Gurukul Lutheran Theological College and Research Institute, Chennai.

Course Title: Selected Issues in Sad Darsanas

Topic: Sāṁkhya Philosophy
Presented To: Dr. Giri K.
Presenter: Mousumi De
Responded: Arjun Date: 01/08/2024

Introduction

Sāṁkhya is one of the six orthodox school of Indian Philosophy (saddarsana). This school is
known for its dualistic approach, distinguishing between consciousness (Purusa) and matter
(prakrti). Sāṁkhya provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and
defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co-operation in the state of bondage (bandha),
and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release (moksa).1 The paper will
explore the Sāṁkhya philosophy briefly.

1. Sāṁkhya

The term Sāṁkhya means in Sanskrit ‘number’ or ‘perfect knowledge’, because it gives perfect
knowledge of Purusa, Prakriti and its evolutes and traces the whole varieties of physical
universe in a single source called prakrti except purusa.2 This system gives an enumeration of
the principles of the universe, twenty-five in number. Hence the name Sāṁkhya is quite
appropriate. The term ‘Sāṁkhya’ is used in the sense of ‘Vichara’ or ‘philosophical
reflection’.3 Sir William Jones calls it as the Numeral Philosophy. It is the most intellectual and
practical one with an attachment to metaphysics. Hence M. Hiriyanna points that Sāṁkhya
which means buddhi, indicates that it is based on reflection rather than on authority.4 The
Sāṁkhya recognizes two kind of ultimate realities; sprit and matter (Purusa and Prakrti).5 This
philosophy believes that there are two types of bodies. A physical or temporal body, and an
ethereal or subtle body that is not visible but persists after death. When the earthly body expires,
the subtle body moves to another physical body. This is where the theory of reincarnation
starts.6 The founder of Sāṁkhya philosophy is traditionally attributed to the sage Kapila. The
Sāṁkhya Karika written by Ishvara Krishna was one of the primary texts that elucidates
Kapila’s teachings and the principles of Sāṁkhya philosophy.7

1
Heinrich Zimmer, Philosophies of India (New York: The world Publishing Company, 1961), 280.
2
Chandradhar Sharma, A critical Survey of Indian Philosophy (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1976) 150.
3
Swami Sivananda, All Divine Life (Uttar Pradesh: The divine life society Publication, 1999), 111.
4
M. Hiriyanna, “The Samkhya”, The Cultural Heritage of India, Volume 3, edited by Haridas
Bhattacharyya, (Calcutta: Ramakrishna Mission, 2013), 41.
5
Satischandra Chatterjee and Dhirendramohan Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (New Delhi:
Rupa Publication India Pvt. Ltd, 2007), 238.
6
Ravail Singh and Amit Kumar, “Utility of Sankhya School of Indian Philosophy in Contemporary
Education system,” SELP Journal of Social Science 15/55 (January-June, 2024): 2.
7
“What is sāṁkhya Philosophy,” Devvratyoga. Com, accessed 20/07/24,
https://www.devvratyoga.com/sankhya-philosophy/.

1
 1. The Sāṁkhya Metaphysics

The Sāṁkhya Philosophy is regarded as dualistic realism. It is dualistic because it holds the
doctrine of two ultimate realities; Prakṛti (non-self) and Purusas (self). Further, it maintains
the plurality of Purusas (self) and the existence of matter, hence, treated as pluralistic. They
are fundamental doctrine of Sāṁkhya philosophy.8

1.1. Theory of causation

Basically there are two types of Sāṁkhya theory of causation: asat-kārya-vāda and sat-kārya-
vāda. Those effects do not pre-exist in the material cause is known as asat-kārya-vāda. Those
who maintain that the effects do not pre-exist in the material cause. The effects are not new
creations; rather they are the only manifestation of what was contained in the material cause
implicity is known as sat-kārya-vāda.9 This theory of sat-karya-vada has got two different
forms: parināmavāda and vivarta-vāda. For example, curd was existing in the milk before
comes into existence. Hence, the effect is not a real beginning or a new creation, named as
‘parināmavāda’ (real transformation).10 They pre-exist in the eternal bosom of Prakrti and
simple come out of it at the time of creation and return to it at time of dissolution.11 Thus
Sāṁkhya theory of causation means a real transformation of the material cause into effect
logically leads to the concept of prakrit as the ultimate cause of the world of object.12

1.2. Prakṛti

Sāṁkhya Philosophy believes that Prakrti is the material cause of the universe which is
complex in its nature and its complexity is the result of its being constituted by certain elements.
In Sāṁkhya-Karika verse 15, gives five proofs for the existence of Prakṛti as: i) Material
objects are finite and limited. ii) Material objects produce pleasure, pain or ignorance. iii)
Evolution of material effects presupposes a cause which is able to produce this diversity of
effects, and that cause is called Prakṛti. iv) There is a diversity of effects, which can be
produced only by one all-embracing cause in which all effects are implicity contained, namely,
the primeval matter. v) In spite of the diversity of objects, there is also a unity in the universe,
which points to one single material cause, Prakṛti.13 This Prakṛti is the ultimate cause of the
universe. According to Surendranath Dasgupta Prakṛti is ‘the root principle of matter’.14 All
effects of the universe are based upon it. It is uncaused, eternal, and all pervading. Hence, it is
called “pradhāna” (most important) also known as Avyakta. It can’t be perceived but can be
inferred from its effect. Thus, it is known as ‘anumā’ (to infer). As the unintelligent and
unconscious principle, it is called Jada; and as the ever active unlimited power, it is called

8
Jayne Stevenson and Swami Shankardev Saraswati, “Yoga and Samkhya: Purifying the elements of the
Human being,” (2 Nov. 2021), accessed 20/07/24, https://www.yogajournal.com/teach/yoga-and-samkhya-
purifying-the-elements-of-the-human-being/.
9
Thottakara, Indian Philosophy Basic Concepts and Important Themes…, 396.
10
Theos Bernard, Hindu Philosophy (New York: Greenwood Press Publishers, 1968), 6.
11
Sharma, A Critical Survey of India …, 152.
12
Chatterjee and Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy …, 241.
13
Augustine Thottakara, Indian Philosophy Basic Concepts and Important Themes (Bengaluru:
Dharmaram Publications, 2015), 394.
14
Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1 (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975),
238.

2
Shakti.15 The nature of Prakṛti is uncaused, independent, absolute, one, eternal and
indestructible. According to Sāṁkhya Karika of Isvarakrishna verse 42, explain that Prakrti is
a dancer in the presence of the Purusa.16 As opposed to Purusa, it is non-conscious, active,
composed of three gunas and is only one.17

1.3. Gunas of Prakṛti

The Sāṁkhya Philosophy advocates three gunas of Prakṛti also called as Trigunava. The term
Guna means ‘a component factor’ or a constituent of Prakrti.18 These are; Sattva, rajas and
tamas. Prakrti is a state of equilibrium of these three gunas (quality or attribute) and these three
gunas are present in all the objects of the world. These three constituents, through essentially
distinct in their nature, are conceived as interdependent so that they can never be from one
another. It means they are not mechanically placed together, but reciprocally involve one
another and front a unity in Trinity.

i) Sattva actually means that which exists, that real. It is the noblest guna. 19 Sattva is
that element of Prakṛti which is the nature of pleasure, light (laghu) and bright or
illuminating (prakāsaka). The tendency towards conscious manifestation in the
senses, the mind and the intellect; the luminosity of light and the power of reflection
in a mirror or crystal are all due to the operation of the element of Sattva in the
constitution of things. For example, blazing up a fire, upward curse of vapour etc.
Sattva is believed to be white. Manifestation or reflection of the consciousness of
Purusa is due to sattva.20
ii) Rajas is the principle of activity, energy and motion. Its color is red. It is active
because of its mobility and stimulation. It is also the nature of pain. For example,
on account of rajas, fire spread; wind blows; the mind becomes restless, etc.21
iii) Tamas (darkness) is the principle of inertia, matter, resistance, passivity and
negativity in things. Its colour is black. It is opposed to the Sattva guna because it
is heavy, laziness, drowsiness. It produces ignorance and darkness and leads to
confusion and bewilderment.22
1.4. Purusa

According to the Sāṁkhya Philosophy, Purusa (self) is an eternal reality, the subject and
knower, in other word Purusa is guidance. This guidance is a kind of activity.23 This Purusa is
neither the body, nor the mind (mānas), neither ego (ahaṁkāara) nor intellect (buddhi). It is
not the substance which has the quality of consciousness. It is itself pure-consciousness. It is

15
Sharma, A Critical Survey of India …, 152-153.
16
Thottakara, Indian Philosophy Basic Concepts and Important Themes …, 389.
17
Thottakara, Indian Philosophy Basic Concepts and Important Themes…, 393.
18
Hiriyanna, “The Samkhya”, The Cultural Heritage of India…, 42.
19
Augustine Thottakara, Indian Philosophy Basic Concepts and Important Themes (Bengaluru:
Dharmaram Publications, 2015), 394.
20
Hiriyanna, “The Samkhya”, The Cultural Heritage of India …, 43-44.
21
Hiriyanna, “The Samkhya”, The Cultural Heritage of India…, 43-44.
22
Hiriyanna, “The Samkhya”, The Cultural Heritage of India…, 43-44.
23
A.K. Majumdar, “The Doctrine of Evolution in the Sankhya Philosophy,” Philosophical Review 34/1
(Jan. 1925): 53.

3
the basis of all knowledge and is the supreme knower. It can’t be the object of knowledge. It is
the observer, eternally free, the impartial spectator and peaceful. It is beyond the space-time
continuum, change, and activity. It is the self-enlightened, self-proved and hence, causasui
(Latin term, denotes something that is generated within itself). It is all pervading, formless, and
eternal. Its existence can’t be doubted because in its absence, all knowledge even doubt is not
possible. It has been described as, devoid of three gunas, negative, inactive, solitary witness,
observer, knower and of the nature of illumination. According to Sāṁkhya Philosophy, the
Purusa is the nature of pure consciousness and hence beyond the limits of Prakṛti. It is free
from distortions. Its objects changes but it itself never changes. It is above self-arrogance,
aversion and attachment. 24 Purusa is constructed passes through five main stage.

1.4.1. Mahat or Buddhi (consciousness or Intellect)

Mahat (buddhi) is the first product of evolution. It is cosmic in its nature. It has psychological
aspect in which it is called intellect. The reason is buddhi is material whereas consciousness is
eternal. An important function of buddhi is to take decision which is a part of memory act. This
helps to distinguish between the known and the knower. Sattva is predominately found as an
attribute of buddhi. Buddhi helps to identify the soul or the ātman which differs from all
physical objects and their qualities.25 This Mahat is commencing at the creation and end with
the release off the Individual Purusa. It is a development due to the struggle of the Individual
purusa to regain his own freedom and to attain his own release.26

i) Ahaṁkāra (Self-apperception)

Ahaṁkāra is a “cosmic power”,27 This Ahaṁkāra (ego) is the second product of evolution. Ego
is identified as “I” or “mine” feelings of an individual. Every individual has buddhi, and since
ahaṁkāra is a practical element of buddhi, it is found in all individuals.28 Ahaṁkāra is
particular and unique. It is nothing but more developed form of Mahat and Buddhi.

ii) Ekadasa Indriya (the mind and the ten sense of knowledge and activity)

The powers and the capacities of conscious is called Indriya. This Indriya’s English term is
‘sense’. These eleven senses are divided into two categories: Jnanendriyas (five sense Organs
of Perception),29 Karmendriyas (five Organs off Action)30 and lastly Mānas (Mind). Mānas or
mind is neither eternal nor atomic. It is constituted with parts and thus can come into contact

24
Stevenson and Saraswati, “Yoga and Samkhya: Purifying the elements of the Human being”….
25
Chatterjee and Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy …, 251.
26
Majumdar, “The Doctrine of Evolution in the Sankhya Philosophy”…, 59.
27
Majumdar, “The Doctrine of Evolution in the Sankhya Philosophy” …, 63.
28
Chatterjee and Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy …, 252.
29
Jnanedriyas are: Chakshu (eye) for seening; Shrotra (ear) for hearing; Ghrana (nose) for smelling;
Jihva (tongue) for testing; Tvak (skin) for touching). Cf. Majumdar, “The Doctrine of Evolution in the Sankhya
Philosophy” …, 63.
30
Karmendriyas are: Vak (speech) for speaking; Pani (hand) for grasping; Pada (feet) for moving; Payu
(anus) for excretion; and Upasth (genitals): for protection. Cf. Majumdar, “The Doctrine of Evolution in the
Sankhya Philosophy”…, 63.

4
with the different sense organs simultaneously. Mind helps to analyze and synthesize the sense-
data into determinate perceptions. It is an internal sense organ.31

iii) Pancha Tanmatras (the five gross elements)

In Sāṁkhya philosophy, pancha tanmatras are the subtle form of sensory experiences from
which the five gross elements (Pancha Mahabhutas) evolve. They are: Shabda (sound)
associated with Akasha (ether or space), Sparsha (touch) associated with Vayu (air), Rupa
(form/color) associated with Agni (fire), Rasa (Taste) associated with Apas (water), Gandha
(smell) associated with Prithivi (earth). These Pancha Tanmatra are considered the
foundational building blocks of sensory perception and material reality in Sāṁkhya. They serve
as the intermediate state between the non-material (subtle) and the material (gross) aspects of
the Universe.32

iv) Pancha Mahabhuta (the five gross elements)

The Pancha Mahabhutas are the fundamental building blocks of the physical universe. These
elements are derived from the Panca Tanmatras and represent the material aspects of reality.
Such as: Akasha, Vayu, Agni, Apas and Prithvi.33

2. Evolution of World

In Sāṁkhya philosophy evolution is production, which means development or manifestation

(āvirbhāva). The evolution of world has its starting-point in the contact (saṁyoga) between
purusa and prakrti. The evolution of the world cannot be due to self alone, for it is inactive;
nor it be due to matter alone, for it is non-intelligent. The world and worldly objects are created
because of the contact between Prakṛti and Purusa. The Prakṛti alone can’t create the world
because it is material. In the same manner the Purusa can’t create the world independently
because he is inactive. Hence, the contact between Prakṛti and Purusa is necessary for the
evolution to start though they are possessing different and opposite natures. An example to
understand_

The Prakṛti is like a blind man and the Purusa is like a lame man cooperate each other to reach
their destination. The lame man sits on the shoulders of the blind mind and pointing to him the
way where to go and in which direction to move. In much the same manner, the inactive eternal
Purusa and the conscious Prakṛti cooperate with each other in order to start the evolution.34
Prakrti requires the some (darsanartham), and purusa requires the help of prakrti in order to
discriminate itself from the latter and thereby attain liberation (kaivalyartham). The contact
between purusa and prakrti, there is a disturbance of the equilibrium in which the gunas were
held before creation. There is a gradual differentiation and integration of the three gunas, and

31
Chatterjee and Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy …, 253.
32
Majumdar, “The Doctrine of Evolution in the Sankhya Philosophy”…, 63.
33
Majumdar, “The Doctrine of Evolution in the Sankhya Philosophy” …, 63.
34
Chatterjee and Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy …, 250.

5
as a result of their combination in different proportions, the various objects of the world
originate.35

3. Problem of God in early Sāṁkhya

The Sāṁkhya system is called Nir-Isvara (Godless) Sāṁkhya. It is atheistical. The Sāṁkhya do
not believe in Isvara (God). They do not accept Isvara. The creation produced by Prakrti has
an existence of its own, independent of all connection with the particular Purusa to which it is
united. So the Sāṁkhya say that there is no need for an intelligent Creator of the world, or even
of any superintending power.36

4. Liberation

In Sāṁkhya liberation means right knowledge; it is practical enquiry. The self, who is eternal,
pure conscious, and all pervading, due to its ignorance identifies itself with the mahat, ahṁkara
and mānas, which are the products of Prakrti. Thus, it experiences the worldly pain and
suffering (klesa) or miseries. There are three kinds of suffering: the ādhyātmika, adhibhautika
and adgudauvuja. The ādhyātmika suffering is due to intraorganic causes like bodily disorders
and mental affections. It includes both bodily and mental sufferings such as fever and headache,
the pangs of fear, anger, greed, etc. The second is produced by extra-organic natural causes
like men, beasts, thorns etc. Instances of this kind are found in cases of murder, snake bite,
prick of thorns. The adgudauvuja is caused by extra- organic supernatural causes like suffering
inflicted by ghosts, demons etc.37 This universe is constituted of manifold objects, and since
objects are embedded with gunas and selves and even interrelated among them, suffering is
unavoidable. This is because the Sāṁkhya claims that wherever there is guna there is suffering.
Further, they said that the life in heaven is controlled by the gunas. Once actions (karma), good
and bad, are cause by gunas, and they cannot lead to liberation, but bondage. Good actions may
lead to heaven; but even that is result of karma, the ultimately leads to pain.38 According to
Sāṁkhya, the bondage is belongs to Prakrti, but it’s attributed to Purusha. Purusha is eternally
free. Union of Purusha with Prakrti due to non-discrimination is bondage; the failure to
discriminate between Purusha and Prakrti is the cause of Samsara or bondage; and disunion
of Purusha and Prakrti due to discrimination is emancipation. Release is not merging in the
Absolute. But isolation from Prakrti.39 So the root cause of the bondage is ignorance. This
bondage is cause of sufferings and pains. Since there are sufferings and bondage, there are also
paths leads to liberation, emancipation or salvation. The self attains freedom from worldly
suffering and realizes truth in one’s life living in the earth is known as jivanmukti40. In case of
videhamukti known as kaivalya, the self attains complete liberation from all sorts of sufferings.
This is achieved after death from the gross body. The Sāṁkhya theory of liberation is termed

35
Chatterjee and Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy …, 251.
36
Sivananda, All Divine Life …, 112.
37
Chatterjee and Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy …, 263.
38
Thottakara, Indian Philosophy Basic Concepts and Important Themes …, 402.
39
Sivananda, All Divine Life …, 112.
40
Jivanmukti is attainable while living in the earth. It is the stage where one realizes the causes of
suffering and detached from worldly objects. Videhamukti on the other hand, is attained after
death only. It is the pure liberation where no sign of suffering and attachment is found. In this
stage, the soul will be purely liberated. Cf. Monalisa Sarkar, “The Influence of Sankhya Philosophy Education
System in India”, JETIR Vol.8/2 (February 2021): 63. 56-64.

6
as ‘apavarga’, the purusartha or the summum bonum of life.41 The state of liberation or the
freedom from suffering.

5. Epistemology

The sāṁkhya philosophy believes there are three independent sources of valid knowledge.
These are; Perception (Pratyaksha), inference (Anumana) and Testimony/Shabda or right
affirmation (Apta42 Vakya).43

5.1. Perception

Perception is the direct cognition of an object through the contact of sense. The mind, or manas,
analyses and synthesizes the impressions and modifications. Buddhi, or intelligence, is altered
and converted the shape of the object by operation of the senses or mind. According to
Vacaspati, knowledge of an object takes place when there is a reflection of the self in the
intellect which has been modified into the form of the object. Vijana Bhikshu also explained
that perceptual knowledge is that when any object comes in the intellect becomes modified into
the form of the object. There are two different kind of perception: Savikalpaka; which cause
by analysis, synthesis and interpretation of sense data by manas or mind, and Nirvikalpaka;
which appears at the first point of contact between a sensation and its object.44

5.2. Inference

Inference is a relation between two things, which can be known one is known from the other,
which is related to the first but not experienced. Through understanding a universal relation
(vyapti) between the two, it teaches how to understand, what is perceived and how to know
what is unperceived. According to Sāṁkhya, inference is divided into two kinds: vita
(affirmative) is based on the universal affirmative prepositions and avita (negative) consists in
proving to be true by the elimination of other alternatives to it. The vita is further subdivided
into purvavat and samanyatodrsta. The one is based on the experiential equivalence of
concomitance between two things.45

5.3. Testimony/Śabda

Testimony or śabda (Verbal Testimony) is constituted by the authoritative statements and gives
the knowledge of objects which cannot be known by perception and inferences. Śabda is
generally said to be of two kinds: laukika and vaidika.46

41
Sarkar, “The Influence of Sankhya Philosophy Education System in India”, JETIR Vol.8/2 (February
2021): 63. 56-64.
42
The word Apta means fit or right. Cf. Sivananda, All Divine Life …, 111.
43
Sivananda, All Divine Life …, 111.
44
Chatterjee and Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy …, 258.

45
Chatterjee and Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy …, 260.
46
Chatterjee and Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy …, 262.

7
Reflection and Conclusion

The Sāṁkhya philosophy is interesting and it’s occupying a position of absolutely unique. It
presents a perspective on the nature of the universe and the human experience. Its dualistic
view of reality, with prakrti and purusa is the fundamental principles, offers a profound
understanding of the inner workings of the world. Hence its foundation, idealistic that all things
consist of intellect; the material world being a development of self-consciousness. This
philosophy also emphasis on self-realization and liberation from suffering. By recognizing the
distinction between consciousness and the material world, individuals can attain a deeper
understanding of their true nature and experience freedom from the cycle of birth and death. It
provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the complexities of the human mind
and the interplay of the three gunas (sattva, rajas, and tamas). It believes on three sources of
knowledge, perception, inference and testimony. It also believed that one should liberate
himself from worldly desires and follows the path of moksha. This understanding can help
individuals navigate their internal landscape and cultivate a balanced and harmonious life.

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Hiriyanna, M. “The Samkhya”, The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. 3. Edited by Haridas
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Majumdar, A.K. “The Doctrine of Evolution in the Sankhya Philosophy”. Philosophical

Review 34/1 (Jan. 1925): 51-69.
Sarkar, Monalisa. “The Influence of Sankhya Philosophy Education System in India”. JETIR
Vol.8/2 (February 2021): 56-64.
Singh, Ravail and Kumar, Amit. “Utility of Sankhya School of Indian Philosophy in
Contemporary Education system”. SELP Journal of Social Science 15/55 (January-
June, 2024): 1-6.

Online Source

8
Stevenson, Jayne and Saraswati Swami Shankardev, “Yoga and Samkhya: Purifying the
elements of the Human being”. (2 Nov. 2021). Accessed 20/07/24.
https://www.yogajournal.com/teach/yoga-and-samkhya-purifying-the-elements-of-
the-human-being/.

“What is sāṁkhya Philosophy”. Devvratyoga. Com. Accessed 20/07/24.

https://www.devvratyoga.com/sankhya-philosophy/