Graphs

Business Mathematics (G3511EC/BCM3571)

University of Namibia
Valdemar J. Undji, PhD
vundji@[Link]
© 2025
 Overview

I. Straight line graph (slope of a line, intersection of two lines)

II. Parabola (sign table, intersection of line and parabola)
III. Graph of a square root and exponential graphs

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Straight line graphs
To draw a graph make a table of the coordinates then use those
coordinates. y

Example: 𝑥 – 𝑦 = 2
(4; 2)
Some points on the graph (3; 1)
𝑥 0 2 3 4
x
𝑦 −2 0 1 2 (2; 0)

(0; − 2)

To draw a straight line we need only two points where the line cuts the
two axes.
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Straight line graphs
Exercise
Sketch the graphs for the following equations and clearly show where
the graphs cut the x– axis and y– axis.
1
(a) – 𝑦 =– 2𝑥 + 3 (b) 𝑦 = 𝑥– 1 (c) 5𝑥– 2𝑦 = 10
2

General equation
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 where 𝑚 and 𝑐 are constants. m is the slope (or gradient)
of the line and 𝑐 is the 𝑦– intercept.

The y– intercept is the value of 𝑦 where the line cuts the 𝑦–axis.
For any point on the 𝑥–axis the 𝑦 co-ordinate is always zero
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Straight line graphs
For any point on the 𝑦–axis the 𝑥 co-ordinate is always zero. These are
illustrated below

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The slope of a line
Let 𝐴: (𝑥1 ; 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵: (𝑥2 ; 𝑦2 ) represent two different points on a non-
vertical line.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 ∆𝑦
The slope (𝑚) of any line is defined by 𝑚 = =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ∆𝑥

Put differently, ∆𝑦 is difference between the two 𝑦- values, while

∆𝑥 is difference between corresponding 𝑥- values.

Example
Consider the following equation: −𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 3
The line passes through the points (4; 5) and (8; 13)
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The slope of a line
∆𝑦 = 13 – 5 = 8
∆𝑥 = 8 – 4 = 4
∆𝑦 8
So: Slope 𝑚 = = = 2.
∆𝑥 4

Alternatively
Rearrange −𝑦 = − 2𝑥 + 3
So that 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3
∆𝑦
∴ the slope 𝑚 = = 2
∆𝑥

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The slope of a line

Exercises
Find the slope of the lines through the following points:

(a) (– 2; – 3) and (2; 5)

(b) (– 2; 3) and (2; 5)

(c) (– 2; 3) and (4; – 3)

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Parallel and perpendicular lines
Parallel lines have the same slope. They are always of the same distance
apart. Perpendicular lines form an angle of 90o when they cross.
The product of their slopes equals –1.
The diagram below illustrates the above concepts
y y = 2x + 4
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4

(0; 4)

x
(– 2; 0) (2; 0) (8; 0)

(0;− 4) 1
y= –2 x+4

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Parallel and perpendicular lines
Lines 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 4 and 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4 are parallel. Both have the slope = 2
Lines 𝑦 = −½𝑥 + 4 and 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4 are perpendicular because the
product of their slopes is −1.

Exercise
Which of the following lines are parallel and which are perpendicular?
1 3
A: 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 1 B: 𝑦 = − 𝑥– 2
3 4
4
C: 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 D: 𝑦 = − 𝑥− 1
3
1
E: 𝑦 = − 𝑥− 4 F: 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2
3
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G: 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 1 H: 𝑦 = 𝑥– 3
3
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Finding the equation of a line
If a point on a line and the slope of the line is known, the equation whose graph is
that line can be obtained. The equation of a line is given by: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐.

Example
Find the equation of the line below as well as the co–ordinates of points A and B.

Slope of the line:

∆𝑦 2 − (−4) 6
𝑚= = = =2
∆𝑥 2 − (−1) 3
Equation of line: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
Therefore: 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 𝑐

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Finding the equation of a line
Any point on this line is a solution to this equation, therefore substitute
point (2; 2) in this equation i.e., when 𝑥 = 2 then 𝑦 = 2

𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 𝑐  2 = 2(2) + 𝑐 and 𝑐 = − 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 2
The line cuts the 𝑦 – axis where 𝑥 = 0
therefore 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 2  𝑦 = 2(0) − 2 = − 2
So that 𝐴 = (0; – 2)

The line cuts the 𝑥– axis where 𝑦 = 0

Therefore 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 2  0 = 2𝑥 − 2 ∴𝑥 =1
which gives: 𝐵 = (1; 0)
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Finding the equation of a line
Exercise
1. Find the equation of the line through points (– 3; 5) and (3; 2)
2. Where does this line cut the 𝑥– axis and 𝑦– axis.
3. Find the equation of a line parallel to this line through the point
(– 2; – 1)
4. Find the equation of a line perpendicular to the first line through the
point (3; – 3). Where does this perpendicular line cut the 𝑥– axis?

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Intersection of two lines
Lines intersect when coordinates are the same.
3 1
Example 1: Consider the equations 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3 and 𝑦 = − 𝑥+2
2 2
The equations are shown in the diagram below.
3
y 𝑦 =2 𝑥− 3
(0; 4)

x
(2; 0) (4; 0)
1
𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 2
(0; − 3) 2

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Intersection of two lines
To find the point of intersection solve the two equations simultaneously
Substitute the first into the second to get:
3 1 1
𝑥– 3 = − 𝑥 +2 ∴𝑥 = 2
2 2 2

Substitute this 𝑥–value into any of the two equations to find the
corresponding 𝑦–value
3 5 15 3
𝑦 = ( )– 3 = –3=
2 2 4 4
1 3
Therefore, intersection point is (2 ; ).
2 4

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Intersection of two lines
Example 2
Draw the graph of the inverse demand function 𝑝 = − 5𝑥 + 600

Solution
When 𝑝 = 0 , 𝑥 = 120.
When 𝑥 = 0 , 𝑝 = 600.

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Intersection of two lines
Exercise
Sketch the graph of the supply function given by:
𝑝 = 2𝑥 + 100
where 𝑝 is the price and 𝑥 the number of products required.

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The Parabola
The graph of the quadratic function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is called
a parabola and has a shape like the curve of the example below.

Example
𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6

The table of coordinates is shown below

x –2 –1 0 0.5 1 3
y 0 – 4 –6 –6.25 –6 0

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The Parabola
Using numbers in the table the graph is also shown below
y

−2 x
3
(−1; − 4)

1
( /2 ; − 6 1/4)

The graph is a parabola.

The parabola has a turning point at the lowest point on the graph called
the vertex.
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The Parabola
Turning point of the general parabola: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
−𝑏 4𝑎𝑐−𝑏2
is given by ( ; )
2𝑎 4𝑎

From the 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 (𝑎=1; 𝑏=–1 and 𝑐=–6) the turning point is

−𝑏 4𝑎𝑐−𝑏2 1 −24−1 1 1
( ; ) = ( ; ) = ( , −6 )
2𝑎 4𝑎 2 4 2 4

The line 𝑥 = ½ that goes exactly through the middle of this parabola is
called the axis of symmetry.

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The Parabola
We say that the parabola is – symmetrical about the line 𝑥 = ½ .

Another way of finding the turning point is to find the 𝑥– value halfway
between –2 and 3 above (which is ½ ) and then to substitute this in the
equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 to find the 𝑦– value

i.e. 𝑦 = ( ½ )2 – ( ½)– 6 = – 6 ¼

This gives the point ( ½ ; – 6 ¼ ).

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The Parabola
Example: Sketch graph for 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 8

The graph cuts the 𝑦– axis when 𝑥 = 0 and therefore 𝑦 = –8.

Also, the graph cuts the 𝑥– axis when 𝑦 = 0 which gives the equation:
−𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 8 = 0. ∴ 𝑥 = 2 or 4.

To find the turning point take the 𝑥– value between 2 and 4 which is 3.
⇒ 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 8 = −32 + 6(3) − 8 = 1 and the turning point (3;
1).
−𝑏 4𝑎𝑐−𝑏2
Note: If we use ( ; ) we also get (3; 1).
2𝑎 4𝑎
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The Parabola

Exercise
Sketch the graphs of the following functions clearly showing where the
graphs cut the axes as well as the turning points:
1. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 and
2. 𝑦 = −2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2
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The Parabola
Intersection of a line and a parabola
Solve the equations of the graphs simultaneously.
Example
Consider the graphs of the following equations: 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 and
𝑦 = − 2𝑥 − 4
Where the graphs cut they must satisfy both equations so that
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 = − 2𝑥 − 4
⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0
or (𝑥 – 1)(𝑥 + 2) = 0 and 𝑥 = 1 or – 2
When 𝑥 = 1 then 𝑦 = – 2(1) – 4 = – 6 and when 𝑥 = −2 then
𝑦 = − 2(− 2) − 4 = 0.
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The Parabola
Therefore: 𝐴 = (− 2; 0) and 𝐵 = (1; − 6)

Exercise
Sketch graphs of these parabolas and lines on the same axes and find
the points of intersection.

(1) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 – 3𝑥– 2 and 𝑦 = – 3𝑥

(2) 𝑦 = – 2𝑥 2 – 𝑥 + 3 and 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1

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Other graphs
The graph of a square root y

Example 𝑦 = √𝑥

Graph of 𝑦 = √𝑥 (4; 2)
(9; 3)

(1; 1)

x 1 4 9 x

y 1 2 3

Note: 𝑥 must be positive because the square root of a negative number

is not real.

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Other graphs
Exponential graphs
Example y 𝑦 = 2𝑥

Graph of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 (2; 4)

x –1 –4 0 1 2 (1; 2)

y ¼ ½ 1 2 4
1
x

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Other graphs
Graph of 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙 y

𝑦 = 3𝑥

(2; 9)

x –2 –1 0 1 2
y 1 1 1 3 9
9 3
(1; 3)

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Other graphs
Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 .
y
𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥

(1; e)

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Other graphs: The straight line graph
Example 1
Draw sketch graphs for: 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12; 𝑥 – 3𝑦 = 3 and 𝑥 = – 3
(i) Find the co–ordinates of points of intersection.
Solution
To draw the graph of a straight line you need points where the lines
cross the axes.
Table of coordinates
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12 𝑥 – 3𝑦 = 3
𝑥 0 6 0 3
𝑦 4 0 -1 0
𝑥 =– 3 gives a vertical line through –3 on the 𝑥–axis.
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Other graphs: The straight line graph
y
A x − 3y = 3

x = −3

−3 x
3 6

−1
2x+3y = 12
B

Obtain the point of intersection by solving the equations simultaneously.

These points are numbered A, B and C in the diagram

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Other graphs: The straight line graph
Point A
Solve simultaneously 𝑥 = −3 and 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12
A has co–ordinates (– 3; 6). A = (– 3; 6).
Point B
Solve simultaneously 𝑥 =– 3 and 𝑥 – 3𝑦 = 3
B has co–ordinates (–3; –2). B = (–3; –2).
Point C
Solve simultaneously lines 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12 and 𝑥 – 3𝑦 = 3
C has co–ordinates (5; 11 ). C = (5; 11 )

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Other graphs: The straight line graph
Example 2
Draw sketch graphs for:
2𝑦– 𝑥 = 2; 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 6 and 𝑦 = –1
Find the co–ordinates of a points of intersection.
Solution
To draw the graph of a straight line you need points where the lines
cross the axes.
2𝑦 – 𝑥 = 2 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 6
𝑥 0 1 0 2
𝑦 –2 0 3 0

𝑦 = – 1 gives a horizontal line through –1 on the 𝑦–axis.

33
Other graphs: The straight line graph
y

2y − x = 2
3

x
−2 2

B −1 C y = −1

3x+2y = 6

Point A
Solve the two simultaneous equations 2𝑦– 𝑥 = 2 and 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 6
A = (1; 1½).

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Other graphs: The straight line graph
Points B
Solve the two simultaneous equations 2𝑦– 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑦 = – 1
B = (– 4; –1).
Points C
Solve the two simultaneous equations 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 6 and 𝑦 =– 1
C = (8/3 ; –1).

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Inequality Region
Example 1
(1 ) Shade the region satisfying the inequalities below:
2𝑦 – 𝑥 ≤ 2; 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 ≤ 6 and 𝑦 ≥ – 1
y

2y − x = 2
3

1
−2
x
2

B −1 C y = −1
3x+2y = 6

36
Inequality Region
Example 2
(a) Draw and shade the region given by: 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≤ 2; 𝑥– 3𝑦 ≤ 3 and 𝑥 ≥– 3.
(b) Find the co–ordinates of the corner points of this region.
A
y
(−3 ; 8/3)

2/3

x = −3 x − 3y = 3

3 1 x
−1
−3 2x+3y = 2
B

(c) Points of intersection (corner points) are:

8 5 13 4
𝐴 = (– 3; ) 𝐵 = (– 3; ) and 𝐶 = ( ; − )
3 3 3 9
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Inequality Region
Exercise
a) Draw and shade this region: 𝑦– 𝑥 ≤ 1; 2𝑥+≤ 4; 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≥ – 1
b) Find the co-ordinates of the corner points.

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Maximum (biggest) and Minimum (smallest)
points
Max 𝑝 = 150𝑥 + 180𝑦 such that
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≤ 2; 𝑥 – 3𝑦 ≤ 3 and 𝑥 ≥ – 3.
Maximum (biggest) and minimum (smallest) points for the function
are at the corner point of a region and not at a point inside the region.
(– 2; 0) 150(– 2) + 180(0) = – 300
(– 1; 3) 150(– 1) + 180(3) = 390
(2; 1) 150(2) + 180(1) = 480
(– 3; 6) 150(– 3) + 180(6) = 630
(– 3; – 2) 150(– 3) + 180(– 2) = – 810
2 2
(5; ) 150(5) + 180 ( ) = 70
3 3
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Maximum (biggest) and Minimum (smallest)
points
So the biggest answer for P (630) and the smallest answer ( –810) are
both at two of the comer points.

40
Summary

From the lecture we have learnt how to:

• find the equation of a line
• determine a line from two points
• sketch straight line graphs and the parabola
• differentiate exponential graphs from square root graphs
• apply the concepts of inequalities in sketching graphs
• apply the concepts of graphs to some business related scenarios
~End of Lecture 6~

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