Fibre Properties

Lecture No.4
Sub: Textile Testing & Quality Control

Course Teacher:
Samara Islam Nishi

Bangladesh University of Textiles

1. Fiber Length
Length is the most important property of a fiber.
In general, a longer average fiber length is
preferred because it confers a number of
advantages.
• Firstly, longer fibers are easier to process.
• Secondly, more even yarns can be produced
from them because there are less fibre ends in
a given length of yarn.
• Thirdly, a higher strength yarn can be
produced from them for the same level of
twist.
• Fiber length is one of the most important
properties both for marketing and processing.
• Length is related to fiber characteristics such as
strength, fineness, maturity and evenness.
• Longer fibers are generally stronger, finer and
more uniform than shorter fibers.
• A few parameters affected by staple length during
spinning are production efficiency, amount of
waste, fly generation and cleaning.
• Yarn quality parameters such as strength,
elongation, hairiness and evenness are strongly
correlated to length of fibers.
If fiber length increase then,
Spinning limit 
Yarn strength 
Yarn evenness 
Handle of the product 
Luster of the product 
Yarn hairiness
Productivity 
• Staple Length: According to the Official Cotton Standards of the United
States for length of staple - “Staple length means the length of fibers in a
particular quantity expressed by mm or fraction of representative portion
of the quantity.”
The most frequent length in a fibrous sample is called staple length. Staple
length is one of the most important factors of cotton quality because both
fibre fineness and fiber tensile strength are associated with staple length.
The longer staples are usually finer and stronger than the shorter staples.
The following staple lengths of fibers are
currently used in stating trade staple:

Short staple 1 inch or less

Medium staple 1 1/32-1 4/32 inch
Long staple 1 5/32-1 12/32 inch
Extra-long staple 1 13/32 inch & above
• Span Length
The span length is the length of fibers at a distance spanned by a specific
percentage of fibers (it can be by number or by weight) in the test beard,
considering the reading as 100% at the starting point of scanning. Different span
length reference points are considered.
• The most common span lengths (t) used
commercially are 2.5% and 50% span length (S.P).
The 2.5% span length is defined as the length of
fiber at which only 2.5% of long fibers are
included. It provides the reference length for
roller drafting ratchet settings to be adjusted so
that few, if any, fibers are broken. The 2.5% span
length agrees best with the upper half-mean
length for U.S. upland cotton. The 50% span
length is more valuable as a potential measure of
yarn quality and spinning performance .
• Mean Length
The mean length of the fibers is defined as “the
average length of all fibers in the test specimen
based on weight–length data.

• Effective Length
The effective length is longer than the average
length and is a measure of the length of the
majority of longer fibers in a sample. The
effective length is described statistically as the
upper quartile of the fiber length distribution
obtained by ignoring short fibers whose length is
less than half of the effective length of fibers.
• Upper half-mean Length
The upper half-mean length (UHML) as defined
by ASTM standards is the average length by
number (respectively by weight) of one-half of
the longest fibers when they are divided on a
weight basis (respectively number basis).

• Upper Quartile Length

According to American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) international standards, upper
quartile length (UQL) is defined as “the fiber
length which is exceeded by 25% of fibers by
weight in test specimen.
• Uniformity Ratio:
Uniformity Ratio is defined as the ratio of 50%
span length to the 2.5% span length expressed as
percentage.
Uniformity Ratio,UR = (50% span length/2.5%
span length)×100%

• Uniformity Index (UI):

The ratio between Mean length (ML) & Upper
half Mean length is called uniformity index,
express as a percentage.
Uniformity Index, UI% = (Mean Length/ Upper
Half Mean Length) x 100%
 Various types of fiber Length measuring methods:

• Hand stapling method (By trained classers)

• Comb Sorter Method
• Clamped tuft method (Weighing method)
• Thickness gauging method (Usterstapler)
• Shirley photoelectric stapler
• Fibrograph
• Among them “Comb Sorter Method” is commonly used.
• The Shirley comb sorter:
Firstly, a tuft of fibers sample is taken. Then the sample is carefully drawn and
doubled several times until the fibers are straightened and parallelized. The comb
sorter m/c has 8 top comb & 9 bottom comb. The sorter is placed back towards
the operator. Left side of the bottom comb is pivoted and right side is movable.
Then place the parallelized sample at the right side of the bottom comb. By means
of gripper all the loose fibers are removed from the protruding end.

Figure: Comb sorter technique for cotton fiber length

• For doing this, first a tuft was pulled from the sample & combed several times &
transferred to the left hand side of the bottom combs. This tuft was pressed into
the combs by means of depressor. This process is done until all the samples are
transferred to the left hand side of the bottom comb. Then sorter is turned round
so that the front faces the operator and the longest hairs projects towards the
operator. Then the top combs are placed so as to grip the tuft and prevents
uncontrolled slipping of the fibers. The lower combs shall be dropped successively
until the tips of the longest fibers are seen. Then all the fibers are placed parallel in
base line of velvet pad starting from long fibers to the short (Left to Right). Then
the effective length, staple length and short fiber percentage is calculated from the
diagram.

Fig: Fibre arranging on Velvet pad

Analysis of Comb Sorter:

Fig: Comb Sorter Diagram

• Q is the midpoint of OA i.e. OQ=1/2 OA.
• From Q draw QPˊ parallel to OB to cut the curve at Pˊ.
• Drop the perpendicular PˊP.
• Mark off OK equal to ¼ OP and erect perpendicular
KˊK. This is a first approximation to the effective length.
• S is the midpoint of KKˊ.
• From S draw SRˊ parallel to OB to cut the curve at Rˊ.
• Drop the perpendicular RˊR.
• Mark off OL equal to ¼ OR.
• Erect the perpendicular LˊL. This is the effective length.
• The relation between effective length and staple length:

On the basis of judgment of staple differs between markets

and types of cotton. These differences can be accommodated
by making certain corrections to the effective length.
Lord and Underwood report that, ‘For American Upland
cottons, from about 3/4 in. to 1 1/4in. Staple and classed on
the basis of American Staple Length Standards, a simple
conversion formula is
American staple = 0.91 X effective length
For Egyptian-type cottons no staple length standards are in
universal use, but on the average it is found that the staple
length is equal to the effective length.’
• Percentage of short fiber:
This is the percentage of fibers less than half the effective length.
In fig. the percentage of short fiber is given below:
RB/OB X 100(percent).

• Dispersion:
The uniformity, or perhaps more aptly the variability of the cotton,
can be expressed as the ‘inter-quartile range’. In fig. LL’ is the upper
quartile and MM’ is the lower quartile, where OM = ¾ OR.
The difference between LL’ and MM’, NL’ is the inter-quartile range.
This measure of the dispersion may now be expressed as a
percentage of the effective length:
Dispersion = NL/L’L X 100(percent)
2. Fiber Strength
• Fibre strength is very often the dominating characteristic.
The maximum strength for a fiber is approximately 60
CN/Tex. Normally the breaking strength of cotton is 15-40
CN/Tex.
• Very weak cotton fibers are to be avoided because cotton
will rupture during processing both in the blow room &
carding causes creation of short fibres & deformation in
yarn strength & uniformity.
• Except for polyester, fibre strength depends on moisture
content for linen, cotton etc. Fibre strength increases with
increasing moisture content, while the reverse happen in
case of nylon, viscose etc fibres.
• Some significant breaking strength of fibres:
• Polyester = 35-60 CN/Tex.
• Cotton = 15-40 CN/Tex.
• Wool = 12-18 CN/Tex.
• Fibre Strength Measuring: Fibre strength is as the
Pressley Index (P.I)
• Mathematically, the Pressley Index (P.I) = (Breaking
load in lb/ Bundle weight in mg)
• The following scale is used for classifying fibre strength.
Pressley Index Strength
Below 70 Weak
70-74 Fairly Strong
75-80 Medium strong
81-86 Strong
87-92 Very strong
93 & above Excellent value
 TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS:

• Load: The application of a load to a specimen

in its axial direction causes a tension to be
developed in the specimen. The load is usually
expressed in grams or pounds.

• Breaking Load/Breaking Strength: This is the

load at which the specimen breaks. It is
usually expressed in grams or pounds.
• Stress: It is the ratio between the force and the area of
cross-sectional of the specimen.
i.e., Stress = Force applied / Area of cross section
But in case of textile material, only for circular
materials, it can be measured. Cross section of yarns
and fabrics, due to unknown packing characteristics the
exact cross-sectional area is very difficult to
measure. Also the cross-section of yarns, fibers or
fabrics are irregular.
Unit: Pascal( mN ), MPa, GPa
2

Engineering stress: If cross-sectional area is

considered to be the same as original undeformed
specimen.
True stress: If the cross-sectional area is continuously
monitored during testing.
• True stress > Engineering stress
• Specific/Mass Stress: In case of textile
material, the linear density is used instead of
the cross sectional area. It also allows the
strength of yarns of different linear densities
to be compared.
Specific stress = Force/Linear density (initial)
Unit: g/tex ,g/denier and cN/tex.
• Tenacity or Specific Strength: The tenacity of material is the
mass stress at break. It is defined as the specific stress
corresponding with the maximum force on a force/extension
curve. The nominal denier or tex of the yarn or fibre is the
figure used in the calculation; no allowance is made for any
thinning of the specimen as it elongates. Units are
grams/denier or grams/tex

• Breaking Length: Breaking length is an older measure of

tenacity. It is the theoretical length (in Km) of a specimen of
yarn whose weight would exert a force sufficient to break the
specimen. It is usually measured in kilometres. e.g. 10 tex
yarn breaks at a load of 150grams
Breaking length would be = 15km (RKm)
The numerical value is equal to tenacity in g/tex (150/10)
RKm value = single yarn strength(in gm)/ yarn number(in tex)
Q. If a 100denier yarn breaks at a load of 185gm, calculate tenacity & RKm.

185 gm
Tenacity = 100 9tex
= 16.65 gm/tex
185 gm
RKm =
100den
 
185  gm 
=  
100  gm 
 
 9000m 
185 X 9000m
= 100
185 X 9000
= 100 X 1000
km

= 16.65 km
• Strain: When a load is applied to a specimen,
a certain amount of stretching takes
place. The elongation that a specimen
undergoes is proportional to its initial
length. Strain expresses the elongation as a
fraction of the original length.
i.e., Strain = Elongation / Initial length
• Breaking extension: Breaking extension is the
extension percentage at the breaking point.
Fig: Schematic stress-strain curve of a semi-crystalline polymer
 Elongation
• Strength of a material tells us merely how strong it is or how much
stress is needed to break it. It doesn’t tell us anything about what
happens to the sample while it is being tried to break. That’s where
it pays to study the elongation behavior of a polymer sample.
Elongation is a type of deformation. Deformation is simply a change
in shape that anything undergoes under stress. When the sample is
deformed by stretching with tensile stress, it becomes longer. This is
called elongation.

Elongation(%) = Extension/Initial length X 100%

There are two kinds of elongation. They are:
a) Ultimate elongation: Amount of sample
stretch before breaks. It is termed as
elongation at break . Strain at break is less
commonly used.
b) Elastic elongation: % elongation without
permanently deforming the sample.
Applicable for elastomers those can stretch
upto 500~1000% but still bounce back to
original length.
Fibre strength measurement methods

1. Single fibre strength

2. Bundle strength
a) Pressley fiber bundle tester
b) The Stelometer
Pressley bundle fibre strength tester
• Working procedure:
• The Pressley tester is an instrument for measuring the
strength of a bundle of cotton fibres.
• Before they are mounted in the instrument, the cotton
fibres are combed parallel using a hand comb into a flat
bundle about 6mm wide.
• The special leather-faced clamps are removed from the
machine & placed into a mounting vice so that they lie
adjacent to each other, thus giving zero specimen length.
• The bundle is placed across the two jaws & clamped in
position by the top jaws.
• When the clamps are removed from the mounting device
the fringe of fibres protruding from the outer edges of the
clamps is trimmed off leaving a known length of fibre
within the jaws.
• When the jaws are loaded into the instrument the upper
jaw of the pair is linked to the short arm of a pivoted
beam.
• The longer arm of the beam is inclined at a small angle
to the horizontal & has a weight on it which can roll
down the slope.
• As the weight moves away from the pivot the force on
the top jaw gradually increases until the bundle breaks.
When this happens the moving weight is automatically
halted so that the distance along the arm can be
measured.
• As the distance from the pivot is proportional to the
force on the fiber bundle, the arm can be directly
calibrated in units of force.
• At the ends of the test the two halves of the bundle are
weighted, and as the total length of the bundle is fixed
a figure of merit known as the Pressley Index can be
calculated.
• PI = breaking load in pound/ bundle wt. in mg
3.Fibre fineness
• According to “Textile Institute”, the fineness of
cotton, silk and manufactured fibers is usually
expressed in terms of average linear density.

• A single fiber has variable cross-section along

its length and varies in cross-section shape
from fiber to fiber. To overcome their effect in
calculating fineness, same index of fineness is
derived.
• Minimum 30 fibres are needed; usually over
100 fibres are required.
• Fibre fineness influences:
- spinning limit,
- drape of the fabric,
- yarn strength,
- lustre,
- yarn evenness,
- handle,
- yarn fullness and productivity.
• Productivity is influenced by reduced end
breakage rate.
• Fibre fineness determines how many fibres are
present in the cross section of a yarn of given
thickness.
• Additional fibres in the cross section not only
provide additional strength but also a better
distribution in the yarn.
• In a conventional spinning process, fine fibers
accumulate to the core and coarse fibers in the
periphery.
Principle of Fiber Fineness Measurement:

• Gravimetric method.
• Optical method.
• Air flow method.
• Vibroscope method.
 Air Flow Method

• Principle:
In this method, fiber fineness is measured by air flow. If large amount
of air is blown, the fibre will be coarse and if small amount of air is
blown, the fiber will be fine.
— The method based on this principle.
• Procedure:
• A sample of known weight is taken and compressed in a cylinder to
a known volume and subjected to an air current at a known
pressure.
• The rate of air flow through the porous plug of fiber is measured.
• Suppose, two cylinders of similar dimensions were filled with:
a) A few cylinder rods of large diameter.
b) Many rods of small diameter.
 If air were blown through the two cylinders at the same pressure, it would be
finding that the rate of air flow through (b) was less than through (a).
The reason is that the air flowing through (b) has more rod surface to flow past.
The difference in the rate of air flow is a measure of the difference in the surface
area of the large diameter and small diameter rods. This leads us to consider the
specific surface.
 Calculation:

Specific surface is defined as the ratio of surface area to volume.

i.e. Specific surface = Surface area ÷ Volume
Let, the volume of the cylinder, V= Cross-section area, A x Length, L
2 2
V = πx d  xL [A = π x d  , d = diameter]
   
2 2

And surface area of cylinder = π x dL=Sˊ

dL
Therefore, specific surface, S = 2
d 
  L
2

4
= πdL x d 2L
 = 4
d

The ratio is equal to the ratio of = Perimeter of cross-

section ÷ Area of cross-section
d
= d 2

4
4
= d
1
So, S αd
For fibers of circular cross-section, specific surface is inversely proportional to the
fiber diameter. Therefore by measuring the rate of air flow under controlled
condition, the specific surface S, can be determined and consequently the fiber
diameter. Then by using a value for the density of the material, the fiber wt. per unit
length/ fineness could be derived.
• Micronaire Value:
The term micronaire value is now a widely used expression and where
as originally the figure meant fiber wt. in micrograms per inch.
The micronaire value regarded as indication of maturity and
fineness. The units are commonly ignored. The higher micronaire
value of the fiber, the fiber regarded coarser.
Micronaire value plays a vital role during mixing of different grades
of fibers for Yarn preparation. The fibers are classified in different
grades on the basis of micronaire value.
It can be also expressed as Militex(mg/km) or Militex = Mic x 39.37

Micronaire Value Classification Of Fiber

Below 3.0 very fine
3.1 to 3.6 fine
3.7 to 4.7 average
4.8 to 5.4 coarse
above 5.5 very coarse
 Importance Of Fineness:

• Lower Irregularity Of Yarn: With a greater number of fibers

in the cross-section the basic irregularity is reduced. The
finer the fiber, the higher the number and lower the
irregularity. Fine fiber gives more regular yarn than the
coarse fiber.
• Uniformity Of Count: A fine fiber can be spun to finer than
coarse fiber measurement of fineness. In other words the
finer the fiber, the higher the yarn count will be.
• Uniformity Of Strength: In a given cross-sectional area, if a
given count is spun a fine and coarse fiber, a more and
stronger yarn will result from the fine fiber because of
being large no. of finer fiber.
• Uniformity Of Fabric Characteristics: As fine fiber
gives more uniform yarn, so it gives good quality
fabric with uniform property.
• Less Twist: The finer the fiber, the greater the
total surface area available for inter fiber contact
and consequently, less twist is needed to provide
the necessary cohesion.
• Spinning Performance: The fineness of the fiber
affects several mechanical properties and
therefore influences the behavior of the fiber
during processing.
• Good Appearance: The finer yarn produced by
finer fiber has good appearance.
• Less Neps: In the finer yarn, less neps
present.
• Spinning Limit: It is the limit at which the
fibres cant no longer be twisted into a
yarn, is reached earlier in coarse fibre.
• Fibre stiffness: It increases with the
increase of diameter.
4. Maturity
• Fiber Maturity:
• Fiber maturity (of cotton) is a fiber characteristic
which expresses the relative degree of thickening
of the fiber wall. In other words, it is the measure
of primary and secondary wall thickness. A fiber
will be mature if a high degree of wall thickening
took place during growth i.e. maturity is highly
sensitive to growing condition.
• Fiber maturity depends on —
• Weather.
• Types of soil.
• Plant diseases.
• Pests.
 Degree Of Cell Wall Thickening:
• The degree of wall thickening may be expressed as the ratio of
the actual cross-sectional area of the wall to the area of the
circle with the same parameter.
Let, A be the actual cross-sectional area of the wall and Aˊ be
the area of the circle of the same parameter. So degree of wall
A
thickening, Ɵ= A'
 Degree of thickening
• A completely solid fibre would have a degree
of thickening of 1.
• Mature fibres have an average value of around
0.6
• Immature fibres have an average value of
between 0.2 & 0.3
 Types of Fiber
• Normal Fiber: Normal fibers with a well-developed cell
wall and pronounced convolutions in the raw state and
become rod-like after swelling and show no continuous
lumen. It is denoted by ‘N’.
• Thin Walled Fibers: Thin walled fibers are having the
structure and characteristics that lying between normal
and dead fibers. It is denoted by ‘T’.
• Dead Fibers: Dead fibers appear ribbon like even after
swelling. They are extremely immature fiber. If the cell-
wall thickness is a fifth or less than the ribbon width.
Cross-section of Cotton Fiber
 Maturity Ratio:

• Maturity ratio is a method of numerically

expressing the maturity of a sample of cotton
fiber. It is the ratio of actual degree of wall
thickening to a standard degree of wall
thickening.
So, Maturity ratio = Actual degree of cell wall
thickening ÷ std. degree of cell wall thickening
• The fibers are considered ripe if they have
maturity index between 50-80%, unripe if they
have MI between 30 to 45% and dead when they
have it less than 25%.
• The Maturity ratio can be calculated from the
following equation:
( N − D ) + 0 .7
M = 200
Here, N = Average % of Normal fiber
D = Average % of dead fiber
The maturity ratio is proportional to the degree of
thickening of cell wall. Peirce and Lord
determined Maturity and degree of thickening for
the cottons and found the relationship:
Average degree of thickening = 0.577M
The theoretical range for the value of M will be
from 0.2, all dead to 1.2, all mature or normal.
 Cotton Fiber Maturity Determination

• Contents :
maturity determination using the Sodium Hydroxide swelling
method.
• Related Standards
IS 236: 1968 ,ASTM D1442-00
• Properties/Parameters Tested
• Fiber maturity ratio
• Fiber maturity coefficient
• Instruments Used For Testing
Microscope, Glass slides, and cover slips, Scissors, forceps,
glass rod, 18 percent Sodium hydroxide solution, draw box.
• Working Principle Of Instrument
Approximately 100 fibers are placed between
slits and viewed under a projection microscope.
The fibers are carefully spread in the glass slides,
covered with another glass slide after adding a
drop of sodium hydroxide. This causes swelling of
fibers to give a better appearance.
• Specifications Of The Instrument
• Observation screen : 200mm
• Graduated screen
• Coaxial halogen lamp
• Mechanical stage of size: 135* 120mm
• Magnification : 125X to 1000X
Instrument Diagram
• Instrument Description
Radial projection microscope is a versatile instrument of universal
application designed for all stages of textile production. It is
compact, dust proof and light weight. The test object projected on
the screen in desired magnification can be analyzed. Adjustments
require very few operations so that the user is free to concentrate
on the image on the screen.

• Preliminary Adjustments
• Vertical adjustments
• horizontal adjustments
• Sample Preparation
• The fibers are opened and cleaned. The tuft is prepared from which
the sample is to be tested.
• 18% caustic soda solution is also prepared which is used to swell
the fibers.
• Sample Size
• 100 – 200 fibers approximately.
• Procedure
• 100 – 200 fibers are removed approximately from the
bundle in their lengthwise direction.
• The fibers are placed on a microscope slide and spread
carefully to a width of 30mm to 40mm.
• A drop of mounting medium i.e, sodium hydroxide is placed
and covered with another glass plate.
• This 18% caustic soda spreads without any air bubbles and
causes swelling of fibers.
• The presence/ absence of convolutions is observed by
placing the slide in the microscope.
• Mature fibers have a well-developed cell wall and appear
rod-like after swelling.
• Immature fibers are ribbon-like with convolutions.
• Half mature fiber lies between these two classes.
• The number of mature, half mature and immature fibers
are counted and calculations are performed.
 Importance of Maturity:

• Neps Formation: The immature thin walled fibers are more flexible
than thick walled fiber. So they blend and tangle more easily
forming neps. One of the main troubles caused by the presence of
these thin walled immature fibers is nepping.
• Dyeing Faults: Immature fibers cannot be dyed evenly. If in a fabric
there is yarn of immature fibers, shade variation will occur. The
thinner the secondary cell wall, the lighter the shade will be.
• Fineness: The immature fibers can not produce fine fabric and
yarn. Immaturity decreases the wt. of unit length of fiber and thus
reduces fineness. As a result the accuracy of the test is badly
affected.
• Less Yarn Strength: Due to immaturity, yarn strength reduces and
for that breakage of yarn occurs during spinning.
• Less Production: Ends down are increased due
to immaturity. As a result production is less.
• Fabric Quality: Immature fibers are less
absorbent and have uneven surface. So they
are uncomfortable in handle and weaving.
• Yarn Hairiness: Immature fiber leads to yarn
hairiness.
• Problem In Spinning: The immature fiber, the
fragments of seed pod attached to a fiber,
which creates great problem during spinning.
Effect Of Immaturity in Textile Processing:

• Neps formation.
• Problem in spinning, mainly at the card.
• Uneven dyeing shade.
• Problem in fineness measuring.
• Loss of yarn strength.
• Less production.
• High production of short fibers.