adhesives and sealants.
Plastic joints. Plastic based materials for roofs such as fibre glass, etc., Specific materials such as
polycarbonate sheet and teflon. Current innovations.

Understanding of product literature and site visits with documentation in the form of sketches/
photos for all the above.

Introduction

Metals are solid material that are generally hard, shiny, malleable, fusible, ductile, and have good
electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are commonly used in the construction industry due to
their durability and strength to form structural components, pipework, cladding materials and
other components.

Iron

Iron is the chemical element most commonly found on Earth by mass. As iron-bearing rock is
plentiful, iron alloys are popular industrial and construction materials.

Steel

Steel is an alloy of iron and a number of other elements, mainly carbon, that has a high tensile
strength and relatively low cost and is used for structural and other applications in the
construction industry.

Aluminium

Because of its ductility, aluminium can be formed into many shapes and profiles. Aluminium wall
cladding systems are commonly used for building exteriors, with large wall panels requiring fewer
joints, resulting in time-efficient installation. Today, aluminium is the second most used metal in

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buildings after steel, used for roofing, flashing, wall panels, windows and doors, spandrels, and so
on.

Brass

Brass is an alloy of copper and some form of zinc. Its appearance is similar to less refined forms of
gold, but it is much stronger and cheaper.

IRON

Iron as a building material

INTRODUCTION
 Iron(Fe) is the second most common metal on Earth, and the most
widely-used metal.
 It is element26, a transition metal in Group 8.
 Its symbol is Fe, from the Latin word for iron, ferrum.
 It is used a lot because it is very strong and cheap.
 Iron is the main ingredient used to make steel.

HISTORY OF IRON

The Iron Age was a period in human history that started between 1200 B.C. and 600 B.C., depending on
the region, and followed the Stone Age and Bronze Age. During the Iron Age, people across much of
Europe, Asia and parts of Africa began making tools and weapons from iron and steel. For some societies,
including Ancient Greece, the start of the Iron Age was accompanied by a period of cultural decline.
The use of iron became more widespread after people learned how to make steel, a much harder metal, by
heating iron with carbon. The Hittites—who lived during the Bronze Age in what is now Turkey— may
have been the first to make steel.
Iron is the sixth most abundant element in the Universe, and the most common refractory element. It is formed as
the final exothermic stage of stellar nucleosynthesis, by silicon fusion in massive stars.
It makes up about 5% of the Earth's crust, both theEarth's inner and outer core are believed to consist largely of an
iron-nickel alloy constituting 35% of the mass of the Earth as a whole.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF IRON

• Iron is a lustrous, ductile, malleable, silver-gray metal.
• It is known to exist in four distinct crystalline forms.
• Iron rusts in damp air, but not in dry air and dissolves readily in dilute acids.
• It has a very high tensile strength.
• Boiling point : 3000 °C(5,400 °F)
• Melting point : 1,536 °C (2,797 °F)

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APPLICATION AND USES OF IRON

• Iron is the most widely used of all the metals,
accounting for 95%of worldwide metal production.
• Its low cost and high strength make it indispensable in Engineering applications such as -
• The construction of machinery and machine tools, automobiles, the hulls of large ships, and structural components
for buildings.
• Since pure iron is quite soft, it is most commonly combined with alloying elements to make steel.
• Iron is also used for protection from ionizing radiation Cast iron has been used for centuries and was used in
architecture in the pre-modern period

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DISADVANTAGES
• The main disadvantage of iron is that pure iron, and most of its alloys, suffer badly from rust if not protected
in some way.
• Painting, galvanization, passivation, plastic coating and bluing are all used to protect iron from rust by
Excluding water and oxygen or By cathodic protection.

MANUFACTURE OF IRON
• Iron Occurs in nature in Combined form as Oxide, Sulphates, Carbonates, and Silicates etc, Such natural raw
sources from which iron can be extracted economically are called iron ores.
• The Ore, as it is extracted from the earth, is in big lumps containing many other useless or gangue minerals.
• The Size of the ore must be reduced to that within required limits and also the useless association must be
separated.
• The combined Process of reduction in size and removal of impurities is called ore dressing. This is achieved by
passing the ore through a series of crushers and washing mills. The latter wash away clay and other impurities
from the crushed ore.
• The blast furnace is a cylindrical Shell like vessel made of Steel It is 15- 30 m high and 6- 8 m in diameter.
• It tappers towards the top. The lower part appears as an inverted cone. The Interior of the furnace is lined with
refractory bricks, the furnace is provided with
 Hopper for loading at the top.
 the gas outlet again at the top;
 The tuyers for injecting hot gases, near the base;
 Cooling Pipes just around the tuyers.

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TYPES OF IRON

IRON IS AN IMPORTANT BUILDING COMPONENT HAS BEEN USED IN MANY FORMS:

 WROUGHT IRON
 CAST IRON
 STEEL

CAST IRON

Cast iron can be made directly from the molten pig iron or by re-melting pig iron, often along with substantial
quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon (coke) and taking various steps to remove undesirable contaminants.
... After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a holding furnace or ladle.

PROPERTIES
• If placed in salt water, it becomes salt
• Can be hardened by heating
• Cannot be magnetized
• Does not rust easily
• Fusible
• Hard but it is brittle
• Isn’t ductile & cannot be adopted to absorb shocks
• Melting temp is about 1250 deg Celsius
• Shrinks on cooling
• Structure is granular & crystalline
• Lacks plasticity
• Weak in tension & strong in compression
• 2 pieces of cast iron cannot be connected by the process

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• Cast iron.: 2.0 – 4.5% Carbon content

• Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements.
• Great for the environment. Can be recycled more easily than PVC.
• It is strong in compression, but weak in tension and bending.
• Prefabrication enabled portability—entire buildings could be constructed in one place and shipped all
over the world.
• Its strength and stiffness deteriorate when subjected to high heat.
• Its structure is crystalline and relatively brittle.
• They don't echo when water moves through as compared to PVC, because of dense material.
• It does not rust.

Applications of cast iron

• It is used in making pipes, to carry suitable fluids.

• It is used in making different machines.
• It is used in making automotive parts.
• It is used in making pots pans and utensils.
• It is used in making anchor for ships.
• Making cisterns, water pipes, gas pipes and sewers, sanitary fittings.
• Making ornamental castings such as brackets, gates, lampposts, spiral staircases etc.
• Making parts of machinery
• Manufacturing compression members like columns, bases columns, etc.
• Preparing agriculturalimplements
• Preparing rail chairs,
• carriage wheels etc.

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ARCHITECTURAL USES

• Its use gradually spread from architectural elements like shutter and door frames to facades because it is
relatively
1. Inexpensive,
2. Durable &
3. Easily cast into a variety of shapes.
• As balusters, columns & Arches
• For transporting water, storm drains and sewage.
• Ornate facades.

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CAST IRON BEAMS

GENERAL USES

 Construction of machines and structures


(High Tensile Strength)
For a garbage disposal because it is highly resistant to the grinding and abrasions. (The process of wearing down
away by means of friction)

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FAILURE

moisture or air.

damage

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WROUGHT IRON
Wrought Iron Is A form of Iron With A Very Low Carbon Content (0.25%) In Contrast To Cast iron (2.1% to
4%).
"Grain" Resembling Wood, Is Visible When It Is Bent To The Point Of Failure. Wrought Iron Is Tough,

Malleable, Ductile And Easily Welded.

Purest form of iron in which the total impurities do not exceed 0.5%. Wrought iron is much more expensive to

produce than cast.

Most wrought iron work are joined by riveting.

MAJOR EXAMPLE ARE-

 Iron pillar at Delhi, India, containing 98% wrought iron.
 The Eiffel tower

PROPERTIES

o It can be used to form temporary magnets but cannot be magnetised permanently.

o It fuses with difficulty.
o high elasticity and tensile strength
o Unaffected by saline water.
o If pulled apart, the fracture shows a fibrous break.
o Capable of bearing 24 tons per square inch ultimate tensile strain, & 20 tons of compression and
shearing.

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USES
 Used for rivets, chains, ornamental iron work, railway couplings, bridges, water and steam pipes.
 Roofing sheets, corrugated sheets.
 It is manufactured for bolts and nuts, horse shoe bars, handrails, straps for timer roof trusses, boiler tubes,
roofing sheets, etc.

EXTERNAL USE

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STEEL
INTRODUCTION

 Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon with a small percentage of 0.1 to 1.5%.

 If the percentage of carbon exceeds 1.5, the material will become more like cast Iron because the carbon will
then tend to occur as Graphite (free Carbon). On the other hand, with decrease in the carbon content the
material would resemble more to wrought iron or the pure Iron.

 There are many different types of steel classified on the basis of the type of metal used and the percentage
content of the metal in the particular type of steel.

 The best thing about steel is that it has very high compressive strength of Cast Iron and very high tensile
strength of Wrought Iron. As such it is suited for all types of situation as a structural material.

 Steel is a versatile material of modern age. Its properties can be varied over a wide range by varying its
composition and by subjecting it to various mechanical and heat treatment process.


HISTORY OF STEEL

The development of steel can be traced back 4000 years to the beginning of the Iron Age. Proving to be harder
and stronger than bronze, which had previously been the most widely used metal, iron began to displace bronze in
weaponry and tools.

For the following few thousand years, however, the quality of iron produced would depend as much on the ore
available as on the production methods.

By the 17th century, iron's properties were well understood, but increasing urbanization in Europe demanded a
more versatile structural metal. And by the 19th century, the amount of iron being consumed by expanding
railroads provided metallurgists with the financial incentive to find a solution to iron's brittleness and inefficient
production processes.

Undoubtedly, though, the most breakthrough in steel history came in 1856 when Henry Bessemer developed an
effective way to use oxygen to reduce the carbon content in iron: The modern steel industry was born.

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MANUFACTURING OF STEEL

Steel is at present manufactured by many processes that fall under three board heading namely bessemer process,
the open hearth process and the electric process.

BESSEMER PROCESS

 This method takes its names after Bessemer Converter which is used for steel making.
 The convertor is an egg or pear shaped vessel supported on trunions in such a way that it can be tilted
and even rotated about its horizontal axis. The inner walls of the converter are lined with a refractory
material.
 When the refractory bricks are made up of clay or silica, the lining is acidic in character.
 The process is then called acidic Bessemer Process, but when the lining is made up of lime of
magnesium bricks, it is basic in character. The process is then called Bessemer Process.
 The Raw material for making steel in the Bessemer Process is Pig Iron. In the acid process, the pig iron
must be free from phosphorous and sulphur.
 In the basic process, however, these impurities are tolerated, and removed by the addition of lime.


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Following are the main stages in manufacturing of steel:

Stage 1 : The Bessemer converter is first tilted to a horizontal position. Molten pig Iron is then fed
directly from the furnace. Air is also simultaneously blown into the converter through the tuyers and the
converter is straightened up.

Stage 2 : Air is kept blowing continuously through the charge. During this process, most of the impurities
of the pig iron like silicon, carbon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorous get oxidized on reacting with
iron oxide formed as a result of reaction of Iron and air. 2Fe + Si = 2Fe + SiO2 FeO + Mn = Fe + MnO

Stage 3: When Oxidation Process has progressed sufficiently, predetermined quantities of ferrmanganese
or spiegleisen are added. This material serves two purposes:

 It supplies carbon content for the steel

 It deoxidized any iron oxide left during oxidation of other impurities.
Stage 4: Converter is then tilted into the discharge position and molten metal poured into moulds of
special rectangular shapes. The solidified steel known as ingot, which is the starting material for
preparing other steel shapes.

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CORROSION PROTECTION OF STEEL

Cost effective corrosion protection of structural steelwork should present little difficulty for common applications
and environments if the factors that affect durability are recognised at the outset.
There are many steel structures that have continued in use satisfactorily for many years even in adverse
conditions. The first major iron structure, the bridge in Coalbrookdale UK, has survived over 200 years whilst the
Forth rail bridge over 100 years old is legendary. Today, modern durable protective coatings are available which,
when used appropriately, allow extended maintenance intervals and improved performance.
The key to success lies in recognising the corrosivity of the environment to which the structure will be exposed
and in defining clear and appropriate coating specifications. Where steel is in a dry heated interior environment
the risk of corrosion is insignificant and no protective coating is necessary. Conversely, a steel structure exposed
to an aggressive environment needs to be protected with a high performance treatment and may need to be
designed with maintenance in mind if extended life is required.
The optimum protection treatment, which combines appropriate surface preparation, suitable coating materials,
required durability and minimum cost, is achievable using modern surface treatment technology.

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TYPES OF STEEL
 Steel is the most suitable building material among the metallic materials.
 Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon. 
 It is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low
cost.
 Classified into
o Carbon Steel
o Alloy Steel

CARBON STEEL

In The Basis Of Carbon Content Steel Are Classified

LOW CARBON STEEL (Dead mild steel)

• Also known as mild steel

• Contain 0.15% -0.32% carbon
• Tough, ductile and malleable
• Easily joined and welded
• Poor resistance to corrosion
• Often used a general purpose material, Nails,
screws, car bodies,
• It is also used in the form of rolled sections
,reinforcing bars, roof coverings etc.

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MEDIUM CARBON STEEL

 Carbon content in the range of 0.3 –0.6%.
 Can be heat treated -austenitizing, quenching and then tempering.
 Medium carbon steels have low hardenability .
 Addition of Cr, Ni, Mo improves the heat treating capacity .
 Heat treated alloys are stronger but have lower ductility .
 Typical applications –Railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts.

HIGH CARBON STEEL

• Also known as ‘tool steel’ Contain 0.55%-1.5% carbon
• Very hard but offers Higher Strength Less ductile and less malleable.
• Hand tools (chisels, punches),Saw blades.

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ALLOY STEEL

Alloy steels are made by combining carbon steel with one or several alloying elements, such as manganese,
silicon, nickel, titanium, copper, chromium and aluminum. These metals are added to produce specific properties
that are not found in regular carbon steel.

Alloy steels are broken down in to two groups :

 High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels

 Low-alloy Steels

High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels

 High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels, or micro alloyed steels, are designed to provide better mechanical
properties and/or greater resistance to atmospheric corrosion than conventional carbon steels.
 Are designed to meet specific mechanical properties rather than a chemical composition.
 The HSLA steels have low carbon contents (0.05-0.25% C) in order to produce adequate formability and
weldability, and they have manganese contents up to 2.0%.
 Small quantities of chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, nitrogen, vanadium.

Low-alloySteels

 Low-alloy steels constitute a category of ferrous materials that exhibit mechanical properties superior to
plain carbon steels as the result of additions of alloying elements such as nickel, chromium, and
molybdenum.
 Total alloy content can range from 2.07% up to levels just below that of
stainlesssteels,whichcontainaminimumof10%Cr.
 For many low-alloy steels, the primary function of the alloying elements is to increase harden ability in
order to optimize mechanical properties and toughness after heat treatment.

USES OF ALLOYS
 Over 90% of metal use is in the form of alloys.
 Alloys are used because their chemical and physical properties are superior for an application than that of
the pure element components.
 Typical improvements include corrosion resistance, improved wear, special electrical or magnetic
properties, and heat resistance.
 Other times, alloys are used because they retain the key properties of component metals, yet are less
expensive.

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NICKEL STEEL
 Composition-(Nickel 3.5%)
 Capabilities. Nickel alloys are readily welded by either the gas or arc methods. It can be
machined,forged,cast,andeasilyformed.

Properties
o Moreelastic
o Higher tensile strength
o Lesser brittle than mild steel Improved hardness and ductility Limitations.
o Nickel cannot withstand heat above 600°Fahrenheit. It oxidizes very slowly in the presence of moisture or
corrosive gases.
o The nickel steel alloy has more corrosion as compared to steel. The use of nickel increases corrosion in steel.

Uses of Nickel Steel Alloy

 Nickel steel alloy is used for making storage cylinders for liquefied gases and for other low temperature
applications.
 Nickel steel alloy is used for heavy forgings, turbine blades, highly stressed screws, bolts, and nuts.
 It is used for making shafts, gears, propeller shafts, and keys.

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 Automobile and airplane parts.
 It is widely used in combination with chromium and molybdenum for cams, chain pins, springs, connecting
rods and their bolts, crankshafts, rolling element, and bearings.

TUNGSTEN STEEL ALLOY

 Composition-Tungsten(14-20%).
 Tungsten steel is a type of metal alloy made from a combination of tungsten and iron.
 High cutting hardness and resistant to abrasion.
 The addition of tungsten to the alloy gives it increased hardness and resistance to heat, allowing equipment
made from tungsten steel to maintain high performance and to resist wear at high temperatures.
 Tungsten steel is valued for its industrial uses as a tool steel and is commonly used in industrial tools and
machinery used for working other metals, such as dies and cutting tool

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Fire protection of steel

One of the most popular fireproofing methods is using an intumescent coating. These coatings provide
structural steel members with a fireproof coating that helps them stand up to the heat produced by a
fire. These coatings expand as much as 100 times in thickness and create a buffer between the steel
and the fire.

STAINLESS STEEL
 Stainless steels generally contain between 10-20% chromium as the main alloying element are valued for
high corrosion resistance.
 With over 11% chromium, steel is about 200 times more resistant to corrosion than mild steel.
 They are very hard and tough, high elastic and ultimate strength, acid and rust proof.
 These steels can be divided into three groups based on their crystalline structure:

THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

 The manufacture of stainless steel involves a series of processes. First step in making stainless steel:
 The raw materials are melted together in an electric furnace. This step
 usually is 8 to 12 hours of intense heat.
 Next, the mixture is cast into one of several shapes, these include
 blooms (rectangular shapes), billets (round or square shapes) and slabs.
 After steel goes through forming operations, beginning with hot rolling,
 in which the steel is heated and passed through huge rolls.
 Blooms and billets are formed into bar and wire, while slabs are formed
 into plate, strip, and sheet. Bars are available in all grades and come in rounds, squares, octagons, or hexagons.
 After the stainless steel is formed, most types must go through an annealing step. Annealing is a heat
treatment in which the steel is heated and cooled under controlled conditions to relieve internal stresses
and soften the metal.

 Annealing causes a scale or build-up to form on the steel. The scale can be removed using several processes.
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One of the most common methods:

 Pickling, uses a nitric-hydrofluoric acid bath to descale the steel.
 Electro cleaning, an electric current is applied to the surface using a cathode and phosphoric acid, and the
scale is removed.


 Bar and wire go through further forming steps (more hot rolling, forging, or extruding) after the initial hot
rolling before being annealed and descaled.
 Sheet and strip, on the other hand, go through an initial annealing and descaling step immediately after hot
rolling.
 After cold rolling (passing through rolls at a relatively low temperature), which produces a further reduction
in thickness, sheet and strip are annealed and descaled again. A final cold rolling step then prepares the steel
for final processing.
 Surface finish is an important specification for stainless steel products. A smooth surface as obtained by polishing also
provides better corrosion resistance. There are a variety of methods used for finishing:
 A dull finish is produced by hot rolling, annealing, and descaling.
 A bright finish is obtained by first hot rolling and then cold rolling on polished rolls.
 A highly reflective finish is produced by cold rolling in combination with annealing in a controlled atmosphere
furnace, by grinding with abrasives, or by buffing a finely ground surface.
 After the stainless steel in its various forms are packed and shipped to the fabricator or end user, a variety of other
processes are needed.
 Further shaping is accomplished using a variety of methods, such as roll forming, press forming, forging, press drawing,
and extrusion.
 Additional heat treating (annealing), machining, and cleaning processes are also often required.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF STAINLESS STEELS

The characteristics of the broad group of stainless steels can be viewed as compared to the more familiar plain
carbon "mild" steels. As a generalisation the stainless steels have:
 Higher work hardening rate
 Higher strength and hardness
 Higher corrosion resistance
 Lower magnetic response (austenitic only)
 Must retain corrosion resistant surface in the finished product.
 Higher ductility
 Higher hot strength
 Higher cryogenic toughness

APPLICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEEL

Stainless steels are used in an almost endless number of applications and industries:
 Bulk materials handling equipment
 Building exteriors and roofing automobile components (exhaust,
 Trim/decorative, engine, fasteners, tubing)
 Chemical processing plants (scrubbers and heat exchangers)
 Pulp and paper manufacturing
 Petroleum refining,
 Water supply piping
 Consumer products
 Marine and shipbuilding
 Pollution control
 Sporting goods (snow skis)
 Transportation (rail cars)

26
 27

STEEL SECTIONS
Standard sections
1. Beam joints
2. Angles
3. Channels
4. Tees
5. Bolts
6. Rivets
7. Welding

SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

 The cross sectional properties of a steel member are identified by its shape.
 The various names given to the members of different shapes are Angles ; T-section; I section; Z-section;
Channel; H-section….and so on .
 Each shape has its particular use in steel structures.

BARS
Types according to shapes:
1. Round bars
2. Square bars
3. Hexagonal bars
4. Flat bars

ROUND BARS

o Used as reinforcement in concrete structures, construction of steel grillage works, etc.

o Available in circular cross sections with diameter varying from 5 mm to 25 mm with corresponding
weights per metre length as 1.47 N and 37.28 N respectively.

27
 28

SQUARE BARS

 Used in construction of steel grillage works for windows.

 Available in cross sections with sizes varying from 5 mm to 25 mm with corresponding weights per metre
length as 1.96 N and 8.07 N respectively.


FLAT BARS
 Used in construction of steel grillage works for windows and gates.
 Available in widths varying from 10 mm to 400 mm
thicknesses varying from 3 mm to 40 mm

HEXAGONAL BARS

28
 29

ANGLE SECTIONS

 Used especially in the construction of steel roof trusses and filler joist floors.
 May be of equal or unequal legs.

CHANNELS

 Used as structural members of steel-framed structures.

 Consists of web with two equal flanges.
 The Bureau of Indian Standards has Classified channel sections as junior channel and medium channel and
accordingly, they are designated as I.S.J.C., I.S.L.C., and I.S.M.C. respectively.


T-SECTIONS

 Widely used as members of steel roof trusses and to form built up sections.
 It is designated by overall dimension and thickness.

29
 30

I- SECTIONS

 These are properly known as the rolled steel joists or beams.

 It consist of two flanges connected by a web.
 It is designed by overall depth, width of the flange b and weight per meter length.

CONNECTIONS IN STEEL WORK

BOLTS

Used when desired to have temporary connections.

May also be adopted when it is difficult to use rivets as connecting members.
Bolts are better suited for tension applications.
Holes are made in members to be connected and dia is kept about 0.50 mm larger than that of external dia of bolt.

30
 31

RIVETS

 A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener.

 Before being installed, a rivet consists of a smooth cylindrical shaft with a head on one end.
 The end opposite the head is called the tail.
 On installation the rivet is placed in a punched or drilled hole, and the tail is upset, or bucked (i.e.,
deformed), so that it expands to about 1.5 times the original shaft diameter, holding the rivet in place.

WELDING
 A welding joint is a point or edge where two or more pieces of metal or plastic are joined together.
 They are formed by welding two or more work pieces (metal or plastic) according to a particular geometry.
 Five types of joints: butt, corner, edge, lap, and tee.
 These configurations may have various configurations at the joint where actual welding can occur.
 32

Types:

TYPES OF WELDING

Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding:

The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and forced together by external pressure (Ex) -
Resistance welding

Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding:

The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify (Ex)- Gas welding, Arc welding

CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES:

 Gas welding(Oxy- Acetylene)

 Arc welding(Metal Arc)
 Resistance welding
 Solid state welding
 Thermo-chemical welding
 Low Temperature welding
 33

GAS WELDING:

Gas Welding is a fusion welding process, in which the heat for welding is obtained by the combustion of
oxygen and fuel the gas may be acetylene ,hydrogen or propene .

Types: • Oxy- Acetylene • Air-Acetylene • Oxy-Hydrogen • Oxy- Fuel

Advantages:
 Portable and most versatile process.
 Better control over the temperature.
 Suitable to weld dissimilar matter.
 Low cost & maintenance.

Disadvantages:
 Not suitable for heavy section.
 Less working temperature of gas flame.
 Slow rate of heating.

ARC WELDING
―Arc welding is a fusion welding process in which the heat required to fuse the metal is obtain from the electric
arc between the base metal and an electrode.
 34

Types:
 Metal Arc Welding
 Submerged Arc Welding
 Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
 Metal Inert Gas Welding

 Advantages
o Most efficient way to join metals
o Lowest-cost joining method
o Affords lighter weight through better utilization of materials
o Joins all commercial metals
o Provides design flexibility

 Disadvantages
o Manually applied, therefore high labor cost.
o Need high energy causing danger
o Not convenient for disassembly.
o Defects are hard to detect at joints.

 Applications:
o It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies.
o Aircraft Frames
o Railway Wagons
o Machine Frames
o Structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building etc.
 35
GLASS

Glass is an inorganic, homogeneous and amorphous substance obtained through the cooling of a molten mass.
Its main qualities are the transparency and hardness. The glass has uncountable applications in the most varied
industries, given its inalterability characteristics, hardness, resistance and thermal, optical and acoustic
properties, becoming one of the few materials yet irreplaceable, being every time more present in the
technological development researches for the well- being of the man.

Qualities & Features:

 Recyclability
 Transparence (permeable to light)
 Hardness
 Non absorbance
 Great dielectric insulator
 Low thermal conductivity
 Abundant resources in the nature and durability
 36


 37
Composition of Glass

it’s not a single compound and its difficult to give it a particular chemical formula
- commonly expressed as combination of alkali oxides, metal oxides and silica dioxides aX2O, bYO,
6SiO2 Where,

a, b are no. of molecules;

X is an atom of an alkali metal i.e. Na, K etc.
Y is an atom of a bivalent metal i.e. Ca, Pb etc. For example,

Soda-lime Glass - Na2O, CaO, 6SiO2 Potash-lead Glass - K2O, PbO, 6SiO2

Important properties of glass

1. Absorbs, refracts and transmits light

2. Amorphous substance having no definite crystalline structure – which makes it easy to fuse it and
mould it as many times as possible
3. No sharp melting point
4. Does not react with water and other atmospheric agents – but is affected by alkalis
5. Characteristics, both physical and chemical, vary considerably with addition of other materials (B2O3, if
added with glass makes its alkali resistant)
6. Excellent electrical insulator at elevated temperatures
7. Easy to clean and maintain it from stains
8. Easy to add colour to glass
9. Considerable compressive strength up to certain point but does not deform but breaks – highly brittle
substance
10. Thermal conductivity is less

Manufacturing of Glass
 38

Stage I – Collection of raw materials depending on the type of the glass:

Say, Soda-lime Glass preparation needs Chalk (CaO), Soda ash (Na2O) and Clean sand (SiO2)
Cullet in the form of waste glass or broken glass is added to increase the fusibility as well as to prevent the loss
of alkali through volatilisation.
Decolourisers are also added to eliminate the yellowish tint of Ferric Oxides and greenish tint of Ferrous
Oxides – Antimony Oxide, Arsenic Oxide, Cobalt Oxide, Manganese Oxide, Nickel Oxide are the most
commonly used decolourisers.

Stage II – Preparation of batch

- By adding ingredients in correct proportion, and mixing them uniformly.

Stage III – Melting in furnace

- In pot furnace or tank furnace depending on the scale of operation – small scale in pot and large scale in tank furnace

- Refractory lining of fire clay.

Stage IV – Fabrication of glass

Float Glass – makes the molten glass float over liquid tin;
Plate Glass – rolled over either two layers of roller or combination of plate and rolled Cast glass – cast by

pouring molten glass or pressing them in moulds.

Stage V – Annealing of glass

- It’s of process of making glass objects cool down gradually from a very high temperature

- Due to high thermal insulation of glass rapid cooling creates thermal stress between inner and outer layers of glass –
leading to a state of strain

- Makes glass highly vulnerable to minor shocks and disturbances – thus annealing is a crucial process

Flue method of annealing – glass objects being passed through a flue with varying temperature allowing it to
cool down gradually – a constant process applied for large scale annealing.
Oven method of annealing – temperature variation achieved by cooling the oven itself from high
temperature – an intermittent process suitable for small scale annealing.
 39
Test for waviness

- Apply a coating of silver on one surface protected by metallic copper film (similar to making of mirror out of
glass)
- Sketch comprising broad straight bands at 45˚ to the horizontal in a rectangle waved in front of the mirror
which should be vertically placed.
Image of bands free from distortion means that the glass is free from waviness or ‘distortion free’.

TYPES OF GLASS

There are many different types of glass, each with its own unique properties and
applications. Here are some of the most common:

Float glass
This is the most basic type of glass, also known as annealed glass. It is made by floating
molten glass on a bed of molten tin, which creates a smooth, flat surface. Float glass is
the most common type of glass used for windows, mirrors, and tabletops.

Float glass
Cast glass
This type of glass is made by pouring molten glass into a mold and allowing it to cool.
Cast glass can be thicker and heavier than float glass, and it can also have a textured
surface. It is often used for decorative purposes, such as in sculptures and art glass.

Cast glass
 40

Glass blocks
These are solid blocks of glass that are often used for decorative purposes or to create
translucent walls. They can be clear, colored, or patterned.

Glass blocks

Foamed glass
This type of glass is made by adding a foaming agent to molten glass, which creates a
lightweight, cellular structure. Foamed glass is a good insulator and is often used in
building applications.

Foamed glass

Decorative glass
This is a broad term that encompasses any type of glass that is used for aesthetic
purposes. It can include stained glass, etched glass, fused glass, and many other types.
 41

Decorative glass

Solar control glass

This type of glass is designed to reduce the amount of solar heat that enters a building. It
can be coated with a film or have a special tint that reflects or absorbs infrared radiation.

Solar control glass

Toughened glass
Also known as tempered glass, this type of glass is much stronger than float glass. It is
made by heating float glass to a high temperature and then rapidly cooling it. This
 42
process creates a compressive stress on the surface of the glass, making it more resistant
to breaking. Tempered glass is used in applications where safety is important, such as
shower doors, car windows, and architectural glass.

Toughened glass

Wired glass
This type of glass has a wire mesh embedded in it, which helps to hold the glass together
if it breaks. Wired glass was once commonly used in fire-resistant applications, but it has
been largely replaced by other types of glass that are safer and more energy-efficient.

Wired glass
 43
Laminated glass
This type of glass is made by bonding two or more layers of glass together with a plastic
interlayer. The interlayer holds the glass together if it breaks, making it safer than
tempered glass. Laminated glass is used in applications where safety and security are
important, such as windshields, bullet-resistant glass, and architectural glass.

Laminated glass

Fire-resistant glass
This type of glass is designed to resist fire for a specific period of time. It can be made from
a variety of materials, including laminated glass, ceramic glass, and wired glass. Fire-
resistant glass is used in applications where fire safety is important, such as in doors,
windows, and partitions.

Fire-resistant glass
 44
Structural glass

This type of glass is designed to withstand structural loads. It is often used in buildings and
other structures to create walls, floors, and other elements. Structural glass can be made
from a variety of materials, including tempered glass, laminated glass, and heat-
strengthened glass.

Structural glass

Tempered glass
Also known as toughened glass, this type of glass is much stronger than float glass. It is
made by heating float glass to a high temperature and then rapidly cooling it. This
process creates a compressive stress on the surface of the glass, making it more resistant
to breaking. Tempered glass is used in applications where safety is important, such as
shower doors, car windows, and architectural glass.

Tempered glass
 45
Double-glazed glass
This type of glass consists of two panes of glass separated by a space filled with air or
argon gas. The space between the panes acts as an insulator, keeping the heat in during
the winter and the heat out during the summer. Double-glazed glass is more energy-
efficient than single-glazed glass and is commonly used in windows and doors.

Double-glazed glass

Tinted glass
This type of glass has a colored tint that absorbs some of the light that passes through it.
Tinted glass is used to reduce glare, solar heat gain, and fading. It is also used for privacy
and aesthetic reasons.

Tinted glass

Low-emissivity (low-e) glass

This type of glass has a coating that reflects infrared radiation, which helps to keep the
heat in during the winter and the heat out during the summer. Low-e glass is more
energy-efficient than regular glass and is commonly used in windows and doors.
 46

Low-e glass

Insulated glass units (IGUs)

These are prefabricated units that combine two or more panes of glass with a spacer and
a desiccant to create an insulating air gap. IGUs are more energy-efficient than single-
pane glass and are commonly used in windows and doors.

Insulated glass units (IGUs)

Edge Works
 Safety
 Aesthetics
 47

GLASS AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDINGS

Reflective glasses come with reflective coating that filters heat and let optimum light into the
building. It reduces the heat gain inside the building, and thus reduces electricity and
cooling costs. It allows optimum light (natural daylighting) inside the building, and thus
reduces the cost for artificial Lighting.

ADVANTAGES

• The glass that absorb, refracts or transmits light. It can be made transparent or translucent
so it adds extraordinary beauty to the building.
• Glass transmits up to 80% of available natural day light in both directions without any
yellowing, clouding or weathering.
• The glass is fully weather resistance so it can withstand the effects of the wind, rain, or the
sun and can retain its appearance and integrity.
• Glass does not rust so it does not degrade gradually by chemical and surrounding
environment effects.
• Glass has a smooth glossy surface so it is dust proof and can be easily cleaned.
• Glass allows natural light to enter the house even if doors/windows are closed so thus it
saves energy and also lowers the electricity bills, brightens up the room and brings out the
beauty of the homeland most importantly it boosts the mood of occupant.
• It is an excellent insulator against electricity.It is impossible to conduct an electric current
under the influence of an electric field.
• Available in varieties of colours and when we combine the glass sheet in laminated or
insulated units, they change in colour and appearance.
• Glass is 100% recyclable and it does not degrade during the recycling process, hence it can
be recycled again and again without loss of quality or purity.
• The glass is excellent abrasion resistant so it will resist surface wear caused by flat rubbing
 48
and contact with another material.
• It is unaffected by noise, air, water and most of the acids hence discoloration, alteration in
the degree of shine, softening, swelling, the detachment of coatings and blistering will not
occur. Glass also protects against outside barriers.
• Glass has the ability to make the structure look more stunning, sophisticated and adds
beauty to the building. It is used to achieve the architectural view for external decoration.
• Whenused in the interiors, glass saves space.

DISADVANTAGES
• Manufacturing of glass is high energy consuming process due to high temperature required
for processing the raw materials, and it is expensive material and ultimately increases the
cost of a building.
• The glass is very rigid and brittle materials so when it is subjected to stress, it breaks without
significant (strain). Broken pieces of Glass may be sharp and chances of injury are very
high.
• The glass is less impact resistant so the capability of the glass to withstand a suddenly
applied load is very poor.
• The glass is affected by external hydrofluoric acid hence sometime etching is appear on
glass surface.
• The Glass is affected by alkalis ions. Alkali solution simply dissolves a glass surface and as
long as the supply of alkali is sufficient, this type of corrosion takes place at a uniform rate.
• Glass offers superior transparency of heat hence it is to be balanced with its relatively low R-
value (energy saving). R-value is considered as one of the most important factors for
insulating.
• Use of glass also enhances the cost of security.
• The glass is also unsafe for earthquake proven area. Unfortunately, there is no such Glass as
an earthquake proof material but costly treatment makes them withstand against
earthquake.
• The glass is poor in terms of heat preservation, leading to higher costs in the operation of air-
conditioners.
• Though many feel that once you provide glass in a building façade, you are free from
painting expenses for ever but this is not fine. You may have to spend equally for cleaning
of glass. Sometimes it is as costly as expose painting. Again, you may paint building once in
a 5 years but for glass you have to clean every year.
• Glass absorbs heat and hence act as a greenhouse and hence not suitable in warm and
hot climates. It will increase A\C load and more energy consideration for air conditioning.
• Glare is a major problem in glass façade building.

SIGNIFICANCE
Glass is the dominating material in modern day Architecture which places optical emphases
and Provides for numerous technical functions. The glass industry offers glazing with
individual Technical features that can be used for heat, solar, or Sound protection, as design
components, safety glass, Or as a part of building design systems. Glass is no longer just a
filler element, but is rather nowadays also used for supporting or enveloping Purposes.

The main focus in building is usually on saving energy, especially in these challenging times
of increasing prices for energy and raw materials. Glass plays an important Role in it. Hence
promoting the concept of sustainability.
 49

PLASTIC
INTRODUCTION
The word plastic itself comes from the Greek word plasticos, which means to be able to be shaped or molded
by heat. All plastics are polymers of carbon compounds. They are compounds of carbon with other elements
like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc. They are called plastics because their resins are capable of plastic
deformation when heat and pressure are applied on them. Their molecular structure consists of long chains of
large molecules loosely tangled together. It has toughness and good tensile strength. A large number of
plastics can be manufactured by changing the composition, length and character of their chains. There are
more than 10,000 varieties of plastics today and their number is increasing everyday as new ones are being
invented.

PLASTIC AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

Examples of how plastics are used in construction:
 Pipes and plumbing: PVC pipes are commonly used for drainage, water supply, and sewer lines.
 Roofing: PVC and PE sheets are used for roofing membranes, shingles, and flashing.
 Flooring: Vinyl flooring is a popular choice for residential and commercial applications.
 Siding: PVC and composite siding materials are durable and low-maintenance alternatives to wood
siding.
 Windows and doors: PVC and composite window and door frames are energy-efficient and weather-
resistant.
 Insulation: Foam plastics are used as insulation in walls, roofs, and floors.
 Waterproofing: Geomembranes made from PE are used to line landfills, ponds, and canals.

BRIEF HISTORY OF PLASTICS

The first plastic was invented by Alexander Perkes in 1865 was called Parkesite. It was produced by mixing
camphor and alcohol with nitrocellulose. Thereafter, Bakelite was discovered in 1909 by Bakeland. Later,
Pollak prepared a plastic from urea and formaldehyde (amino plastics) which was transparent like glass and
unbreakable.

MANUFACTURE OF PLASTICS
The process of transforming raw materials into the plastic products we see every day involves several key
steps:

1. Raw Material Extraction

Fossil Fuels: Most plastics are derived from fossil fuels like natural gas and oil. These are processed into
simpler molecules called monomers.
Biomass: Bioplastics, a more sustainable alternative, use plant-based materials like starch or cellulose as
 50
monomers.

2. Polymerization
Monomers are linked together through chemical reactions to form long chains called polymers, the building
blocks of plastic. Different types of monomers and polymerization methods create various plastic types with
unique properties.

3. Additives
To enhance specific properties like flexibility, strength, or color, various additives are blended with the
polymer. Stabilizers, plasticizers, and colorants are some common examples.

4. Shaping and Forming

Depending on the desired product, the molten plastic undergoes different shaping processes:
Injection Molding: Used for complex shapes, molten plastic is injected into a mold and cooled. (Think toys,
bottles, electronics)
Extrusion: Continuous profiles like pipes, tubes, and films are created by forcing the plastic through a die.
Blow Molding: Air inflates molten plastic inside a mold to form hollow objects like bottles and containers.
Thermoforming: Sheets of plastic are heated and molded into shapes for packaging, trays, and signage.
5. Finishing and Quality Control
The shaped plastic undergoes cooling, cutting, and finishing processes to achieve the final form.
Rigorous quality checks ensure the product meets specifications and safety standards.
6. Recycling (optional)
Although not all plastics are readily recyclable, some can be reintroduced into the manufacturing process,
reducing reliance on virgin materials.

Environmental Considerations:
Plastic manufacturing raises concerns about resource depletion, greenhouse gas emissions, and plastic waste
pollution.
Sustainable practices like using recycled materials, bioplastics, and cleaner production methods are crucial
for addressing these challenges.

PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC
 Lightweight: Most plastics are lighter than water and many other materials, making them ideal for
weight-sensitive applications.
 Durable: Many plastics resist wear and tear, corrosion, and chemicals, ensuring long-lasting products.
 Versatile: They can be molded into virtually any shape, making them suitable for diverse
applications.
 Insulators: They are generally good insulators of heat and electricity, providing thermal and electrical
protection.
 51
 Water-resistant: Many plastics are impervious to water, making them suitable for outdoor use and
food packaging.
 Cost-effective: Compared to other materials, plastics can be relatively inexpensive to produce,
making them accessible for numerous applications.
 Transparency: Some plastics like PET and polycarbonate are transparent, allowing for clear
visibility.
 Opacity: Others like HDPE and PVC are opaque, providing complete blockage of light.
 Flexibility: Certain plastics like LDPE and PVC are flexible, bending easily without breaking.
 Rigidity: Some, like ABS and PP, are rigid and maintain their shape under pressure.
 Strength: High-density polyethylene (HDPE) and nylon are examples of strong plastics with high
load-bearing capacity.
 Flame resistance: Some plastics, like fire-retardant ABS, have better resistance to ignition and flame
spread.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS
Based on the arrangement of molecules and the type of chemical bonds holding them together, there are two
main categories, namely
Thermosetting plastics: Have highly cross-linked molecular structures, forming a permanent network once
cured. They cannot be remelted and exhibit high strength, rigidity, and heat resistance. (Examples: epoxy
resins, polyurethane foams, bakelite)
Thermoplastics: Have linear or branched molecular chains that can move more freely. They can be softened
and reshaped upon heating above their glass transition temperature. They offer good flexibility, toughness,
and recyclability. (Examples: polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, PVC)

TYPES OF PLASTIC
 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET or PETE)
 High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
 Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polystyrene (PS)
 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
 Nylon
 Polycarbonate (PC)
 Polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG)
 52
USES OF PLASTICS
Plastics are ubiquitous in the modern building industry, playing a crucial role in various aspects due to their
versatility, affordability, and durability. Here are some of the key uses of plastics in buildings:
Structural Applications:

 Pipes and conduits: PVC, polyethylene, and other plastics are widely used for plumbing, drainage,
electrical wiring, and other applications due to their corrosion resistance, lightweight nature, and ease of
installation.

 Fiber-reinforced plastics (FRPs): These composites combine the strength of fibers like glass or
carbon with the flexibility of plastics, making them ideal for lightweight beams, roofing panels, and
other structural elements.
Interior and Exterior Elements:

 Windows and doors: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and uPVC are popular choices for window frames and
doors due to their affordability, weather resistance, and low maintenance requirements.

 Flooring: Vinyl flooring is known for its durability, water resistance, and variety of styles, making it
suitable for high-traffic areas like kitchens and bathrooms.

 Roofing: Plastic membranes and shingles offer lightweight, waterproof roofing solutions for various
building types.

 Wall Cladding: PVC panels and other plastic claddings provide weatherproof, low-maintenance
exterior finishes for buildings.
Other Applications:

 Insulation: Polystyrene, polyurethane, and other plastic foams are widely used for thermal insulation in
walls, roofs, and floors, improving energy efficiency.

 Sealants and adhesives: Various plastic-based sealants and adhesives are used for waterproofing,
bonding different materials, and providing airtightness.

 Interior finishes: Plastic laminates, trims, and moldings offer affordable and decorative options for
countertops, cabinets, and other interior elements.
While plastics offer numerous benefits in the building industry, their environmental impact, particularly
regarding end-of-life management and potential microplastic pollution, is a growing concern. Sustainable
practices like using recycled plastics, designing for deconstruction, and improving recycling infrastructure are
crucial for mitigating these concerns and ensuring the responsible use of plastics in construction.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS

Adhesives and sealants are essential tools in the building industry, each with its own unique properties and
applications. Here's a breakdown of some common types you'll encounter:
By Curing Mechanism:

 Solvent-based Adhesives: These use solvents to evaporate, leaving behind a strong bond. They're often
used for bonding porous materials like wood and paper, but their VOC emissions require proper
ventilation.
 53

Solvent-based adhesive

 Water-based Adhesives: Eco-friendlier than solvent-based options, these use water as the solvent and
are commonly used for wood glues, wallpaper adhesives, and general-purpose applications.

Water-based adhesive

 Hot Melt Adhesives: Activated by heat, these adhesives melt and form a strong bond upon cooling.
They're popular in woodworking, packaging, and product assembly due to their fast setting time.

Hot melt adhesive

 Reactive Adhesives: These undergo a chemical reaction to cure, creating a permanent bond. Epoxies
and polyurethanes are popular examples, offering high strength and resistance to moisture and
chemicals.
 54

Reactive adhesive
By Application:

 Construction Adhesives: Designed for strong, permanent bonds in structural applications like framing,
subfloors, and paneling. They often come in polyurethane or epoxy formulations.

Construction adhesive

 Wood Adhesives: Specifically formulated for bonding wood, offering varying levels of water
resistance and flexibility depending on the type (e.g., PVA glue, wood glue, polyurethane glue).

Wood adhesive

 Tile Adhesives: Formulated to adhere tiles to various substrates like concrete, backer board, and even
existing tiles. They come in different varieties based on the type of tile and desired flexibility.
 55

Tile adhesive

 Silicone Sealants: Provide flexible, waterproof seals around windows, doors, countertops, and other
areas prone to moisture. They're available in various colors to match different aesthetics.

Silicone sealant

 Acrylic Sealants: Similar to silicone sealants but offer paintability and better adhesion to some non-
porous surfaces. They're often used for caulking and sealing around windows and doors.

Acrylic sealant

PLASTIC JOINT
Plastic joints are versatile components used in various applications, from construction and furniture making to
DIY projects and even toys. Here are some of the different types of plastic joints
Pipe and conduit joints:

 Slip joints: These simple joints slide over the ends of pipes and secure with a clamp or adhesive. They
 56
are commonly used for low-pressure applications like drainage or irrigation.

 Compression joints: These joints tighten around the pipe using a threaded nut, creating a watertight
seal. They are suitable for higher-pressure applications like plumbing or compressed air lines.

 Solvent cement joints: These joints use a special solvent to melt the plastic pipe and joint together,
forming a permanent bond. They are strong and durable but require proper ventilation due to the solvent
fumes.
Structural joints:

 Corner joints: These joints connect pipes or tubes at right angles, forming corners or frames. They
come in various shapes like L-shaped, T-shaped, and X-shaped.

 Tee joints: These joints connect three pipes or tubes, forming a T-junction. They are often used for
branching out pipes in plumbing or electrical systems.

 Coupling joints: These joints connect two pipes or tubes in a straight line, extending their length. They
are available in various types, including slip couplings, compression couplings, and threaded couplings.

PLASTIC BASED MATERIALS FOR ROOF

Several plastic-based materials can be used for roofing, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
Plastic Sheet Roofing:

 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheets: Lightweight, affordable, and available in various colors and textures.
Suitable for sheds, carports, and other low-slope structures. However, they can be susceptible to UV
degradation and cracking over time.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheets

 Polycarbonate sheets: Highly impact-resistant and translucent, allowing natural light penetration. Ideal
for greenhouses, skylights, and sunrooms.
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Polycarbonate sheets

 Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) sheets: Offer good weather resistance and flexibility. Often used as
underlayment for other roofing materials.

Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) sheets

Plastic Shingles:

 Polypropylene (PP) shingles: Lightweight, durable, and come in various styles mimicking traditional
materials like wood or slate. Can be more affordable than metal or slate roofs.

Polypropylene (PP) shingles

 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) shingles: Similar to PP shingles but may be less impact-resistant.
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Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) shingles

Plastic Roof Coatings:

 Liquid applied polyurethane (LAP): Sprayed-on coating that forms a seamless, waterproof
membrane. Highly durable and resistant to ponding water, but can be expensive.

Liquid applied polyurethane (LAP)

 Silicone roof coatings: Offer excellent flexibility and waterproofing. Can be applied over various
existing roof materials.

Silicone roof coatings

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SPECIFIC MATERIALS
FIBRE GLASS
Fiberglass, also spelled fibreglass, is a versatile and widely used material composed of extremely fine fibers
made from glass. These fibers are typically combined with a resin binder to form a composite material with a
range of valuable properties.
Composition:

 Made from thin strands of silica-based or other glass formulations.

 Fibers are very thin, with diameters measuring only a few micrometers.

 Can be arranged in various ways, including randomly, woven into fabric, or flattened into sheets.
Properties:

 Strong and lightweight: Fiberglass offers high strength-to-weight ratio, making it ideal for
applications where both strength and minimal weight are crucial.

 Durable: Resistant to corrosion, moisture, and various chemicals.

 Flexible: Can be molded into complex shapes.

 Insulating: Provides good thermal and electrical insulation.

Applications:

 Construction: Widely used in building materials like roofing, insulation, pipes, and wall panels.

 Transportation: Employed in boats, aircraft components, and car parts.

 Electronics: Found in circuit boards and other electrical components.

 Sporting goods: Used in skis, fishing rods, and other equipment.

 Consumer goods: Present in furniture, appliances, and various household items.

POLYCARBONATE SHEET
Polycarbonate sheets are a type of thermoplastic polymer known for their strength, impact resistance, clarity,
and lightweight nature.
Properties:

 Clarity: High transparency, similar to glass, allowing light transmission of over 90% in its uncolored
form.

 Lightweight: Roughly half the weight of glass with the same thickness, making it easier to handle and
install.

 Density: Approximately 1.20 g/cm³, making it lighter than most construction materials.

 Thermal insulation: Offers good thermal insulation due to its low thermal conductivity.

 Fire resistance: Self-extinguishing and flame retardant grades are available, meeting various building
code requirements.
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 Weather resistance: Excellent resistance to UV radiation, harsh weather conditions, and extreme
temperatures (-40°C to +120°C).
Applications:

 Roofing: Polycarbonate sheets are a popular choice for skylights, greenhouses, and other applications
where natural light is desired. They are also used in some commercial and industrial roofing
applications.

 Glazing: Polycarbonate sheets can be used for windows, doors, and other glazing applications. They
are often preferred over glass in situations where safety is a concern, such as in schools, hospitals, and
sports facilities.

 Signage and displays: Polycarbonate sheets can be used for outdoor signage, displays, and advertising.
They are resistant to fading and scratching, making them ideal for long-term use.

 Machine guarding: Polycarbonate sheets are used in machine guarding applications to protect workers
from hazards. They are also used in food processing and other applications where hygiene is important.

 Pool enclosures: Polycarbonate sheets are used to enclose swimming pools, providing protection from
the elements and extending the swimming season.
Advantages:

 Strong and impact resistant: Polycarbonate sheets are up to 200 times stronger than glass of the same
thickness, making them highly resistant to impact and breakage.

 Lightweight: Polycarbonate sheets are about half the weight of glass, making them easier to install and
handle.

 Clear: Polycarbonate sheets offer excellent clarity, allowing for maximum light transmission.

 UV resistant: Polycarbonate sheets are treated with a UV protective layer, which helps to prevent them
from yellowing and degrading over time.

 Weather resistant: Polycarbonate sheets are resistant to rain, snow, wind, and hail.

 Fire resistant: Some types of polycarbonate sheets are fire resistant, making them suitable for use in
certain applications.
Disadvantages:

 Scratchable: Polycarbonate sheets can be scratched more easily than glass.

 Not as heat resistant as glass: Polycarbonate sheets may not be suitable for use in applications where
they will be exposed to high temperatures.

 Can be more expensive than glass: Polycarbonate sheets can be more expensive than glass, although
the price difference has narrowed in recent years.

TEFLON
PTFE is a synthetic fluoropolymer, meaning it's a large molecule built from repeating units containing carbon
and fluorine atoms. Teflon is probably best known for its nonstick properties, but this substance has a number
of other useful properties that make it an excellent choice as a coating for components in a range of
applications. Teflon coating process can add these unique attributes to carbon steel, stainless steel, steel alloys,
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aluminum, brass, and magnesium, as well as non-metallic surfaces such as glass, fiberglass, plastics, and some
rubber materials.
Properties:

 Non-stick: Teflon has a very low coefficient of friction, meaning that objects do not easily stick to it.
This makes it ideal for cookware, as food will not stick to the pan and makes cleaning easier.

 Heat resistant: Teflon can withstand high temperatures without breaking down or decomposing. This
makes it suitable for use in cookware and other applications where high temperatures are involved.

 Chemically inert: Teflon is resistant to most chemicals, making it safe for use with food and other
materials.

 Non-toxic: Teflon is considered non-toxic and safe for use in cookware and other applications.
However, there has been some debate about the safety of certain manufacturing processes that create
byproducts, so it is important to choose Teflon products that are made using safe practices.

 Durable: Teflon is a very durable material that can last for many years with proper care.
Applications:

 Cookware: Teflon is most commonly used in cookware, such as frying pans, saucepans, and baking
trays.

 Coatings: Teflon is used to coat a variety of other surfaces, such as fabrics, wires, and medical devices.

 Seals and gaskets: Teflon is used to make seals and gaskets that are resistant to heat, chemicals, and
wear.

 Bearings: Teflon is used to make bearings that are self-lubricating and resistant to wear.
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UNIT II

STEEL IN BASIC STRUCTURES

Construction principles and procedures for structural building components using steel of different
sections. Components to include foundations, columns, beams, staircases, roofs (different types of trusses,
space frames, etc), roofing and glazing material. Connections between the different components and fixing.
Drawings/ models of the principles. Understanding of product literature/ shop drawings. Site visits with
documentation in the form of sketches/ drawings/ photos.

CONSTRUCTION OF STEEL FRAME STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

CONSTRUCTION OF STEEL FRAME STRUCTURE FOUNDATION

Steel framed structure construction begins with the construction of its foundation. Generally, the types of
foundation required for the given structure is based on the soil bearing capacity.

Soil investigation including surface and subsurface exploration is used to assess the condition of soil on which
steel frame structure rests.

For example, when moderate or low loads are imposed, then it is advised to use reinforced concrete bearing pads
or strip foundation. These foundation types transfer loads to soil capable of supporting transferred loads.
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If the strength of soil is poor and the imposed load is large, then it is recommended to consider pile
foundation. The pile foundation would transfer the load of the structure to the stiff soil.

Pile foundation to transfer loads of steel frame structure though low soil bearing capacity of stiff soil
with adequate bearing capacity

Steel Bearing Pile Driven into Ground

CONSTRUCTION OF STEEL FRAME STRUCTURE FOUNDATION

he next step of steel frame construction is the placement of steel columns. The section of the steel
is specified based on the load imposed.

There are various sizes of steel column section to choose and these steel columns are commonly
produced in advance.

The most significant point in column installation is the connection between foundation and column
and splices between columns.

Regarding foundation to column joints, base plates are welded to the end of columns. The most
desired shape of base plate is square and rectangular shape. Typical details of column to foundation
connection is shown in Figure-6.
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It should be known that, the most desired shape of base plate is rectangular and square shape
because such plates provide largest spacing between the bolts which is desirable.

As far as column splices are concern, it is provided in every two or three storey to ease erection
process in addition to simplify steel column production and deliveries.

The distance between floor and column splice is about 60cm. When circular steel columns are used,
weld connection is used to join both steel columns above and below.
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COLOUMN SPLICE ASND GUSSETED BASE

A column splice means the joining of two parts of a column whereas a column base transfers forces and
moments at the lower end of a column to a foundation.

A gusseted base consists of a base of reduced thickness and two gusseted plates are attached one to each flange
of the column. Gusseted Column Base. The gusseted plates, cleat angles and fastenings (bolts, rivets) in
combination with bearing area of shaft shall be sufficient to take all loads.
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BEAMS CONNECTION TO COLOUMN

Various prefabricated beam sections are available to be used in the construction multi storey steel
frame structure. Beams commonly transfer loads from floors and roof to the columns.

Steel beam members can span up to 18m, but the most usual range of steel beam spans rang from 3m
to 9m.

While steel beams are erected, column to beam connection and beam to beam connections are
encountered. There are different types of column to beam connection which are selected based on the
type of loads imposed on the column to beam joint.
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For example, if the joint is subjected to vertical loads only, then simple connections are used. Flexible
end plate, fin plate and double angle cleat are examples of simple connections which are shown in
Figure-8.

If the joint is subjected to both vertical loads (shear force) and torsion forces, then full depth end
plate connections and extended end plate connections should be considered as shown in Figure-9.

As far as beam to beam connection is concerned, end plate beam to beam connection is used to join
secondary steel beams to primary steel beams.

Since top flange of secondary beams support floor system, so it must be leveled with top flange of
the primary beams. This can be obtained by notching the top flange of the secondary beam as
shown in Figure-10 and Figure-11.
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Alternatively, projected bracket is welded to the primary beam and then secondary beam is
attached without the need for notching secondary steel beams as shown in Figure-12.
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STEEL STAIRCASE

Stairways are an essential part of multi-story buildings and industrial structures that provide vertical access for
occupants. This vertical access can be used to move from one level to another and provides a means of egress in
an emergency. Stairways provide a safe and efficient option for traveling within a building. Handrail and guards
are additional elements that are part of the stairway. Handrails provide a graspable surface for occupants to hold
while moving along a stairway. Handrail is typically wall mounted or supported on the guard. Guards are
provided at or near the open side of an elevated walking surface and incorporate infill members or panels to
minimize the possibility of falling to a lower level. The design and layout of stairways is dependent on the
intended use, occupant load and serviceability requirements. Proper clearances and intuitive layout are important
to ensure occupants can easily and safely use a stairway.
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UNIT III

ADVANCED STEEL STRUCTURES

Total structures such as geodesic dome, space frame, diagrid, etc., Outline of prefabrication in steel.
Preco beams, cellular beams, composite slim floor beam. Steel curtain wall glazing. Recent trends in
roofing materials like corrugated GI Sheets, corrugated hypar shells, pre-coated metal sheets. Cable
Structures

TOTAL STRUCTURES

Here are some fascinating structures that utilize unique designs like geodesic domes, space frames, and
diagrids:

Geodesic dome:

A lattice shell structure based on a polyhedron, typically an icosahedron or dodecahedron. Composed of

numerous short struts or beams arranged in triangles, creating a strong and lightweight structure. Offers
high rigidity and efficient use of materials.

Geodesic dome

Space frame:

A three-dimensional truss structure made of interconnected members, often forming a grid-like pattern.
Can be constructed from various materials like steel, aluminum, or wood. Provides large open spaces
with minimal support columns, ideal for stadiums, airports, and convention centers.

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Space frame

Diagrid:

A structural system where diagonal beams intersect in a grid pattern, creating a rigid and visually striking
form. Often used in skyscrapers and other tall buildings to provide stability and resist wind loads. Offers
aesthetic appeal and allows for large expanses of glass, maximizing natural light.

Diagrid

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GEODESIC DOMES

A geodesic dome is a hemispherical thin-shell structure based on a geodesic polyhedron. Imagine a

sphere covered in triangles - that's essentially the basic idea! These interconnected triangles create a
remarkably strong and lightweight structure, making them ideal for various applications.

History and Design

The concept of geodesic domes dates back to the early 20th century, with Buckminster Fuller being
credited with popularizing them in the 1940s.

Advantages:

 Strength and stability: The interconnected triangles distribute stress evenly throughout the
structure, making it highly resistant to wind, snow, and even earthquakes.
 Lightweight: Despite their strength, geodesic domes use relatively little material, making them
cost-effective and easier to transport.
 Space efficiency: The spherical shape provides a large amount of usable interior space with
minimal wasted corners.
 Versatility: Geodesic domes can be constructed in various sizes and can be adapted for different
uses, from homes and greenhouses to emergency shelters and even concert venues.

Applications

The diverse applications of geodesic domes showcase their adaptability:

 Housing: Geodesic domes can be used to create energy-efficient and environmentally friendly
homes. Their inherent strength allows for large open spaces and unique architectural designs.
 Greenhouses: The dome shape maximizes sunlight exposure, making them ideal for growing
plants year-round, even in harsh climates.
 Disaster relief: Due to their ease of construction and portability, geodesic domes can be used as
temporary shelters in disaster zones.
 Observatories: Their spherical shape and ability to withstand harsh weather conditions make
them suitable for housing astronomical observatories.
 Event venues: Large geodesic domes can provide unique and spacious settings for concerts,
festivals, and other events.

Building a Geodesic Dome

There are different ways to build a geodesic dome, depending on the size, complexity, and desired
materials. Some opt for prefabricated kits, while others prefer building from scratch using wood, bamboo,
or even steel pipes. Here are some key steps involved in building a geodesic dome:

1. Choose a design: Decide on the desired size and shape of the dome.

2. Create the framework: Construct the triangular framework using chosen materials.

3. Cover the frame: Depending on the use, the frame can be covered with various materials like canvas,
plywood, or transparent panels.

4. Finishing touches: Add insulation, windows, doors,

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structure.
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DIAGRID

Diagrid is a Powerful and Aesthetic Structural System. A diagrid, derived from the words "diagonal" and
"grid," is a captivating structural framework formed by the intersecting of diagonal metal, concrete, or
wooden beams. This unique design presents a plethora of advantages for modern building construction.

Characteristics of diagrids:

 Strength and Stability: The diagonal members create a triangulated network, distributing loads
efficiently and enhancing overall structural rigidity, particularly crucial for tall buildings and
structures exposed to high wind forces.

Strength and Stability

 Lightweight Design: Compared to conventional steel frames, diagrids require less material,
making them lighter and reducing construction costs and dead weight on the foundation.
 Aesthetic Appeal: The exposed diagrid elements create a visually striking and intricate
appearance, adding a distinctive architectural flair to buildings.
 Flexibility: Diagrids can be adapted to various geometric shapes and complex designs, offering
greater architectural freedom.
 Sustainability: The reduced material usage and potential for prefabrication contribute to a more
sustainable construction approach.

Applications of Diagrids:

 High-rise buildings: The diagrid system is popular for skyscrapers like the Hearst Tower in New
York City and 30 St Mary Axe in London, also known as "The Gherkin".

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30 St Mary Axe diagrid building

 Stadiums and sports arenas: The iconic Beijing National Stadium (Bird's Nest) and Mercedes-
Benz Stadium in Atlanta showcase the diagrid's ability to create large, column-free spaces.

Beijing National Stadium diagrid building

 Bridges and other structures: Diagrids are increasingly used in bridges, airport terminals, and
other large-scale structures.

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CURTAIN WALL GLAZING

Exterior wall on a building, which non structural building envelope element.

Does not carry any dead load weight from the building other than its own dead load weight.

It transfers dead load to the main building structure through connections at floors or columns
of the building.

When Glass is used in the curtain wall, a great advantage is that natural light can penetrate
deeper within the building

Components of Curtain Walls

Curtain-wall systems are typically designed with extruded aluminium members. The
aluminium frame is typically in-filled with glass.

• Mullions (Vertical Members): Mullions are provided basically to transfer the dead load

of curtain wall through connections on a structure.

• Transoms (Horizontal Members): Transoms are sections provided in

between mullions horizontally.

• Silicon Sealants: Silicone Sealants are used to prevent moisture, dust, air and heat through
joints.

TYPES OF CURTAIN WALLS

1) Stick wall system:

• The wallisinstalledpieceby piece.

• Usually, the mullion members are installed first,followedinturnbythe transom members,

and finally the glazing or window units.
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2) Semi-unitized System:

• This system is composed entirely of large frame units pre- assembled at the factory.

• The mullion member join to the top and bottom transom member, and with a glazed glass
panel.

3) Unitized System:

• In this system, the mullion members are separately installed first, then

• pre-assembled framing units areplaced between them.

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STRUCTURAL GLAZING

• Structural glazing curtain wall systems are envelope systems that provide maximum
transparency.

• These systems are usually incorporated in coverings of large internal spaces such as mall
entrances, atriums and continuous external skins that are largely separated from the
building floor slab and its main structure.

• The first and foremost feature of these systems is that the support systems have become
minimized to achieve
maximum external glazing and internal transparency.

• In this system, sheets of glass are assembled with special brackets to a secondary support
substructure creating a highly transparent envelope system with a seamless, continuous
glazed surface.

Spider Structural Glazing (Bolted Glazing)

• This system consists attaching glass panels and the structure with rigid bolts and steel
plates.

• Nowadays, spider bolts are used for fixing of glass instead of common fixed bolts.
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Curtain Walls Shading

• In hot seasons, solar gains need to be minimised in order to optimise the

occupants’thermal comfort and to reduce air conditioning needs.

• As a result, in warm regions, low solar gain glass should be used with associated shading
devices like solar blade or shutters.

• In regions where winter and summer temperatures vary significantly, it is then crucial to
design shading devices capable of optimising the window’s solar gains according to the
seasons.

Advantages: Curtain Walls

• Smaller wall footprint - resulting in extra floor area available.

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• Parallel scheduling - resulting in faster installation.

• Lighter structure - resulting in easier transportation and installation.

• Improved natural light access - resulting in a flexible architectural design.

• Structural flexibility - resulting in easier structural engineering.

• Structural independency - resulting in flexible architectural design.

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PRECO BEAMS
Preco-beam, a composite beam combining a UHPC deck and an inverted-T steel girder of which the top is
worked to have puzzle, fin or clothoidal dowel shape

CELLULAR BEAMS

Beams with web openings, commonly known as 'cellular beams', are extremely popular and versatile
structural steel components. Cellular beams are often used to facilitate long spans resulting in flexible,
column-free internal spaces, reduced substructure costs and shorter steel erection times.
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COMPOSITE SLIM FLOOR BEAM:

Composite slim floor beams consist of a steel section embedded in a concrete slab, offering the
advantages of a steel-concrete composite structure combined with a reduced floor depth.
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CORRUGATED GI SHEETS
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PRE-COATED METAL SHEETS

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CORRUGATED HYPAR SHELLS

CABLE STRUCTURES

Cable structures are a captivating and versatile category of architecture that utilizes tensioned cables as
the primary load-bearing elements. These elegant and often lightweight structures rely on the inherent
strength of cables to resist and transfer forces, creating unique and visually striking forms.

Characteristics of cable structures:

 Lightweight design: Cables offer high strength-to-weight ratio, making them ideal for large
spans and minimizing dead weight on foundations.
 Long spans: Cable structures can achieve impressive spans due to the efficient distribution of
tension forces through the cables.

Millennium Bridge London cable span

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 Minimal support: By transferring loads primarily through tension, cable structures require
fewer support columns, creating open and unobstructed spaces.
 Aesthetic appeal: The delicate network of cables often creates a visually intriguing and modern
appearance, adding a distinct architectural flair to buildings and bridges.
 Sustainability: The lightweight nature and potential for prefabrication can contribute to a more
sustainable construction approach.

Types of cable structures:

 Suspension bridges: Cables suspend the deck from towers, like the iconic Golden Gate Bridge.

Golden Gate Bridge suspension bridge

 Cable-stayed bridges: Masts or pylons support the deck with cables, such as the Sunshine
Skyway Bridge.

Sunshine Skyway Bridge cablestayed bridge

 Tensile membrane structures: Fabric membranes anchored by cables create lightweight and
adaptable structures like stadiums and canopies.

Tensile membrane structure

 Cable trusses: Cables and struts combine to form trusses for roofs, bridges, and other structures.
 Geodesic domes: Intersecting cables form a strong and lightweight dome-shaped structure.
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Geodesic dome cable structure

Applications of cable structures:

 Bridges: Cable bridges are widely used for long spans and iconic design, like the Akashi Kaikyo
Bridge in Japan, the world's longest suspension bridge.

Akashi Kaikyo Bridge cable bridge

 Roofs and stadiums: Tensile membrane structures provide large, covered spaces for stadiums,
arenas, and exhibition halls.

Tensile membrane stadium roof

 Transportation infrastructure: Cable structures are used in airports, train stations, and other
transportation facilities.
 Architectural features: Cable structures can add a distinctive touch to building facades,
canopies, and other architectural elements.
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UNIT IV

DESIGN AND DETAILING USING STEEL, GLASS AND PLASTIC

A design and detailing exercise involving steel as primary construction material with glass and plastic in
building envelope in an appropriate typology involving a simple scale project. The project will integrate
knowledge from all the previous units. Design and construction details in the form of sketches/ drawings/
models.

DESIGN AND DETAILING EXERCISE: A SUSTAINABLE PAVILION

This exercise proposes a design for a sustainable pavilion using steel as the primary construction
material, incorporating glass and plastic in the building envelope. This project integrates various skills
and knowledge, including material properties, construction methods, and environmental considerations.

Typology: Sustainable Pavilion

Scale: 1:50 (or adjust as needed)

Materials:

 Primary structure: Steel beams and columns

 Secondary structure: Steel trusses or frames
 Building envelope: Glazed panels, ETFE panels (plastic film)
 Flooring: Recycled wood or bamboo decking
 Roofing: Green roof with sedum plants or photovoltaic panels

Design Considerations:

 Sustainability: The design should prioritize minimal environmental impact through passive
heating/cooling, rainwater harvesting, and recycled materials.
 Natural light: Utilize the glass and ETFE panels for ample natural daylighting, reducing reliance
on artificial lighting.
 Openness and connection: Create a visually open and inviting space that connects with the
surrounding environment.
 Functionality: Consider the intended use of the pavilion (events, exhibitions, public gathering)
and design accordingly.
 Scalability: Design a modular system that can be easily adapted to different sizes or
configurations.

Design and Detailing:

 Sketches: Create initial sketches showing the overall form, floor plan, and elevation of the
pavilion.
 Construction details: Draw details of critical junctions, such as the connection between steel
beams and columns, glazing connections, and roof assembly.
 Material specifications: Specify the type and properties of each material used.
 Sustainability features: Highlight sustainable design elements on the drawings or include
separate sketches/details.
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 Model (optional): Build a physical or digital model to further represent the design and details.

Additional Notes:

 Research existing sustainable pavilion designs for inspiration.

 Consider local climate and materials when making design choices.
 Consult relevant building codes and regulations for structural and material requirements.