10.3.
Remote Sensing of Atmospheric Parameters
The concept of observing system for atmospheric parameters dates back to mid 1960’s when planning for combining
satellite cloud pictures with radiosondes, aircraft and surface observations were initiated for improved weather
forecasting. Satellites have been part of observing system for stratospheric composition related to ozone and its
changes for more than 30 years. The new satellite systems can make global observations of key atmospheric
constituents in the troposphere. With the advent of new computational and observational capabilities, understanding
and predicting global atmospheric composition is becoming more of a reality. Earth system is undergoing rapid
changes due to anthropogenic activities. Satellite based observing system is needed to develop understanding of
atmospheric composition, the processes that drive the dynamics and to provide the capability to interactions
between atmospheric constituents and changes in Earth system due to anthropogenic activities. The observing
system for atmospheric composition consists of instruments, models and research. This chapter covers different
aspects related to remote sensing of atmospheric constituents such as aerosols, trace gases, temperature,
relative humidity and their importance.
The energetic involved in the earth
atmosphere system as discussed earlier are
shown in Figure10.4. Sun is the natural
source of energy and constituents of the
earth/atmosphere system reflect/transmit/
absorb the incoming solar energy in different
proportions, leading to temperature
differences and related dynamics.
The atmospheric constituents determine the
air Quality, Earth’s radiative balance and the
cascading effects such as global warming.
The schematic of issues involved in
atmospheric composition are shown in Figure
10.5.
Global scale winds move pollutants from one
region to another and there is growing
awareness that in the Northern Hemisphere,
pollution outflow from one continent is Figure 10.4: Climate system energy balance (source: http://
reaching the next continent downwind to the www.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/service/gallery/fact_sheets/earthsci)
east. Thus pollution from the United States
gets to Europe; pollution from Europe gets to Asia; and pollution in Asia gets to the United States.
Meteorology on all scales influences
the atmospheric composition and air
quality has become a global issue in
recent times. We need to learn how
to combine measurements from
satellites, ground networks, intensive
field campaigns and models on several
scales to build an integrated system
for creating understanding and
predictive capability.
Particulate matter less than 2.5 µm,
sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide
(NO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO),
aerosols and ozone determine the air
quality. There are serious health and
environmental effects associated with
high concentrations of aerosols and
Figure 10.5: Processes and issues related to greenhouse effect Ozone (O3). Small size particles can
(source: http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/service/gallery/fact_sheets/ enter the lung causing respiratory
earthsci/green.htm)
problems and enhance the
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concentrations of Ozone,
which can affect the
immune system and
decrease agricultural
productivity. It is not
possible to control these
emissions by reducing the
local emission of source
gases, such as CO and
O 3 , as they can be
transported to large
distances. For example,
dust aerosols from Gulf
regions is transported over
Indian region during pre-
monsoon and monsoon
period as shown in the
TERRA MODIS / IRS-P4
OCM Satellite imagery in
Figure 10.6.
The nadir viewing
Figure 10.6: Dust storms over Indian region( Badarinath et al., 2010) techniques employed by
satellite instruments
measure the pollutants in the lower troposphere using reflected/scattered sunlight in UV, visible, and near-IR
wavelengths (0.3 – 2.5 µm) in figure 10.7. TOMS, GOME and SCIAMACHY are some of the sensors that employ
this technique.
10.3.1. Role of aerosols and clouds
Aerosols and clouds tend to counteract the effects of
greenhouse gases. Aerosols both absorb and scatter
radiation and decrease the energy viable for green house
effect. Aerosols are of both natural and anthropogenic
origin. Model estimates of radiative forcing of aerosols
vary widely between 0 and 2.5 watts/m2. At the upper
limit it is equal to the magnitude but opposite in sign to
the greenhouse gas effect of ±2.4watts/m2. Similarly
clouds counteract greenhouse gas effects. Increasing
surface temperature increases evaporation from the seas
thereby give rise to an increase in cloud cover which can
to some extent counteract the greenhouse gas induced
global warming. Further the presence of aerosols affects
the cloud process. An increase in aerosol content in the
atmosphere will increase the cloud forming capacity of
the atmosphere which serves as a positive feed back on
global warming.
The air quality studies require information on surface
concentration and size distribution of aerosols in addition
to their vertical distribution and absorptive properties.
Atmospheric aerosols are particles of solid or liquid phase
dispersed in the atmosphere. These aerosols are
produced either by the mechanical disintegration
processes occurring over land (such as lifting of dust) Figure 10.7: Possible receiver / transmitter
and ocean (e.g. sea-spray) or by chemical reactions configurations for remote sensing of atmosphere
occurring in the atmosphere. The aerosols at one location (source: http: //earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/
are often carried to locations far away from their sources. Aerosols/)
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Aerosols can vary in size from 10 -3 to 10 2 µm depending on the source and production mechanism. Aerosol optical
depth (AOD) is quantity which defines the combined effect of scattering and absorption in a vertical column of
atmosphere. The optical depth due to aerosols, i.e., “Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD)” is obtained by subtracting the
contribution due to air molecules from total optical depth. AOD (t) is derived from the satellite measurement of top
of the atmosphere reflectance (TOA) in the visible wavelength bands. The method for estimating aerosol optical
depth is described below.
10.3.2. Physical principles of aerosol retrieval from space
One component of the satellite-observed radiance carries information about aerosol, and this component can be
isolated as.
For isotropic surface reflection the satellite observed L, after separation of Rayleigh and gaseous components, the
same equation holds for aerosol alone. For τ < 1, in single- scattering approximation L0 is:
Where,
L = satellite observed radiance; L0 = Atmospheric path radiance; Td = Total transmittance for downward radiation;
Tu = Total transmittance for upward radiation; Rs = Spherical reflectance of atmosphere; a = Surface albedo;
F0 = Normal solar irradiance at TOA; µ0 = Cosine of solar zenith angle; µ, ϕ = Cosine of view angle and relative
azimuth angle; τ = Optical thickness; ρ = Scattering phase function; ω = Single scattering albedo
The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) aboard EOS Terra and Aqua satellites makes multi -
spectral measurements of top of the atmosphere reflectance (r) to determine the size distribution of aerosols in
fine or coarse mode. This
helps in the determination
of aerosol scattering phase
function, “P”. Figure 10.8
shows the MODIS derived
aerosol optical depth on two
dates over Indian region.
The increased values of
aerosol optical depth over
Indo-Gangetic Plains can be
observed in the Figure 10.8.
The accuracy of MODIS
AOD over land regions is not
good due to heterogeneity
Figure 10.8: TERRA MODIS derived aerosol optical depth(Badarinath et al., 2007) in land surface reflectance.
Recently, a new algorithm,
called the “deep blue” algorithm has been developed to improve the estimation over land. This algorithm uses the
412 and 419 nm MODIS channels, where the land is darker at the longer wavelengths.
In addition to satellite based estimation of AOD in visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum (EMR), methods
exist to estimate aerosol absorption optical depth ta using ultraviolet wavelengths. Aerosol index (AI), a measure
of the absorbing aerosol concentration in atmosphere, is regularly estimated from 1978, using Total Ozone Monitoring
Instrument (TOMS) on board Earth Probe (EP) and was recently replaced by AURA-OMI. In the ultraviolet
wavelengths, land is opaque, and the wavelength of top of the atmosphere reflectance provides information on the
absorbing aerosols in the atmosphere. It is possible to make quantitative estimates of ta and ts from measurements
of top of atmosphere reflectance (ñ) at two ultraviolet wavelengths (Torres et al., 1998). By combining the deep
blue, visible and the UV methods, estimation of both the scattering and absorption optical depths of aerosols over
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