ec. 1.1 Continyous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals s xt Tore sase77 se Co) Figure 1.7. Graphical representations of (a) continuous-time and (b) dscrete- tine signa autopilot or speech and music for an audio system. Also, pictures in newspapers—orin this book, for that matter—actually consist ofa very fine grid of points, and each ofthese points represents a sample of the brightness of the corresponding point inthe original image. No ‘matter what the source ofthe data, however, the signal x{n] is defined only for integer values of n. It makes no more sense to refer to the 34th sample of a digital speech signal than it does to refer to the average budget for a family with 2! family members. ‘Throughout most ofthis book we will treat discrete-time signals and continuous-time signals separately but in parallel, so that we can draw on insights developed in one setting to aid our understanding of another. In Chapter 7 we will return to the question of sampling, and in that context we will bring continuous-time and discrete-time concepts together in ‘order to examine the relationship between a continuous-time signal and a discrete-time signal obtained from it by sampling. 1.1.2 Signal Energy and Power From the range of examples provided so far, we see that signals may represent a broad variety of phenomena, In many, but not all, applications, the signals we consider are di- rectly related to physical quantities capturing power and energy in a physical system. For example, if v(¢) and i(1) are, respectively, the voltage and current across a resistor with resistance R, then the instantaneous power is ptr) = vinitt) ay)6 Signals and Systems Chap. 1 ‘The total energy expended over the time interval r) <6 < ti fe pidt = i prod, a2) and the average power over this time interval Le "Ls al, 08 I pride a3) Similarly, for the automobile depicted in Figure 1.2, the instantaneous power dissipated through friction is p(t) = bv2(0), and we can then define the total energy and average power over a time interval in the same way as in eqs. (1.2) and (1.3). With simple physical examples such as these as motivation, it is a common and ‘worthwhile convention to use similar terminology for power and energy for any continuous- time signal x(9) or any discrete-time signal x{n]. Moreover, as we will see shortly, we will frequently find it convenient to consider signals that take on complex values. In this case, the total energy over the time interval r, = ¢ = f in a continuous-time signal x(t) is defined as [ora aa where |x| denotes the magnitude of the (possibly complex) number x. The time-averaged power is obtained by dividing eq, (1.4) by the length, ‘> — 1, of the time interval. Simi- larly, the total energy in a discrete-time signal x[n] over the time interval my =n = mis defined as as) and dividing by the number of points in the interval, n) ~ ny + 1, yields the average power over the interval. Its important to remember thatthe terms “power” and “energy” are used here independently of whether the quantities in eqs. (1.4) and (1.5) actually are related to physical energy. Nevertheless, we will find it convenient to use these terms in a general fashion. Furthermore, in many systems we will be interested in examining power and energy in signals over an infinite time interval, ic. for ~2 <1 < +2 or for —= 0, then, of necessity, E. = %, This, of course, makes sense, since if there is a nonzero average energy per unit time (i.¢., nonzero power), then integrating ‘or summing this over an infinite time interval yields an infinite amount of energy. For example, the constant signal x[n] = 4 has infinite energy, but average power P.. = 16. ‘There are also signals for which neither P,. nor E. are finite. A simple example is the signal x(7) = 1. We will encounter other examples of signals in each of these classes in the remainder of this and the following chapters. 1.2 TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE A central concept in signal and system analysis is that of the transformation of a signal For example, in an aircraft control system, signals corresponding to the actions of the pilot are transformed by electrical and mechanical systems into changes in aircraft thrust or the positions of aircraft control surfaces such as the rudder or ailerons, which in turn are transformed through the dynamies and kinematics ofthe vehicle into changes in aircraft velocity and heading. Also, in a high-fidelity audio system, an input signal representing music as recorded on a cassette or compact disc is modified in order to enhance desirable characteristics, to remove recording noise, o to balance the several components of the signal (¢.g., treble and bass), In this section, we focus on a very limited but important class ‘of elementary signal transformations that involve simple modification of the independent Variable, i, the time axis. AS we will se in this and subsequent sections ofthis chapter, these elementary transformations allow us to introduce several basic properties of signals and systems, In later chapters, we will find that they also play an important role in defining and characterizing far richer and important classes of systems,a Signals and Systems Chap. 1 1.2.1. Examples of Transformations of the Independent Variable A simple and very important example of transforming the independent variable of a signal isa time shift. A time shift in discrete time is illustrated in Figure 1.8, in which we have two signals x{n] and x{n— no] that are identical in shape, but that are displaced or shifted relative to each other. We will also encounter time shifts in continuous time, as illustrated in Figure 1.9, in which x(t ~ fp) represents a delayed (if ty is positive) or advanced (if fy is negative) version of x(¢). Signals that are related in this fashion arise in applications such as radar, sonar, and seismic signal processing, in which several receivers a different locations observe a signal being transmitted through a medium (water, rock, ar, tc.). In this case, the difference in propagation time from the point of origin of the transmitted signal to any two receivers results in a time shift between the signals atthe 1wo receivers, ‘A second basic transformation ofthe time axis is that of rime reversal. For example, as illustrated in Figure 1.10, the signal x{~n] is obtained from the signal x{n] by a reflec- tion about n = 0 (ie, by reversing the signal). Similarly, as depicted in Figure 1.11, the signal x(~1) is obtained from the signal x(7) by a reflection about ¢ = 0. Thus, if x(0)rep- resents an audio tape recording, then x(—0) is the same tape recording played backward Another transformation is that of rime scaling, In Figure 1.12 we have illustrated three signals, x(), x(20), and x(0/2), that are related by linear scale changes in the independent variable. If we again think of the example of x(0) as a tape recording, then x(21) is that recording played at twice the speed, and (1/2) is the recording played at half-speed, Itis often of interest to determine the effect of transforming the independent variable of a given signal x(¢) to obtain a signal of the form x(at + 8), where a and B are given numbers. Such a transformation of the independent variable preserves the shape of (0), except that the resulting signal may be linearly stretched if |al < 1, linearly compressed if jal > 1, reversed in time if @ < 0, and shifted in time if 6 is nonzero. This is illustrated im the following set of examples. xo} ° Ion a ae Figure 1.8 Discrete-time signals related by'a time shift In this figure my > 0, so that x{n~ my] isa delayed ° 1 verson of x{o} (ve. each point in x{n} " ‘occurs later in x0 ~ nm).‘Sec. 1.2 Transformations ofthe Independent Variable x(n) | xt) y ~ t= Ty 0 7 o ota Figure 1.9 Contimous-time signals related bya time shit. In this figure ) < 0, so that © x(t) i an advanced version of x(t) (ie. each point in x(2) occurs at an earler time in Figure 1.10 (a) A discrete-time signal x{n; (b) its reflec- xray Cae tion 0 0 NM : G : x9 xn \ oo — t x(/2) —“— ~ t ® : Figure 1.11.) Aconimwous‘ie sgn 0) 8S Figure 1-12. canon sas reflection x(t) about ¢ = 0, related by time scaling,10 Signals and Systems Chap. 1 Example 1.1 Given the signal x(t) shown in Figure 1.13(a), the signal x(¢ + 1) corresponds to an advance (shift to the lef) by one unit along the ¢ axis as illustrated in Figure 1.13(b). Specifically, we note that the value of x(2)a# = fp occurs in x(t Lat =m ~ 1. For Le ‘ 0 7 7 @ al xe) “isos Figure 1.13 _(@) The continuous-time signal x(t) used in Examples 1.1-1.3, to ilustate transformations ofthe independent variable; () the time-shifted signal x(t + 1); (6) the sional x(t + 1) obtained by a time shit and a time reversal; () the time-scaled signal x(31); and (e) the signal x(31-+ 1) obtained by time-shitng and scalingSec. 1.2 Transformations ofthe Independent Variable " example, the value of x(2) at r= 1 is found in x(@ + 1) atr 1 = 0. Also, since xl) is zero for F< 0, we have x(¢+ 1) zero for 1 < 1. Similarly, since x(t) is zero for 1 > 2, att + L)iszero fort > 1 Let us also consider the signal 1(~1 + 1), which may be obtained by replacing 1 with —r in x(¢ + 1). That is, x(—1 + 1) is the time reversed version of x(f + 1). Thus, x(-1 + 1) may be obtained graphically by reflecting x(t + 1) about the ¢ axis as shown in Figure 1.13(€) Example 1.2 nthe signal x0), shown in Figure 1.13(a) the signal x(3r)comtesponds toa linear compression of a( by a factor of as stated in Figure 113d. Specifically we note that the value of x() at ¢ = fo occurs in x31) at ¢ = fz. For example, the value of a(t) at = Lis found in x1) att = 3 (1) = {, Also, since xis zeo fort <0, we hhave x(30) zero for < 0, Similarly, since x(t) i zero fort > 2, x31) is zero fort > 4 Example 1.3 ‘Suppose that we would like to determine the effec of transforming the independent vari- able ofa given signal, a(), to obtain a signal ofthe form a(ar +B). where and Bare given numbers. A systematic approach to doing this iso first delay or advance x) in accordance with the value off ad then to perform time scaling andor ine reversal on the resulting signal in accordance with the vale ofa. The detayed or advanced signal is linearly suetchedif|a| <1, linearly compressedif|a| > I,andreversedintimeifa <0. “To illustrate this approach, let a show how x(t +1) may he determined for the signal x0) shown in Figure 11a). Since B = 1, we fist advance (shif tothe lef) x0) by 1 as shown in Figute 1.130). Since lal = 3, we may linearly compress the shifted signal of Figure 1.13(b) bya factor of 2 wo obtain the signal shown in Figure 1.13(e) In addition to their use in representing physical phenomena such as the time shift in a sonar signal and the speeding up or reversal of an audiotape, transformations of the independent variable are extremely useful in signal and system analysis. In Section 1.6 and in Chapter 2, we will use transformations ofthe independent variable to introduce and, analyze the properties of systems. ‘These transformations are also important in defining, and examining some important properties of signals 1.2.2 Periodic Signals An important class of signals that we will encounter frequently throughout this book is the class of periodic signals. A periodic continuous-time signal (2) has the property that there is a positive value of T for which x = x47) aay forall values of ¢. In other words, a periodic signal has the property that tis unchanged by a time shift of 7. In this case, we say that x(t) is periodic with period T. Periodic continuous time signals arise in a variety of contexts. For example, as illustrated in Problem 2.61, the natural response of systems in which energy is conserved, such as ideal LC circuits without resistive energy dissipation and ideal mechanical systems without frictional losses, are periodic and, in fact, are composed of some of the basic periodic signals that we will introduce in Section 1.3.12 Signals and Systems Chap. 1 xt Figure 1.14 A continuous-time 7 ° a 2T_t periodic signal, ‘An example of a periodic continuous-time signal is given in Figure 1.14. From the figure or from eq, (1.11), we can readily deduce that if x(¢) is periodic with period T, then x(2) = x(¢ + mT) forall ¢ and for any integer m. Thus, x(t) is also periodic with period 27, 31, AT, .... The fundamental period To of xit) is the smallest positive value of T for which eq. (1.11) holds. This definition of the fundamental period works, except if x() is ‘a constant. In this case the fundamental period is undefined, since x(1) is periodic for any choice of 7 (s0 there is no smallest positive value). A signal x(7) that is not periodic will be referred to as an aperiodic signal. Periodic signals are defined analogously in discrete time. Specifically, a discrete time signal x(n] is periodic with period N, where WV isa positive integer, if it is unchanged by atime shift of, ic. if aln] = xin +N] 12) for all values of n. If eq. (1.12) holds, then x(n] is also periodic with period 2, 3V, ‘The fundamental period No is the smallest positive value of N for which eq. (1-12) holds. ‘An example of a discrete-time periodic signal with fundamental period Np = 3 is shown in Figure 1.15. Io} Figure 1.15 _& discrete-time pe- odie signal with fundamental peiog = Example 1.4 ‘Lets illustrate the type of problem solving that may be required in determining whether ‘or nota given signal is periodic. The signal whose periodicity we wish to check is given by 09 [0 ree aus) From trigonometry, we know that cos(t + 2) = cos(¢)and sings + 2m) = sin(7). Thus, considering 1 > 0 and 1 < 0 separately, we see that x(¢) does repeat itself over every interval of length 277. However, as illustrated in Figure 1.16, xt) also has a discontinuity atthe time origin that does not recur at any other time. Since every feature in the shape of periodic signal must recur periodically, we conclude thatthe signal x() is not periodic.Sec. 1.2 Transformations ofthe Independent Variable 1B Figure 1.16 The signal x(t) considered in Example 1.4 1.2.3 Even and Odd Signals Another set of useful properties of signals relates to their symmetry under time reversal A signal x(1) or x[n] is referred to as an even signal if itis identical to its time-reversed, ‘counterpart, ie. with its reflection about the origin. In continuous time a signal is even if M=1) = 20), a4) while a discrete-time signal is even if an] = ala ais) A signal is referred to as odd if = = —x00, 16) sf=n] = —x17) a7 An odd signal must necessarily be O at = Oorm = 0, since eqs. (1-16) and (1.17) require that x(0) = ~1(0) and x{0] = ~x[0]. Examples of even and odd continuous-time signals are shown in Figure 1.17, xt @ xt Figure 1.17 (a) An even con- tinuous-time signal; (b) an od6 » continuous-time signal