GENERAL COMPUTING I

REPUBLIQUE DU CAMEROUN REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON

Peace – Work - Fatherland
Paix-Travail-Patrie
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DOICESE DE BAFANG BAFANG DOICESE
UNIVERSITE INTERNATIONALE JEAN PAUL II JOHN PAUL II INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
INSTITUT SUPERIEUR DE BAFANG HIGHER INSTITUTE OF BAFANG

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DIRECTION DES AFFAIRES ACADEMIQUES ET DE DIRECTORATE OF ACADEMIC AFFAIRS AND

LA COOPERATION COOPERATION

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LE PROGRAMME DE FORMATION -HND THE HND TRAINING PROGRAM

Level: 1 Total Number of hours: 30H Semester: 1

Department: ALL Course Code……….. Course Title: GENERAL COMPUTING I

Lecturer: Ngwain Ndong Blasius

LEARNING OUTCOMES: On completion of this course, students should be able to:

 Know related computing concepts.

 Give definition of terms and acronyms.
 Have practical hands on using computers.

Mode of Evaluation: Attendance, Class participation, Assignments, and Written Examinations.

Participation 5 Mks

Attendance 5 Mks

Assignment/ Group Work 10 Mks

Continuous Assessment 10 Mks

End Of Semester Evaluation 70 Mks

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UNIT 1: GENERALITIES
1.1 DEFINITION
A computer is an electronic device that can be programmed to accept data (input), process it and
generate result (output).
A computer along with additional hardware and software together is called a computer system. A
computer system primarily comprises a central processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output
devices and storage devices. All these components function together as a single unit to deliver the
desired output. A computer system comes in various forms and sizes. It can vary from a high-end
server to personal desktop, laptop, tablet computer, or a smartphone.
1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
 Speed: The ability of a computer system to execute tasks using the minimum time possible.
It is measured in hertz (Hz). The main device is the Processor even though the RAM also
influences it
 Storage capacity: The ability of a computer system to keep or store much data either for
current or future used. It is measured in bytes=8bits. The main device here is the hard disk.
 Accuracy: The ability of a computer system to perform task with little or no errors
 Versatility: The ability of a computer system to perform different tasks at the same time but
still function properly
 Reliability: The ability of a computer system to give consistent and reasonable results
 Diligence: The ability of a computer system to perform task without getting tired (overheated)
with consistent and accurate result always
 Network connection: The method in which a computer system can get access to the internet
 Automatic: The ability of a computer system to perform its tasks automatically without
interruption until completion
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified into different categories with respect to their generation, size, functions
and purpose.
1.3.1 According to generation (Computer generation)
It is the evolution of computer with time with respect to change in their technology.
Computer generations are categorized based on the fundamental technology used in their
construction, which significantly impacts their performance, size, cost, and capabilities. Each
generation represents a significant technological advancement over its predecessor.
 FIRST GENERATION (1940s-1950s): VACUUM TUBES
Key Component: Vacuum tubes (large, heat-generating, unreliable).
Features:
 Massive Size: Computers occupied entire rooms.
 High Power Consumption: Generated significant heat.
 Limited Speed: Slow processing speeds compared to later generations.
 Low Reliability: Frequent malfunctions due to vacuum tube failures.

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 Machine Language Programming: Programmed using machine code (binary), requiring

specialized knowledge.
 Limited Storage: Used magnetic drums for storage, with limited capacity.
 Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC I, EDVAC.

 SECOND GENERATION (1950s-1960s): TRANSISTORS

Key Component: Transistors (smaller, faster, more reliable than vacuum tubes).
Features:
 Smaller Size: Computers became smaller and more manageable.
 Lower Power Consumption: Generated less heat than vacuum tube computers.
 Increased Speed: Faster processing speeds compared to the first generation.
 Higher Reliability: Fewer malfunctions due to improved component reliability.
 Assembly Language Programming: Allowed for more human-readable programming (though
still low-level).
 Improved Storage: Used magnetic core memory and magnetic tapes for increased storage
capacity.
 Batch Processing: Processed multiple jobs sequentially.
 Examples: IBM 7094, PDP-1.

 THIRD GENERATION (1960s-1970s): INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (ICS)

Key Component: Integrated circuits (multiple transistors on a single chip).
Features:
 Much Smaller Size: Computers became significantly smaller and more portable.
 Even Lower Power Consumption: Further reduction in heat generation.
 Increased Speed and Efficiency: Significantly faster processing speeds and greater efficiency.
 Higher Reliability: Even fewer malfunctions due to the integration of components.
 High-Level Programming Languages: The use of languages like FORTRAN, COBOL, and C
became widespread.
 Timesharing: Multiple users could interact with the computer simultaneously.
 Improved Storage: Used magnetic disks and improved magnetic tapes for even greater storage
capacity.
 Examples: IBM System/360, PDP-8, UNIVAC 1108.

 FOURTH GENERATION (1970s-PRESENT): MICROPROCESSORS

Key Component: Microprocessors (a single chip containing the CPU).
Features:
 Miniaturization: Led to the development of personal computers (PCs).
 Very High Speed: Extremely fast processing speeds.
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 Very High Reliability: Components are highly reliable and durable.

 Very Low Power Consumption: Computers became energy-efficient.
 User-Friendly Interfaces: Development of graphical user interfaces (GUIs).
 Extensive Software Availability: A vast range of software applications became available.
 Mass Production: Enabled the mass production of affordable computers.
 Examples: Intel 4004, Apple II, IBM PC.

 FIFTH GENERATION (PRESENT AND BEYOND): ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

(AI)
Key Component: Parallel processing, AI algorithms, and advanced technologies like quantum
computing.
Features:
 Focus on AI: Emphasis on developing computers capable of performing tasks that typically
require human intelligence (e.g., problem-solving, learning, decision-making).
 Parallel Processing: Utilizing multiple processors to perform computations simultaneously.
 Artificial Neural Networks: Modeling human brain functions to improve AI capabilities.
1.3.2 According to size
It is the classification of computers with respect to their physical size. There exist four types namely;
Supercomputer, Mainframe computer, Micro computer and Minicomputer
i. Supercomputer
They are the fastest and most powerful type of computer that have the ability of performing several
and complex tasks. It also has a very large size and storage capacity. They are generally expensive.
ii. Mainframe computers
They are fast and powerful computers but lesser than the supercomputer. They process several task
also and offer maximum computing power
iii. Minicomputers
They are smaller version of mainframes that offers same computing power as mainframe. It is
generally cheap.
iv. Micro computers
They are computers with a relatively small size which can be easily transported. They are also cheap
compared to supercomputers and mainframe It can either be classified either as
 Personal Computer (Desktop or tower)
 Laptop
 Palmtop
1.3.3 According to function
There exist three (3) different types of computer according to the way in function namely: Analogue
computers, Digital computers and Hybrid computers

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Analogue computers
 They are computers that work with continuous set of values or data which depends on physical
quantity.
 It is generally slow, has low or limited storage capacity and is less reliable with a
comparatively slow performance.
 It has a complex architecture.
Digital Computers
 They are computers that work with discrete set of values (binary numbers) which do not
depend on physical quantity.
 It is generally fast, has a large storage capacity and is very reliable with a comparatively high
performance.
 It has a reduce architecture
Hybrid computers
These are computers that functions both as analogue computers and digital computers. It is suited
where digital processing of data collected in analog form is desirable e.g measuring patient’s heart
function (cardio pad)
1.3.4 According to purpose
There exist two types namely general purpose and special or specific purpose
General purpose computers
They are computers that have the ability to carry out several tasks with equal efficiency as a result of
the different programs that are stored on the computers
Special or Specific computers
They are computers that have the ability to perform only a single task as a result of a single instruction
or program stored on the computers
1.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF USING A COMPUTER
1.4.1 Advantages
Multitasking: Computers can perform trillion of work in one second
Speed: Computers performs tasks extremely fast
Storage: Computers stores huge amount of information at the same time
Reliability: Computers perform many task repeatedly without errors
Security: Provides better and reliable options of securing data through the use of password,
encryption, firewall etc
Jobs: Computers have permitted the creation of new and thousand jobs
Ease: Computers has facilitated the execution of work and can also be done remotely

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1.4.2 Disadvantages
High cost: Computers are general expensive
Crimes: It has led to an increase rate in crimes such as cybercrimes
Information Insecurity: Information are expose to malware such as virus etc
Job insecurity: It has led to the reduction of employment (sacking) for those without knowledge of
computer uses e.g computerized accounting
Distraction: People often spend lots of hours using computers forgetting to carry out daily duty
1.5 AREAS OF COMPUTER USAGES
Supermarket:
 Computers are used for stock control i.e helps to manage daily activities by keeping records
of what is in store, what has been sold and what is out of stock.
 Alerts management in case products run out of stocks.
 Use as barcode reader
 Online marketing
Banks
 For processing of checks
 For preparation of payrolls
 For better record keeping and processing of document
 Provide electronic money transfer facilities
 Manage financial transactions e.g ATM (Automated Teller Machines)
Hospitals
 Keep and retrieve patients’ medical records
 Automatic diagnosis of diseases like cancer
 Enable medical experts in different countries to share their expertise thus reducing
transportation of patients and professionals
 To control life supporting machines in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU)
Education
 Teaching aid
 Assist in long distant learning
 Analyze academic data
Research
 Scientist use to analyze their experimental data
 Engineers use to design their works e.g AutoCAD
 Use in space exploration
Security and defense
 Electronic news gathering and efficient communication

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 Detecting and tracking of targets

 Used in fighting crimes e.g analysis of finger prints
 Used in scene monitoring and analysis (video surveillance)

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UNIT 2: THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

2.0 Introduction
A computer along with additional hardware and software together is called a computer system. A
computer system comprise of set of components used to process data. There exist two components
namely: the hardware component and the software component.

Computer
system

Hardware Software

Figure 2.1: The Computer System

2.1 Hardware
Computer hardware is essential for the operation of any computer system. The different components
work together to perform various tasks, from data processing and storage to input and output.
Understanding the functions and categories of computer hardware is crucial for comprehending the
overall architecture and capabilities of computer systems.

2.1.1 Definition of Computer Hardware

Computer hardware refers to the physical, tangible components of a computer system. It consists of
all the electronic and mechanical devices that make up the computer and are responsible for its
operation.

2.1.2 Functions or Uses of Computer Hardware

Computer hardware serves several essential functions:

 Data processing: Hardware components, such as the processor and memory, perform
calculations, logical operations, and data manipulation.
 Data storage: Storage devices, such as hard drives and solid-state drives (SSDs), store data
and programs.
 Input and output: Input devices, such as keyboards and mice, allow users to interact with
the computer, while output devices, such as monitors and printers, display or print
information.
 Communication: Network cards and modems enable computers to communicate with each
other and with external networks.

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These are the physical parts of computer which are assembled together to form the computer system.
1. Input/Output (I/O) devices – These devices allow you to send information to the computer
or get information from the computer.

Input Devices Output Devices

2. Central Processing Unit – CPU or Processor for short. The brain of a computer.
Approximately 1.5 in X 1.5 in. Does all the computation/work for the computer.

3. Memory – Although memory is technically any form of electronic storage, it is used most often
to identify fast, temporary forms of storage. Accessing the hard drive for information takes
time. When the information is kept in memory, the CPU can access it much more quickly.

a. Random Access Memory – RAM. Where information is stored temporarily when a program
is run. Information is automatically pulled into memory, we cannot control this. RAM is
cleared automatically when the computer is shutdown or rebooted.

 It is also called read-write memory or the main memory or the primary memory
 Programs and data that the CPU requires during the execution of a program are stored in this
memory.
 Data storage in RAM is temporary

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 RAM is volatile, i.e., as long as the power is supplied to the computer, it retains the data in it.
But as soon as the power supply is turned off, all the contents of RAM are wiped out. It is
used to store data temporarily while the computer is working.
 RAM is further classified into two types – SRAM (Static RAM) and DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
- Static RAM-SRAM (A RAM which contents does not change and does not need constant
refreshing)
- Dynamic RAM-DRAM (A RAM which contents constantly changes and needs constant
refreshment)
b. Read Only Memory – ROM. More permanent than RAM. Data stored in these chips is
nonvolatile -- it is not lost when power is removed. Data stored in these chips is either
unchangeable or requires a special operation to change.

The ROM is further classified into four types- PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, and MROM
 PROM (Programmable ROM): It can be programmed by the user. Once programmed, the
data and instructions cannot be changed
 EPROM (Erasable PROM); It can be reprogrammed. To erase data from it, expose it to
Ultraviolet light. To reprogram it, erase all previous data
 EEPROM (Eelectrically Erasable PROM); The data can be erased by applying an electric
field, with no need for ultraviolet light
 MROM (Mask ROM): It is a type of read-only memory that is masked off at the time of
production. Like other types of ROM, MROM cannot enable the user to change the data stored
in it. If it can, the process will either be difficult or very slow.
c. Hard Drive – Where you store information permanently most frequently. This is also
nonvolatile.

4. Motherboard – A circuit board that allows the CPU to interact with other parts of the
computer.

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5. Ports – Means of connecting peripheral devices to your computer.

a. Serial Port – Often used to connect an older mice, older external modems, older digital cameras,
etc to the computer. The serial port has been replaced by USB in most cases. 9-pin connector.
Small and short, often gray in color. Transmits data at 19 Kb/s.

b. Monitor Ports – Used to connect a monitor to the computer.

PCs usually use a VGA (Video Graphics Array) analog connector (also known as a D-Sub
connector) that has 15 pins in three rows. Typically blue in color.

c. USB Port – Universal Serial Bus. Now used to connect almost all peripheral devices to the
computer. USB 1.1 transmits data at 1.5 Mb/s at low speed, 12 Mb/s at full speed. USB 2.0
transmits data at 480Mb/s.

6. Power Supply – Gives your computer power by converting alternating current (AC)
supplied by the wall connection to direct current (DC).

7. Expansion Cards – Used to add/improve functionality to the computer.

a. Sound Card – Used to input and output sound under program control.
Sound cards provide better sound quality than the built in sound control provided with most
computers.

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b. Graphics Card – Used to convert the logical representation of an image to a signal that can
be used as input for a monitor.

c. Network Card – Used to provide a computer connection over a network. Transmit data at
10/100/1000 Mb/s

8. CD ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) – A device used to read CD-ROMs. If capable
of writing to the CD-ROM, then they are usually referred to as a ‘burner’ or CD-RW.

9. DVD ROM (Digital Versatile Disk Read Only Memory) – A device that is used to read
DVDs/CDs. If capable of writing to the DVD, then it is often referred to as a DVD-burner or a
DVD-RW (Rewritable)

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10. Floppy Drive – A device that is used to read/write to floppy diskettes.

11. Fan – Keeps your computer cool. If the inside of your computer becomes too hot, then the
computer can overheat and damage parts.

The three main components of a computer:

1. CPU – Central Processing Unit, coordinates all actions that occur in the system, executes program
instructions.
2. Memory – Used to store information.
3. I/O Devices – Input/Output devices, which allow you to obtain or display data.

Review questions

1. What are the 3 main components of a computer?

2. Name 3 input devices. Name 3 output devices.
3. What is the brain of the computer?
4. Explain the difference between memory and your hard drive.
5. What are the similarities and differences between RAM, ROM, and hard drives?
6. What allows the brain of the computer to interact with the other parts of the computer?
7. Describe each of the different ports and explain what they are used for.
8. What gives your computer power?

2.2. SOFTWARE
2.2.1 Definition

Computer software consists of programs, data, and instructions that tell the computer hardware what
to do. It is the intangible counterpart to the physical hardware, providing the instructions that dictate
the hardware's behaviour. Unlike hardware, software can be easily modified, updated, and replicated.

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2.2.2 TYPES OF SOFTWARE

i. SYSTEM SOFTWARE

The software that provides the basic functionality to operate a computer by interacting directly with
hardware is termed as system software. Examples of system software include operating systems,
system utilities, device drivers, etc.

a) Operating System

As the name implies, the operating system is a system software that operates the computer. An
operating system is the most basic system software, without which other software cannot work. The
operating system manages other application programs and provides access and security to the users
of the system. Some of the popular operating systems are Windows, Linux, Macintosh, Ubuntu,
Fedora, Android, iOS, etc.

b) System Utilities

Software used for maintenance and configuration of the computer system is called system utility.
Some system utilities are shipped with the operating system for example disk defragmentation tool,
formatting utility, system restore utility, etc. Another set of utilities are those which are not shipped
with the operating system but are required to improve the performance of the system, for example,
anti-virus software, disk cleaner tool, disk compression software, etc.

c) Device Drivers

As the name signifies, the purpose of a device driver is to ensure proper functioning of a particular
device. When it comes to the overall working of a computer system, the operating system does the
work. But every day new devices and components are being added to a computer system. It is not
possible for the operating system alone to operate all of the existing and new devices, where each
device has diverse characteristics. The responsibility for overall control, operation and management
of a particular device at the hardware level is delegated to its device driver. Just like a language
translator, a device driver acts as a mediator between the operating system and the attached device.

ii. APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE

Also known as ‘apps’, they are designed to allow the user of the system complete a specific task or
set of tasks. They include programs such as web browsers, office software, games and so on. They
are usually the reason you bought the computer system in the first place and aren’t concerned with
the management or maintenance of the system itself.

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Any individual software package, whichever of the above types it falls into, can be either generic (or
‘off-the-shelf’) or it can be bespoke (custom-built). Generic software is mass produced with the
intention that it will be used by a wide variety of different users in a range of different situations.
Bespoke software has the advantage that it can be tailor-made to exact specifications but it
significantly more expensive and will take time to create. Therefore, there are two broad categories
of application software — general purpose and customised application software.

 General Purpose Application Software

Also known as generic (or ‘off-the-shelf’) software, they are application software developed for
generic applications, to cater to a bigger audience in general. Such ready-made application software
can be used by end users as per their requirements. For example, spreadsheet tool Calc of LibreOffice
can be used by any computer user to do calculation or to create account sheet. Adobe Photoshop,
GIMP, Mozilla web browser, iTunes, etc., fall in the category of general purpose software.

 Customised (Bespoke) Software

These are custom or tailor-made application software that are developed to meet the requirements of
a specific organisation or an individual. Bespoke software is created for a specific purpose which will
be used in a known environment. They are better suited to the needs of an individual or an
organisation, considering that they are designed as per special requirements. Some examples of user-
defined software include websites, school management software, accounting software, etc. It is
similar to buying a piece of cloth and getting a tailor-made garment with the fitting, colour, and fabric
of our choice.

 Proprietary or Free and Open Source Software

The developers of some application software provide their source code as well as the software freely
to the public, with an aim to develop and improve further with each other’s help. Such software is
known as Free and Open Source Software (FOSS). For example, the source code of operating system
Ubuntu is freely accessible for anyone with the required knowledge to improve or add new
functionality. More examples of FOSS include Python, Libreoffice, Openoffice, Mozilla Firefox, etc.
Sometimes, software are freely available for use but source code may not be available. Such software
are called freeware. Examples of freeware are Skype, Adobe Reader, etc. When the software to be
used has to be purchased from the vendor who has the copyright of the software, then it is a
proprietary software. Examples of proprietary software include Microsoft Windows, Tally,
Quickheal, etc

Utility software

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This is software such as anti-virus software, firewalls, disk defragmenters and so on, which helps to
maintain and protect the computer system but does not directly interface with the hardware.

2.2.2.1 OPERATING SYSTEMS

An OS is a software program that manages the hardware and software resources of a computer, and
serves as interface between the computer user and the computer. Every computer has an operating
system and, regardless of the size and complexity of the computer and its operating system, all
operating systems perform the same basic functions. One of the functions of the OS is to provide an
environment (user interface) for a computer user to execute programs on computer hardware in a
convenient and efficient manner.
Computer User Interfaces
Computer user interface also referred to as Human-Computer Interface (HCI), is the term used to
describe the communication between humans and computer systems. It provides a means of input and
output of operations. The OS is the platform that enables an individual to see and work when using a
computer. Computer user interfaces vary from OS to another with different characteristics. There are
three main types of computer user interfaces: command line interface, menu driven interface and
graphical user interface.
 Command Line Interface (CLI)
Command Line Interface is a user interface where the user types commands for the computer to carry
out. It allows the user to type instructions through a command prompt. To run a program, we need to
type the name of an instruction. E.g.MS-DOS and OS/2.

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a. Advantages Of CLI
- It occupies and uses very little memory space
- They are generally fast and quick to operate
- They permit several commands to be grouped together and executed as a single batch thereby
enabling simple automation.
b. Disadvantages
- It is not user friendly as it is more suitable for computer professionals. The commands must
be learnt and memorized.

 Menu Driven Interface

It is a user interface that allows the user to make use of features like menus, pointers or arrow keys
to communicate with the computer. The user chooses an item from a displayed list. They are also
called graphical character based user interface. Example, Mobile phones.
a. Advantage
They are easy to use as one does not need to memorize the commands but rather to choose from a
list, the right option to work with.
b. Disadvantages
- They occupy a reasonable memory space
- They may be time consuming to scroll from a very long list of menu items

 Graphical User Interface

GUI is a user interface that uses computer graphics to ease the user’s operation. Commands are issued
by using a pointing device to point and click on icons, buttons, menus and lists on the screen.
Examples of GUI are MS Windows, Apple Macintosh and Linux OS.
a. Features of a GUI
GUI is rendered possible by the bit-mapping of the text and graphics displayed on the screen. Bit-
mapping means that the characters and images are represented as a matrix of dots.
i) Pointing device or pointer: a device that enables you to use a symbol (pointer or cursor)
displayed on the screen to select and move objects e.g. mouse and trackball
ii) Icon: a small symbol or picture on the computer screen that represents a command, a file, a
folder or a program.
iii) Menu: a dialog box that enables you to execute commands by selecting options from a list.
iv) Desktop: a display area on the computer screen comprising background and icons. It
represents the workspace, the surface on which we communicate with the computer.

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v) Window: a rectangular frame on the computer screen that can be move around or resized.
vi) Button: a small circle or rectangular bar within a windowed dialog box thatrepresents a choice
to be made.
vii) Dialog box: a small rectangular box displayed on a computer screen that conveys information
to, or requires a response from, the user.
b. Advantages of GUI
 It is user friendly
 It is accurate (when you click on a button the corresponding command is executed unlike in
the command line where one can make a mistake typing the command)
 It can be configured to suite the users preference
 It groups similar items together. It groups many commands in a single click
c. Disadvantages
 They require a lot of memory space to store the graphics, images, programs and files in the
RAM
 They require a high processing power
 A lot of disk space is needed to hold all the functions
 It is difficult to automate functions for subsequent use
2.2.2.2 Classification of Operating Systems
OS may be classified into different categories depending on their features:
 Multiprogramming system: it is a system where many application programs can reside in
the main memory at the same time. The concept of multiprogramming is that the operating
system keeps several jobs in memory simultaneously.
 Multi-tasking system: it is a system that allows several programs to be executed at the same
time. It is also known as timesharing. It makes it possible to print a document while editing
another or while downloading a file from the Internet. E.g. Microsoft’s Windows and Apple’s
Mac OS.
 Multi-user system: operating system that allows many different users to use the computer's
resources simultaneously. This system makes sure that the requirements of the various users
are balanced, and that each of the programs they are using has sufficient and separate resources
so that a problem with one user doesn't affect the entire community of users. E.g. Unix and
mainframe OS such as VMS (Virtual Memory system).

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2.2.2.3 Types of Operating Systems

 Batch Processing Systems
A batch operating system is an operating system which analyzes input and groups them into batches.
Data or programs are collected grouped and processed at a later date. Batch processing operating
systems are ideal in situations where:
o There are large amounts of data to be processed
o Similar data needs to be processed
o Similar processing is involved when executing the data
In a batch processing operating system interaction between the user and processor is limited or there
is no interaction at all during the execution of work.
Examples of use are payroll, stock control and billing systems.
 Real Time Operating Systems
Real time system is defines as a data processing system in which the time interval required to process
and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. Real time processing is always on
line whereas on line system need not be real time. The time taken by the system to respond to an input
and display of required updated information is termed as response time. So in this method response
time is very less as compared to the online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a processor or
the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated application.
Real- time operating system has well-defined, fixed time constraints otherwise system will fail. For
example Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon
systems, robots, and home-applicance controllers, Air traffic control system, control of nuclear power
plants, oil refining etc.
 Network Operating Systems
Network Operating System runs on a server and provides server the capability to manage data, users,
groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The primary purpose of the net- work
operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a net- work,
typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other networks. Examples of net- work
operating systems are Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX,
Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
2.2.2.4 Functions/Uses of Operating Systems

An operating system executes many functions to operate computer system efficiently. Among them,
four essential functions are the following.

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 Resource Management: An operating system manages a collection of computer hardware

resources by using a variety of programs. It manages computer system resources, including
its CPU, primary memory, virtual memory, secondary storage devices, input/output
peripherals, and other devices.
 Task Management: The function of the operating system that controls the running of many
tasks. It manages one program or many programs within a computer system simultaneously.
That is, this function of operating system manages the completion of users' tasks. A task
management program in an operating system provides each task and interrupts the CPU
operations to manage tasks efficiently. Task management may involve a multitasking
capability.
 File management: This is a function that manages data files. An operating system contains
file management programs that provide the ability to create, delete, enter, change, ask, and
access of files of data. They also produce reports on a file.
 User Interface: It is a function of an operating system that allows users to interact with a
computer. A user interface program may include a combination of menus, screen design,
keyboard commands. A well-designed user interface is essential for an operating system to be
popular. Because of the function, users can load programs, access files, and accomplish other
tasks
 Security management

2.2.2.5 Qualities of good software

 Efficiency: The ability of software to use minimum resources to carry out a task within a short
period of time
 Adaptability: The ability of software to be used in different situations without modification
 Accuracy: The ability of a software to output the right results for users
 Portability: The ability of software to work on different platform different from its original
platform it was designed.
 Robustness: The ability of software to still be working after getting invalid inputs and
stressful environmental conditions
 Correctness: It is the ability of software should be free from faults, with respect to design,
specification and implementation.
 Reliability: The ability of software to perform a task without failures
 Integrity: The ability of software to provide the maintenance of, the assurance of, and the
consistency of data throughout it life cycle

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 Testability: ability of software to have codes to write unit tests for understandability: It is
the ability of software to be easily understood and manipulated by users
 Readability: The ability of software to be readable by users
 Usability and Re-Usability: The ability of a software to be use and resused again without
beginning from scratch
 Maintainability: The ease in which an existing system can be changed and ameliorated.
 Security: The ability of software to prevent unauthorized access and malware from damaging
it
 Scalability: The ability of software to expand it functionality using patch
 Availability: The ability of software to always be functional at all times

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UNIT 3

THE BUS AS THE UNIT OF EXCHANGE IN COMPUTER SYSTEMS

3.0. Introduction:

The bus is a fundamental component of any computer system, responsible for the efficient and reliable
transfer of data among various components. Understanding the different types of buses, their
characteristics, and their roles is critical to comprehending computer architecture and performance.
Future developments in bus technology will continue to focus on higher bandwidth, lower latency,
and improved efficiency to keep pace with the ever-increasing demands of modern computing.

3.1 What is a Bus?

A bus, in the context of computer architecture, is a communication system that transfers data between
components inside a computer or between computers. Think of it as the highway system of your
computer, carrying various types of information – data, instructions, and control signals – between
different parts. It's a shared, parallel pathway (though serial buses exist), allowing multiple devices
to communicate simultaneously (though access is typically managed to avoid collisions). Without a
bus, individual components would operate in isolation, severely limiting the computer's functionality.
The efficiency and design of the bus directly impact the overall performance of the system.

3.2. Structure of a Bus

A bus is not a single wire, but rather a collection of parallel wires grouped into sets, each serving a
specific purpose. These sets are broadly categorized as:

Address Bus: A unidirectional (one-way) bus that carries memory addresses from the CPU to
memory and I/O devices. The width (number of lines) of the address bus determines the maximum
addressable memory space. For example, a 32-bit address bus can address 2³² memory
locations.

Data Bus: A bidirectional (two-way) bus that transfers data between the CPU, memory, and I/O
devices. The width of the data bus dictates how much data can be transferred simultaneously. A 64-
bit data bus can transfer 64 bits of data at once, resulting in faster data transfer rates compared to a
32-bit bus.

Control Bus: A bidirectional bus that carries control signals, indicating the type of operation
(read/write, memory access, I/O operation, etc.). These signals coordinate and synchronize data
transfer between components. Examples of control signals include:

 Memory Read/Write: Signals indicating whether data is being read from or written to memory.

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 Interrupt Request (IRQ): Signals from devices indicating they require attention from the CPU.
 Clock Signal: Synchronizes the operations of various components.
 Bus Request/Grant: Used for arbitration in multi-master bus systems (explained later).

3.3. The Role of the Bus in the Computer System

The bus plays a crucial role in enabling communication and data exchange within the computer
system:

 Data Transfer: Facilitates the movement of data between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
This includes instructions, data to be processed, and results.
 Instruction Fetch: The CPU fetches instructions from memory via the address and data bus.
 Data Fetch/Store: The CPU accesses data from memory (fetch) or writes data to memory
(store) using the address and data buses.
 I/O Operations: The bus enables communication with input/output devices (keyboard,
mouse, monitor, hard drive, etc.). The CPU sends commands and receives data from these
devices through the address, data, and control buses.
 Synchronization: The control bus ensures that all components operate in a coordinated
manner, preventing data corruption and ensuring accurate data transfer.

3.4. Types of Buses

Buses are categorized based on several factors, including their physical implementation, the distance
they cover, and the devices they connect. Some key types include:

A. Internal Buses (On-chip buses): These buses are integrated within a single chip, typically a CPU
or a chipset. They're usually high-speed and optimized for the specific needs of the chip. Examples:
Front Side Bus (FSB, largely obsolete), QuickPath Interconnect (QPI, Intel), Infinity Fabric (AMD).

B. External Buses (System buses): These buses connect components outside the CPU chip, such as
the CPU, memory, and I/O devices. They can be further classified:

 ISA (Industry Standard Architecture): An older, relatively slow bus standard.

 PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect): A widely used standard for connecting
peripheral devices. PCI-X and PCI-Express (PCIe) are later, faster versions. PCIe utilizes
serial communication for higher bandwidth.
 AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port): A dedicated bus for connecting graphics cards, offering
higher bandwidth than PCI for graphics-intensive tasks. Largely replaced by PCIe.

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 USB (Universal Serial Bus): A widely used external bus for connecting a variety of low-
speed peripheral devices like keyboards, mice, and printers. Multiple versions exist (USB
1.1, 2.0, 3.0, 3.1, 4.0), each offering increased bandwidth.
 SATA (Serial ATA): A standard for connecting hard disk drives and SSDs. It offers higher
bandwidth and faster data transfer rates than its predecessor, PATA (Parallel ATA).
 SCSI (Small Computer System Interface): A high-performance bus for connecting storage
devices, particularly in server environments.

3.5. Bus Arbitration:

When multiple devices need to access the bus simultaneously (e.g., a CPU, a hard drive, and a network
card), a mechanism called bus arbitration is crucial to prevent data collisions. Common arbitration
methods include:

 Daisy chaining: Devices are connected in series, and the device closest to the CPU gets
priority.
 Polling: The CPU polls each device to see if it needs to access the bus.
 Independent Request Lines: Each device has its own request line to signal the need to access
the bus, and a priority scheme determines which device gets access.

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UNIT 4:
THE NUMBERING SYSTEM
4.1. A Few Basic Concepts

 The Base (Radix) of the System:

The base determines the number of unique digits used in the system. The decimal system (base-10)
uses digits 0-9. Binary (base-2) uses 0 and 1. Octal (base-8) uses 0-7, and hexadecimal (base-16) uses
0-9 and A-F (where A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14, F=15).

 The Weight (Place Value):

Each digit in a number has a weight based on its position. In base-10, the rightmost digit has a weight
of 10⁰ (1), the next digit to the left has a weight of 10¹ (10), the next 10² (100), and so on. This concept
applies to all bases; the weight is the base raised to the power of the position (starting from 0 on the
right).

 Alphabet of the Language:

This refers to the set of symbols used to represent digits. For base-10, it's 0-9. For base-16, it's 0-9
and A-F.

 Format of the Word (Number Representation):

This describes how the digits are arranged to form a number. Generally, it's a sequence of digits, with
the weight increasing from right to left.

 Power of Language (Not a standard term):

This is likely referring to the expressive power of different bases. While base-10 is commonly used,
other bases are useful in specific contexts (e.g., binary for computers). The "power" here could refer
to the efficiency or suitability of a base for a particular application.

4.2. A Few Numbering Systems

A. THE DECIMAL SYSTEM (BASE-10):

The decimal system, also known as the base-10 system, is the most widely used number system in
the world. Its fundamental characteristics are:

• Base: 10. This means it uses ten distinct digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) to represent numbers.

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• Positional Notation: The value of a digit depends on its position within the number. Each position
represents a power of 10. For example, in the number 1234:
 The rightmost digit (4) is in the 10⁰ (ones) place.
 The next digit to the left (3) is in the 10¹ (tens) place.
 The next digit (2) is in the 10² (hundreds) place.
 The leftmost digit (1) is in the 10³ (thousands) place.
Therefore, 1234 can be expressed as: (1 × 10³) + (2 × 10²) + (3 × 10¹) + (4 × 10⁰) = 1000 + 200 + 30
+ 4 = 1234.
• Advantages: Its familiarity and widespread use make it convenient for everyday calculations and
communication. The base 10 is naturally linked to our ten fingers, making it intuitive for humans.
• Disadvantages: While intuitive for humans, it's not necessarily the most efficient system for
computers, which operate using binary (base-2) systems. Representing large numbers can require
many digits.
Applications of the Decimal System
While the binary system is the fundamental language of computers, the decimal system (base-10)
plays a vital role in how humans interact with computers. It's the number system we use in our daily
lives, and computers bridge the gap between their internal binary representations and our decimal-
based world:
1. Human-Computer Interaction

Input and Output

 User Input: When we enter numbers using keyboards, mice, or touchscreens, we're typically
entering decimal numbers. The computer's input systems (e.g., keyboard drivers) translate
these decimal values into binary for processing.
 Display Output: When computers display numbers on screens, they usually present them in
decimal format. The computer converts binary results back into decimal for readability. This
includes displaying file sizes, calculation results, application data, etc.

User Interfaces (UIs):

 Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) are designed to be user-friendly, and part of this means
presenting information in a human-readable decimal format. This includes dialog boxes,
settings panels, and data displays in various applications.

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2. Application-Level Representation and Calculation

Software Applications: Most applications that handle numerical data present and process those
numbers in decimal format. This includes:

 Spreadsheets: Formulas and calculations in spreadsheets operate on decimal numbers.

 Databases: Databases store and retrieve numerical data, typically in decimal form.
 Financial Software: Programs for accounting, banking, and stock trading use decimal for
accuracy and human comprehension.
 Scientific Software: While computations may involve binary internally, results are usually
presented in decimal format.

3. Configuration and Settings

System Settings:

When configuring computer hardware and software, users often input settings using decimal values,
including:

 Network settings (IP addresses, subnet masks, etc.)

 Hardware configuration parameters
 Application preferences

File Sizes and Dates:

 File sizes (e.g., 10 MB, 2 GB) are typically displayed in decimal units.
 Dates and times are also typically shown using the decimal system.

4. Software Development:

 High-Level Programming: Most high-level programming languages (Python, Java, C++, etc.)
allow developers to use decimal numbers directly in their code. These languages handle the
underlying conversion to binary automatically.
 User Input Parsing: Developers often need to handle user input from text fields or other
sources. Parsing this input into a program variable often involves conversion from decimal
string values to a numerical data type.
 Data Serialization: In some cases, numerical data may be serialized to or from a human-
readable form (e.g., in JSON, CSV, XML) as decimal values.

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B. THE BINARY SYSTEM (BASE-2):

Uses only 0 and 1. Fundamental to digital computers.

The binary system, also known as the base-2 system, is fundamental to digital computers because it
directly reflects the on/off states of electronic components. Here's a breakdown of its key
characteristics:

• Base: 2. This means it uses only two digits: 0 and 1. These digits represent the two possible states
of a binary digit, or bit: 0 (off) and 1 (on).

• Positional Notation: Similar to the decimal system, the value of a digit depends on its position.
Each position represents a power of 2. For example, in the binary number 10110₂:

 The rightmost digit (0) is in the 2⁰ (ones) place.

 The next digit (1) is in the 2¹ (twos) place.
 The next digit (1) is in the 2² (fours) place.
 The next digit (0) is in the 2³ (eights) place.
 The leftmost digit (1) is in the 2⁴ (sixteens) place.

Therefore, 10110₂ can be expressed as: (1 × 2⁴) + (0 × 2³) + (1 × 2²) + (1 × 2¹) + (0 × 2⁰) = 16 + 0 +
4 + 2 + 0 = 22₁₀

• Advantages for Computers: Binary is directly implementable in digital circuits using transistors
that can be either on (1) or off (0). This makes it extremely efficient for computers to store, process,
and manipulate data.

• Disadvantages for Humans: Binary representation can be cumbersome and difficult for humans
to read and understand, especially for large numbers. It requires significantly more digits than decimal
to represent the same value.

• Conversion: Converting between binary and decimal (and other bases) is a crucial skill in computer
science. The methods involve repeatedly dividing by the base (for decimal-to-binary) or summing
powers of the base (for binary-to-decimal).

Applications of the binary system

The binary system (base-2), with its digits 0 and 1, is the absolute bedrock of modern computing. It's
not just a numbering system used in computers; it's the fundamental system. Here's a detailed look at
its applications:

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1. Fundamental Representation of Data and Instructions:

 All data as binary: Every piece of information that a computer processes, stores, or transmits is
ultimately represented in binary code. This includes:
 Numbers: Integers, floating-point numbers, etc.
 Characters: Letters, symbols, digits, punctuation marks (represented using character encodings
like ASCII or Unicode).
 Images: Pixels are represented as binary values for color and brightness.
 Audio: Sound waves are digitized and converted to binary data.
 Videos: A combination of images and audio represented in binary form.
 Program Instructions: The code that a processor executes is itself a sequence of binary
instructions.
 Low-Level Operations: The CPU works directly with binary values. Operations like addition,
subtraction, logical AND, OR, NOT, shifting, and comparisons are all performed at the binary
level.

2. Hardware Implementation:

 Transistors and Logic Gates: Computers use electronic circuits made up of transistors. Transistors
act as switches, having two states: on (representing 1) and off (representing 0). Binary directly
corresponds to the two states of these electronic switches.
 Memory Storage:
 RAM (Random Access Memory): Stores data as electrical charges that can be either present (1) or
absent (0).
 ROM (Read-Only Memory): Data is fixed, represented as connections (1) or no connections (0).
 Hard Drives and SSDs: Utilize magnetic or electrical polarity to store binary data on the storage
medium.
 CPU Design: The CPU's logic gates and circuits are designed to process binary data using binary
arithmetic and logical operations.

3. Memory Addressing:

 Locating Data: Every location in a computer's memory is associated with a unique address, which
is a binary number. The CPU uses these binary addresses to access specific memory locations to
retrieve or store data.

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4. Data Transmission and Networking:

 Communication Protocols: Data transmitted over networks is sent in binary form (as sequences of
0s and 1s). Network protocols define how binary data should be formatted and interpreted.
 Electrical and Optical Signals: Signals transmitted over network cables are electrical or optical,
and they represent binary data through changes in voltage, current, or light intensity.
 Wireless Communication: In wireless communication, the radio waves also encode information
through a binary modulation schemes.

5. Error Detection and Correction:

 Parity Bits: A parity bit is used to check for errors during data transmission or storage by adding
an extra bit to make the number of '1' bits either even or odd.
 Checksums and CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check): These algorithms use binary operations to
calculate checksum values, which are then transmitted with the data to detect errors.
 Error Correcting Codes: Sophisticated algorithms using binary operations allow for errors to be
both detected and corrected.

6. Programming and Software Development:

 Assembly Language and Machine Code: While programmers mostly write code in higher-level
languages, those languages are translated into lower-level assembly code or machine code, which
are sequences of binary instructions.
 Bit Manipulation: Programmers often use bitwise operators (AND, OR, NOT, XOR, shifts) to
directly manipulate individual bits in memory for various purposes like setting flags, manipulating
registers or packing values into memory.

C. THE OCTAL SYSTEM (BASE-8): USES DIGITS 0-7.

Historically used in computing, often as a shorthand for binary.

The octal system, or base-8 system, uses eight digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7) to represent numbers.
While less common now than in the early days of computing, it still holds some historical
significance.

• Base: 8. Each position in an octal number represents a power of 8.

• Positional Notation: For example, the octal number 372₈ can be expressed as:

* (3 × 8²) + (7 × 8¹) + (2 × 8⁰) = (3 × 64) + (7 × 8) + (2 × 1) = 192 + 56 + 2 = 250₁₀

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• Relationship to Binary: The primary reason for octal's historical use in computing is its close
relationship with binary. Each octal digit can be represented by three binary digits (bits). This makes
conversion between octal and binary straightforward:

Octal to Binary: Simply replace each octal digit with its 3-bit binary equivalent. For example, 372₈
becomes 011 111 010₂ (leading zeros are added for clarity).

Binary to Octal: Group the binary digits into sets of three, starting from the rightmost bit. Then,
convert each 3-bit group into its octal equivalent. For example, 11011101₂ becomes 110 111 01 which
converts to 671₈.

 Advantages (Historical): Octal provided a more compact representation than binary for
humans while maintaining a relatively easy conversion to and from binary. This was
particularly useful when dealing with large binary numbers.
 Disadvantages: Octal is less intuitive for humans than decimal and is largely superseded by
hexadecimal (base-16) as a more efficient shorthand for binary. Its use in modern computing
is minimal, though understanding it provides insight into the history of computing and the
relationships between different number systems.

Application of the Octal System

While the octal system isn't as prevalent as binary, decimal, or hexadecimal in modern computing, it
still holds some significance, primarily due to its historical use and its relationship to binary.

1. Historical Significance:

Early Computing Systems: In the early days of computing, particularly with machines that had word
sizes that were multiples of 3 bits (like 12, 18, 24, and 36-bit systems), octal was a convenient way
to represent the binary data.

2. File Permissions in Unix-Like Systems:

Representing File Access Rights: Unix-like operating systems (Linux, macOS, BSD, etc.) use octal
numbers to represent file permissions.

Why it is Less Used Now

 Byte-Oriented Systems: Modern computers are typically byte-oriented (8-bit). Hexadecimal

(base-16) is a more natural fit for representing bytes, since one hexadecimal digit represents
4 bits (a half-byte), making two hex digits an entire byte.

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 Human Readability: While Octal is still more compact than Binary, Hexadecimal is easier to
read for larger chunks of data because it uses a more varied set of symbols before starting
multi-digit numbers.
 Less Common Hardware: The widespread use of 8-bit and 16-bit systems (and their
derivatives) has diminished the advantage octal held when systems were based on sizes that
aligned neatly with 3-bit groupings.

D. THE HEXADECIMAL SYSTEM (BASE-16):

The hexadecimal system, or base-16 system, is widely used in computing because of its efficient
representation of binary data. It's a positional number system like decimal, octal, and binary, but with
a base of 16.

• Base: 16. This means it uses sixteen distinct digits: 0-9 and A-F, where A represents 10, B represents
11, C represents 12, D represents 13, E represents 14, and F represents 15.

• Positional Notation: Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a power of 16. For example,
the hexadecimal number 2AF₁₆ can be converted to decimal as follows:

* (2 × 16²) + (10 × 16¹) + (15 × 16⁰) = (2 × 256) + (10 × 16) + (15 × 1) = 512 + 160 + 15 = 687₁₀

 Relationship to Binary: The key advantage of hexadecimal is its direct relationship with binary.
Each hexadecimal digit corresponds to exactly four binary digits (bits):
- Hexadecimal to Binary: Replace each hexadecimal digit with its 4-bit binary equivalent. For
example, 2AF₁₆ becomes 0010 1010 1111₂.
- Binary to Hexadecimal: Group the binary digits into sets of four, starting from the rightmost
bit. Then convert each 4-bit group to its hexadecimal equivalent. For example,
110100111011₂ becomes 1101 0011 1011₂, which is D3B₁₆.
 Advantages in Computing: Hexadecimal offers a much more compact representation of binary
data than binary itself. It's easier for humans to read and write hexadecimal than long strings of
binary digits, making it ideal for representing memory addresses, color codes (in RGB), and other
data in computer systems. The close relationship with binary simplifies conversions.
 Disadvantages: Hexadecimal is not as intuitive for humans as decimal. Learning the A-F digits
requires some initial effort. However, this is a minor inconvenience compared to the significant
advantages it offers in terms of compactness and efficient representation of binary data.

How it's Used: Used as a shorthand for binary because it can represent a larger range of binary values
using fewer digits. Frequently used in memory addresses, color codes (e.g., in HTML), and
representing data in low-level programming.

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Applications
The hexadecimal system (base-16) plays a crucial role in computing, primarily as a convenient
shorthand for representing binary data. While computers operate internally using binary, hex provides
a more compact and human-readable way to work with it. Here's a detailed look at the applications
of the hexadecimal system in computing:
1. Memory Addressing and Low-Level Programming:
 Memory Addresses: Memory locations in computer systems are often represented using
hexadecimal addresses. Since a single hexadecimal digit corresponds to 4 bits (a nibble), two
hexadecimal digits represent a full byte (8 bits). This makes hex a natural fit for working with
memory addresses that are measured in bytes.
 Assembly Language: When writing assembly language programs, which are low-level languages
that map directly to machine code, programmers frequently use hexadecimal notation to represent
memory locations, register values, and instructions.
 Machine Code: While machine code itself is binary, it is cumbersome to read and write binary by
hand. Assembly programmers usually write code in hexadecimal format before translating it to
binary.
2. Color Representation:
 Web Development and Graphics: In web design and computer graphics, colors are often
represented using hexadecimal codes.
 For instance, #FF0000 represents red, #00FF00 represents green, and #0000FF represents blue.
 Each pair of hex digits represents the intensity of the red, green, and blue color components (e.g.,
FF is 255 in decimal, representing the highest intensity, and 00 is zero intensity).
 Image Editing Software: Tools like Photoshop and GIMP use hexadecimal color codes for
specifying and editing colors.
3. Data Encoding and Serialization:
 Base16 Encoding: The base16 encoding scheme converts binary data to hexadecimal
representation. It's sometimes used for transferring data or as intermediate step between systems.
 Configuration Files: Some configuration files or data serialization formats use hexadecimal
notation to represent binary data or flags.
4. Networking and Communication Protocols:
 MAC Addresses: Media Access Control (MAC) addresses, which uniquely identify network
devices, are often displayed as sequences of hexadecimal digits.
 IPv6 Addresses: The newer IPv6 addresses are very long, and typically written in hexadecimal
notation.
 Network Protocol Headers: Low-level network protocols often utilize hexadecimal representations
for headers, flags, and other binary data.

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4.3. The Basic Changes (Conversions)

Decimal to Another Base (b): To convert a decimal number to base-b, repeatedly divide the decimal
number by b and record the remainders. The remainders, read in reverse order, form the base-b
representation.

Base-b to Decimal: To convert a base-b number to decimal, multiply each digit by its corresponding
weight (b raised to the power of its position) and sum the results.

Binary to Octal and Vice Versa:

Since 8 = 2³, each octal digit corresponds to three binary digits. Group the binary digits into sets of
three (starting from the right), and convert each group to its octal equivalent. The reverse process is
similar.

Binary to Hexadecimal and Vice Versa:

Since 16 = 2⁴, each hexadecimal digit corresponds to four binary digits. Group the binary digits into
sets of four (starting from the right), and convert each group to its hexadecimal equivalent. The
reverse process is similar.

Exercises:
1. Binary to Decimal Conversion:
a) Convert the binary number 1101101₂ to decimal.
2. Decimal to Binary Conversion:
a) Convert the decimal number 157₁₀ to binary.

3. Octal to Decimal Conversion:

a) Convert the octal number 735₈ to decimal.

4. Decimal to Octal Conversion:

a) Convert the decimal number 195₁₀ to octal.
5. Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion:
a) Convert the hexadecimal number A2F₁₆ to decimal.
6. Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion:
a) Convert the decimal number 278₁₀ to hexadecimal.
7. Binary to Hexadecimal and vice-versa:

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a) Convert the binary number 11101011₂ to hexadecimal.

8. Octal to Binary and vice-versa:
a) Convert the octal number 627₈ to binary.
Solutions:
1. Binary to Decimal Conversion:
a) 1101101₂ = 12⁶ + 12⁵ + 02⁴ + 12³ + 12² + 02¹ + 1*2⁰ = 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 1 = 109₁₀
2. Decimal to Binary Conversion:
a) 157₁₀ = 10011101₂ (Repeatedly divide by 2 and read remainders in reverse order)
3. Octal to Decimal Conversion:
a) 735₈ = 78² + 38¹ + 5*8⁰ = 448 + 24 + 5 = 477₁₀
4. Decimal to Octal Conversion:
a) 195₁₀ = 303₈ (Repeatedly divide by 8 and read remainders in reverse order)

5. Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion:

a) A2F₁₆ = 1016² + 216¹ + 15*16⁰ = 2560 + 32 + 15 = 2607₁₀
6. Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion:
a) 278₁₀ = 116₁₆
7. Binary to Hexadecimal and vice-versa:
a) 11101011₂ = EB₁₆ (Group binary digits into sets of 4 from right to left)
8. Octal to Binary and vice-versa:
a) 627₈ = 110010111₂ (Convert each octal digit to its 3-bit binary equivalent)

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 GENERAL COMPUTING I

UNIT 5
THE CODE
5.1 Definition:
A code is a system of symbols, letters, or numbers used to represent data or instructions. It's a
systematic mapping between one set of symbols (the message or data) and another set of symbols
(the code). This mapping allows for efficient storage, transmission, or processing of information.
Codes can be simple substitutions (e.g., A=1, B=2) or more complex systems involving multiple
levels of encoding.
5.2 Objectives of Codification:
The primary objectives of codification include:
 Data Compression: Reducing the size of data for efficient storage and transmission.
 Data Security: Protecting information from unauthorized access or modification through
encryption or other coding techniques.
 Error Detection and Correction: Incorporating redundancy to detect and correct errors that
might occur during transmission or storage.
 Standardization: Establishing common formats and representations for data to ensure
interoperability between different systems.
 Data Representation: Enabling efficient representation of complex information (e.g.,
images, sound) in a computer-processable format.
5.3 Functional Codification:
Functional codification refers to the assignment of codes based on the function or purpose of the items
being coded. It aims to organize and categorize data logically, improving data management and
retrieval.
Types of Functional Codes:
 Sequential Codes: Codes assigned in a consecutive order (e.g., product numbers assigned
sequentially as new products are introduced).
 Block Codes: Codes assigned based on groups or categories (e.g., product codes where the
first digit represents a product category).
 Hierarchical Codes: Codes using a hierarchical structure to represent nested categories (e.g.,
Dewey Decimal System for library books).
 Mnemonic Codes: Codes designed to be easily remembered and associated with the item
they represent (e.g., using abbreviations or initials).
5.4 Technological Codification:
Technological codification involves the use of codes for the efficient processing of data by machines.
This often involves binary codes (using 0s and 1s) suitable for digital systems. These codes are
crucial for computer hardware and software operation. Examples include:
 Binary codes: Representing numbers and instructions directly in binary.
 Character codes: Representing alphanumeric characters and special symbols (e.g., ASCII,
Unicode).
 Instruction codes: Codes representing machine instructions in a computer's instruction set.

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 GENERAL COMPUTING I

5.5 . ALPHANUMERIC CODES

a. The ASCII Code
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is a widely used character
encoding standard that assigns numerical values to alphanumeric characters, symbols, and control
characters. The original ASCII standard used 7 bits, allowing for 128 unique characters (0-127).
These include uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, punctuation marks, and control characters
(like carriage return and line feed).
Extended ASCII:
Extended ASCII uses 8 bits (a byte), allowing for 256 unique characters (0-255). The additional
characters often include accented characters, graphic symbols, and other special characters.
However, the extended ASCII character set is not universally standardized, leading to variations
depending on the system or application.
Uses:
ASCII was crucial in the early days of computing and is still widely used today, though largely
superseded by Unicode for handling diverse languages and character sets. ASCII remains essential
in many text-based protocols and file formats. Its simplicity and widespread adoption make it useful
for simple text processing and communication. However, its limited character set restricts its use
when dealing with international character sets or specialized symbols.

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