THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC BAUCHI
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY
OPTION: CHEMISTRY/BIOCHEMISTRY
COURSE TITLE: PETROLEUM AND PETROCHEMICAL CHEMISTRY
COURSE CODE: STC 415
ASSIGNMENT QUESTION: DESCRIBE THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM AND
MODERN METHOD OF EXPLORING PETROLEUM AND PETROCHEMICAL
FEEDSTOCK.
BY
GROUP C
S/N STUDENT'S NAME. REG NO.
1 JOSEPH ONYEKWERE NNAEGBOH 23/152620
2 GOLPWANA COMFORT. 23/151653
3 ROTIMI ROFIAT PRECIOUS. 23/152528
4 ABDULAZEEZ TAOFEEQ. 23/149787
5 ISRAEL CHRISTIANA. 23/149277
6 MUNIRAT ISMAIL. 23/151398
7 YUSUF KHADIJAT. 23/151877
8 AGADA REBECCA O. 23/149196
9 EJEMBI SAMSON ABRAHAM 23/149537
10. MUHAMMED ISLAMIYAT. 23/151402
JULY,2025
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. The Origin of Petroleum
o 2.1 Formation of Petroleum
o 2.2 Organic Theory of Petroleum Origin
o 2.3 Inorganic Theory of Petroleum Origin
3. Geological Formation and Accumulation of Petroleum
o 3.1 Source Rocks
o 3.2 Reservoir Rocks
o 3.3 Cap Rocks and Traps
4. Types and Classifications of Petroleum
o 4.1 Crude Oil
o 4.2 Natural Gas
o 4.3 Condensates
5. Modern Methods of Petroleum Exploration
o 5.1 Geological Methods
o 5.2 Geophysical Methods
5.2.1 Seismic Surveys
5.2.2 Magnetic and Gravity Surveys
o 5.3 Geochemical Methods
o 5.4 Remote Sensing and Satellite Imaging
o 5.5 Exploratory Drilling
6. Petroleum Refining and Petrochemical Feedstock
o 6.1 Distillation Process
o 6.2 Petrochemical Derivatives
7. Technological Innovations in Exploration
o 7.1 3D and 4D Seismic Imaging
o 7.2 Horizontal Drilling
o 7.3 Artificial Intelligence and Data Analytics
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8. Challenges in Petroleum Exploration
o 8.1 Environmental Concerns
o 8.2 Political and Economic Barriers
o 8.3 Depletion of Conventional Reserves
9. Environmental Impacts and Sustainable Exploration
o 9.1 Pollution and Emissions
o 9.2 Green Technologies
10. Conclusion
11. References
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1. Introduction
Petroleum, commonly referred to as crude oil, is one of the most significant natural
resources in the modern industrialized world. It serves as a crucial source of fuel
and raw material for a wide range of industries including transportation,
manufacturing, agriculture, and petrochemical production. Understanding the
origin of petroleum and the evolving methods of its exploration is essential for
ensuring sustainable and efficient use of this resource. This paper presents a
comprehensive overview of the formation of petroleum, explores modern
techniques for its discovery, and evaluates how petrochemical feedstocks are
obtained and processed.
Demand for petroleum products has grown continuously since the first discovery
of large crude oil accumulations in the United States by Edwin Blake in 1859 near
Titusville, Pennsylvania (see Petroleum (Oil and Gas) Geology and Resources, this
volume; and Coal, Oil and Gas for the Twenty-first Century, this volume). As a
result, the petroleum industry is now a major component of the global economy.
Most petroleum products derived from refining crude oil are combusted to provide
energy as in diesel fuel, jet fuel, kerosene, fuel oil and gasoline. The burning of
fossil fuels (coal, natural gas and oil) provides the vast majority of energy today
and the dependence on petroleum products is anticipated to continue into the
foreseeable future (see Petroleum (Oil and Gas) Geology and Resources, Figure 1,
this volume). However, there are a number of environmental concerns associated
with the burning of petroleum products.
Concerns about air pollution, smog and greenhouse gas effects on global warming
is causing a shift in the demand for liquid fuel towards greater use of natural gas
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(methane) for non-transportation needs. Natural gas, or methane, has many uses
including home heating and cooking, electrical power generation plants, and as a
feedstock for certain chemical processes. In addition to producing refined fuels,
crude oil can also provide petrochemicals for wide range of uses, both as products
themselves and as chemical feedstocks used to make other products. These
petrochemical products include pharmaceuticals, plastics, synthetic rubbers,
insecticides, fungicides, fertilizers, and lubricants.
The value of the crude oil that provides heating fuel and fuel for internal
combustion engines creates the incentive for investors, including national
governments, to spend large amounts of money to search for it underground.
However, there is a great deal of risk associated with investing money in oil and
gas exploration because petroleum deposits are generated by natural processes that
commonly occur at great depth and are poorly understood and predicted by earth
scientists. Financially there is a lot at stake and commercial failures can be very
costly to the investor because exploration wells often cost millions to hundreds of
millions of dollars in deepwater and harsh environments; exploration programs
(property leasing, data collection and analysis, etc.) commonly cost in excess of
one hundred million dollars, Oil industry investors and company managers
commonly refer to “the size of the prize” when considering the investment risk in
hydrocarbon exploration. They ask themselves, “Does the amount of petroleum our
geologists think is down there, justify the high cost of exploratory drilling and
subsequent development program?” The goal of the investor/shareholder or
company is to make money at a desired return of investment, not just to find oil or
gas. In order to make money, the company must find, produce, and sell petroleum
at a profit that meets their financial goals? Many beginning oil company
exploration geologists or geophysicists get caught up in the technical aspects of
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subsurface analysis, but find out quickly that the business aspects of making
money drive the technical work, not the other way around. This is a critical point to
remember from this chapter on methods of oil and gas exploration. The methods
described in this chapter, which can be very “high tech”, cutting edge and
expensive, are developed and used by oil companies and investors for one purpose
only: to reduce the uncertainty of predicting the subsurface location, volume and
nature of economic occurrences of petroleum deposits. The use of these methods
depends on whether the value of the information that they provide is expected to
exceed the cost to employ them.
Alternatively stated, the methods employed in oil exploration are driven by the
business need to evaluate the investment risk relative to the monetary return
expected.
There are seven major conceptual steps involved in the complete commercial
“Petroleum Product Life Cycle” (Figure 1). These steps are (1) Prospecting, (2)
Leasing or acquiring access, (3) Drilling operations, (4) Developing and producing,
(5) Transporting, (6) Processing and refining, (7) Marketing and sales. Of the
seven steps listed above, the first three steps are called the “exploration phase” and
the forth step is the “production/extraction phase”. The majority of wildcat wells
drilled to date have been dry holes that contained no commercial hydrocarbons.
Wildcat drilling success rates in the industry have climbed from about a 10%
success rate 20 years ago, to approximately 56% of wells discovering
hydrocarbons currently. Thus steps 1 through 3 in Figure 1 may need to be
repeated many times before a successful venture that moves forward to steps 4
through 7 is achieved.
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Many geoscientists employed by the petroleum industry refer to themselves as
working in the “upstream” part of the business, or in “E&P”. This means the
exploration and production aspects of the business. “Midstream” business consists
of transportation and refining (steps five and six). The “downstream” business
deals with marketing and sales (step seven), which is represented by the gasoline
stations that are familiar to many consumers. This chapter addresses only the
methods employed by those engaged in the exploration and production phases of
the petroleum industry. In addition, this chapter focuses on the role of the
geoscientist in E&P, and does not provide detail on the role of other disciplines
such as economics and engineering.
National Oil Companies (NOC’s) that are owned and directed by national
governments are subject to rules and regulations outside of the commercial
marketplace. Their motives and objectives may involve energy supply and security
for their citizens rather than strictly financial investment return. Thus they may not
need to conduct steps two and seven above, or these and other steps may be greatly
modified from those undertaken by industrial enterprises.
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2. The Origin of Petroleum
2.1 Formation of Petroleum
Petroleum is a fossil fuel that originates from the decomposition of ancient organic
materials, primarily zooplankton and algae, buried under sedimentary rocks. Over
millions of years, heat, pressure, and microbial activities transformed these organic
materials into hydrocarbons, the primary components of petroleum.
2.2 Organic Theory of Petroleum Origin
The most widely accepted theory of petroleum origin is the organic theory.
According to this theory, petroleum is formed from the remains of marine
organisms that accumulated in sedimentary basins. As these remains were buried
deeper under layers of sediment, they were subjected to high temperatures and
pressures, triggering chemical reactions that converted the organic matter into
kerogen and eventually into oil and gas.
2.3 Inorganic Theory of Petroleum Origin
The inorganic or abiogenic theory suggests that petroleum could originate from
deep within the Earth's mantle through non-biological processes. Although this
theory is not widely accepted for the majority of petroleum deposits, it remains a
topic of scientific debate.
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3. Geological Formation and Accumulation of Petroleum
3.1 Source Rocks
Source rocks are rich in organic material and are the origin of petroleum
generation. These are typically shale or limestone beds that have undergone
thermal maturation.
3.2 Reservoir Rocks
These are porous and permeable rocks that store petroleum. Sandstones and
carbonates are common reservoir rocks due to their ability to hold and transmit oil
and gas.
3.3 Cap Rocks and Traps
Cap rocks, such as shale or salt, form a seal above reservoir rocks, preventing the
upward migration of hydrocarbons. Traps, which may be structural or stratigraphic,
are geological configurations that accumulate hydrocarbons.
4. Types and Classifications of Petroleum
4.1 Crude Oil
Crude oil is a liquid hydrocarbon that can vary in viscosity and composition. It is
classified based on its sulfur content and API gravity into light, medium, heavy,
and extra heavy oils.
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4.2 Natural Gas
Natural gas is composed mainly of methane and is found either in association with
crude oil or in gas-only fields. It is used as fuel and as feedstock for petrochemical
industries.
4.3 Condensates
Natural gas condensates are light hydrocarbons present in gas reservoirs that
condense into liquid at surface conditions.
5. Modern Methods of Petroleum Exploration
The Exploration and Production (E&P) Process
Steps of the E&P Process
The commercial E&P process is a multiphase process (as shown in Figure 2) that
typically proceeds in a variety of forms from Step 1 through Step 16, depending on
investor interests. Step 1 business strategy; is outside the scope of this chapter.
Steps 2 through 9 comprise the Prospecting Phase of Exploration (sections 3.2, 3.3,
and 4 of this chapter). Steps 10 through 13 comprise the Conventional Exploration
Phase (section 5 of this chapter). Steps 14 through 16 comprise the Field
Development Phase (section 6 of this chapter). Steps 2 through 5 make up the
geological and geophysical assessment of undiscovered potential (see Petroleum
(Oil and Gas) Geology and Resources, this volume). During the prospecting phase
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(prior to drilling), work can stop at any point after step 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 and not
advance to the leasing and drilling stage, if the business decision is made not to
proceed. Work is particularly likely to stop during Step 6, when many of the
scientific and technical results are risked and weighted against other, non-technical
factors. For unsuccessful wells (called “dry holes”), step 9 is reached and the well
is “plugged and abandoned” because hydrocarbon was not present
5.1 Geological Methods
These methods involve surface mapping and stratigraphic analysis to identify
potential hydrocarbon-bearing formations.
5.2 Geophysical Methods
5.2.1 Seismic Surveys
Seismic reflection and refraction techniques are employed to map subsurface
structures by analyzing the travel time of seismic waves.
5.2.2 Magnetic and Gravity Surveys
These help in detecting variations in the Earth's magnetic and gravitational fields,
indicating the presence of different rock types and structures.
5.3 Geochemical Methods
These involve sampling and analyzing gases and hydrocarbons in soils or rocks to
identify petroleum indicators.
5.4 Remote Sensing and Satellite Imaging
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Used to analyze geological features and surface anomalies that may indicate
petroleum presence.
5.5 Exploratory Drilling
Drilling provides direct evidence of petroleum presence. Core samples and well
logs are analyzed to confirm reservoir properties.
6. Petroleum Refining and Petrochemical Feedstock
6.1 Distillation Process
Crude oil is refined through fractional distillation, where it is heated and separated
into components like gasoline, diesel, kerosene, and naphtha.
6.2 Petrochemical Derivatives
Naphtha and other fractions are processed in steam crackers to produce olefins
(ethylene, propylene) and aromatics (benzene, toluene), which are primary
petrochemical feedstocks.
7. Technological Innovations in Exploration
7.1 3D and 4D Seismic Imaging
These provide detailed images of subsurface structures and monitor reservoir
changes over time.
7.2 Horizontal Drilling
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Allows greater exposure to reservoir rocks, increasing extraction efficiency.
8. Challenges in Petroleum Exploration
8.1 Environmental Concerns
Exploration and drilling can lead to habitat destruction, oil spills, and air and water
pollution.
8.2 Political and Economic Barriers
Geopolitical instability and fluctuating oil prices impact exploration efforts.
8.3 Depletion of Conventional Reserves
Many traditional oil fields are declining, prompting exploration of unconventional
resources like shale oil and tar sands.
9. Environmental Impacts and Sustainable Exploration
9.1 Pollution and Emissions
Petroleum activities release greenhouse gases and pollutants, contributing to
climate change.
9.2 Green Technologies
Carbon capture, enhanced oil recovery using CO2, and cleaner drilling
technologies are being developed to mitigate environmental impacts.
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10. Conclusion
Petroleum continues to be a cornerstone of global energy and industrial systems.
Understanding its origin and employing modern exploration techniques are vital
for sustainable resource management. Technological advancements are improving
the efficiency and environmental safety of petroleum exploration. As the world
transitions to cleaner energy, the role of petroleum will evolve, but its foundational
importance in petrochemical production remains significant.
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REFERENCES
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Boudart, M. (2010). Origin of petroleum: Biogenic and abiogenic theories. Journal of Petroleum
Science.
Campbell, J.M., Jr, J.M. Campbell, Sr., and R.A. Campbell, 1987, Analysis and Management of
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Hyne, N. J. (2012). Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling, and
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Society of Professional Well Log Analysts (SPWLA), 1984, Glossary of Terms and Expressions
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