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Understand the Role of
Transducers in Industry
Industrial Electronics
Chapter 3
Stimulus (s) Signal (S)
Physical Sensing Transduction
Medium Element & Response
Conditioning
Temperature Resistance Voltage Information
Sensor
A sensor is a device that converts a physical stimulus from one form into a more useful
form to measure the stimulus
a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
acquires information from the “real world”
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Sensors & Transducers
• Transducer
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, EM, optical, chemical, etc.
– take form of a sensor or an actuator
real sensor
intelligent
world feedback
actuator system
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Transducer - Classification
• The purpose of a Transducer is convert a physical quantity into an
electrical signal
• Type of Signal Output:
1. Analog
2. Discrete
Binary (on or off)
Digital (e.g., pulse counter)
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Transducers - Classification
Type of Excitation
1. Active
Doesn’t need any additional energy source
Directly generates an electric signal in response to an external stimuli
E.g. Thermocouple, Piezoelectric sensor, Solar Cell
2. Passive
Requires external power called excitation signal
Modify excitation signal to provide output
E.g. thermistor, resistive strain gauge
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Transducers in course
• Load Cell (Strain Gauge)
• Displacement (position)
– Potentiometric
– Capacitive
– Inductive
– LVDT
• Thermal Transducers
– RTD
– Thermistor
– Thermocouple
– IC
– Pyrometer
• Optical Transducers (Photoelectric)
• Piezoelectric ( Pressure)
• Hall Effect Sensor
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Transducer Characteristics
Span or Full scale input
Full scale output
Accuracy
Hysteresis
Repeatability
Resolution/ Sensitivity
Environmental Conditions
Linearity
Calibration
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Sensor Characteristics
Span or Full scale input
A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted by a sensor
represents the highest possible input value that can be applied to the
sensor without causing an unacceptably large inaccuracy
Full scale output
algebraic difference between the electrical output signals measured with
maximum input stimulus and the lowest input stimulus applied
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Sensor Characteristics
Accuracy
Accuracy is measured as a highest deviation of a value represented by the
sensor from the ideal or true value at its input
The inaccuracy rating may be represented in a number of forms:
Directly in terms of measured value [± 2 psi]
• In percent of input span (full scale) [± 2%]
• In terms of output signal [± 2mV]
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Sensor Characteristics: Hysteresis
Hysteresis is the Deviation of the sensor’s output at a specified point of the
input signal when it is approached from the opposite directions
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Sensor Characteristics
• Repeatability
– caused by the inability of a sensor to produce the same output under
identical conditions
– It is expressed as the maximum difference between output readings as
determined by two calibrating cycles
– It is usually represented as % of Full Scale [FS]
• Resolution (Sensitivity)
– the smallest increments of stimulus which can be sensed
• Environmental Conditions
– Limitations of environments where sensor is used such as temperature ,
humidity and magnetic field
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Sensor Characteristics: Transfer Function
Establishes dependence b/w electrical signal produced (S) and stimulus (s):
S f (s)
where S = output signal;
s = stimulus;
and f(s) = functional relationship
For binary sensors: S = 1 if s > 0 and S = 0 if s < 0
The dependence could be simple linear or non-linear
(exponential, logarithmic or power function)
The ideal functional form for an analogue measuring device is a simple
proportional relationship, such as:
S C ms
where C = output value at a stimulus value of zero
and m = constant of proportionality (sensitivity)
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Sensor Characteristics: Non-linearity Error
Specified for sensors whose transfer function may be
approximated by a straight line
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Sensor Characteristics
Calibration
determination of specific variables that describe the overall transfer function
Overall means of the entire circuit, including the sensor, the interface
circuit, and the A/D converter
• Calibration error
– Inaccuracy permitted by a manufacturer when calibrated in the factory
– Error is systematic in nature
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Sensor characteristics: Calibration Error
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Sensor Systems
• General Electronic Sensor
– primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into electrical signal
– secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or digital values
real primary analog secondary usable
world transducer signal transducer values
sensor
• Typical Electronic Sensor System
input
signal sensor data microcontroller network
(measurand)
sensor signal processing display
analog/digital
communication
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Interfacing
Passive Sensor Readout Circuit
• Thermistor Half-Bridge
– voltage divider
– one element varies
• Wheatstone Bridge
– R3 = resistive sensor
– R4 is matched to nominal value of R3
– If R1 = R2, Vout-nominal = 0
– Vout varies as R3 changes
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Interfacing - Basic Op-amp Configurations
• Voltage Comparator
– digitize input
• Voltage Follower
– Current buffer
• Non-Inverting Amp
Inverting Amp
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Interfacing - Op-amp Configurations
Summing Amp
Differentiating Amp
Difference Amp
Integrating Amp
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Interfacing - Converting Configuration
Current-to-Voltage
Voltage-to-Current
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Instrumentation Amplifier
• Robust differential gain amplifier
• Input stage
– high input impedance
– no common mode gain
• Gain stage
– differential gain, low Zin
• Overall amplifier
– amplifies only the differential component
• high common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
– high input impedance suitable for bio-potential electrodes.
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Connecting Sensors to Microcontrollers
• Analog
– many microcontrollers have a built-in A/D converter
• 8-bit to 12-bit digital data
• many have multi-channel A/D inputs
sensor µC keypad
• Digital signal timing
– serial I/O sensor memory display
instrument
• use serial I/O port,
• synchronous (with clock)
• asynchronous (no clock)
– Frequency encoded
• use timing port, measure pulse width or pulse frequency
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Connecting Smart Sensors to PC
• Communication Links Common for Sensors
– asynchronous serial comm.
• universal asynchronous receive and transmit (UART)
– 1 receive line + 1 transmit line.
– nodes must match baud rate & protocol
• RS232 Serial Port on PCs uses UART format (at +/- 12V)
– can buy a chip to convert from UART to RS232
– synchronous serial comm.
• serial peripheral interface (SPI)
– 1 clock + 1 bidirectional data + 1 chip select/enable
– I2C = Inter Integrated Circuit bus
– IEEE P1451: Sensor Comm. Standard (Smart Sensor interface standard)
• Several sensor comm. protocols for different applications
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Sensor Calibration
• Sensors can exhibit non-ideal effects
– offset: nominal output ≠ nominal parameter value
– nonlinearity: output not linear with parameter changes
– cross parameter sensitivity: secondary output variation with, e.g.,
temperature
• Calibration = adjusting output to match 7.000
6.000
T1
5.000
– analog signal conditioning
Frequency (MHz)
1001
1010
– look-up table
4.000
T2 1001
1101
offset
– digital calibration (curve fitting)
3.000
1110
1111
• T = a + bV +cV2,
2.000
T3
– T= temperature; V=sensor voltage; 1.000
– a,b,c = calibration coefficients 0.000
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Temperature (C)
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General Block Diagram
real
world
Curve fitting &
Stimulus Digital Calibration
Signal ADC Microcontroller
Sensor Conditione
I2C/SPI Interface Card UART
r
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Discussion & Questions
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15 min Tea Break
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