CONCEPT NOTES

Introduction to Computer

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 Contents
1 Computer ................................................................................................................................................... 4
2 Characteristics of Computer ...................................................................................................................... 4
3 Limitations of Computers........................................................................................................................... 5
4 History of Computers ................................................................................................................................. 5
Abacus ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Napier’s Bones ................................................................................................................................... 5
Pascaline ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Punched Card System ........................................................................................................................ 5
Charles Babbage’s Calculating Engines (1792-1871) ......................................................................... 6
Mark I Computer ................................................................................................................................ 6
First Un-programmable Electronic Digital Computer (ABC) .............................................................. 6
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator – ENIAC................................................................... 6
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer – EDVAC ............................................................. 6
Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator – EDSAC................................................................... 7
Universal Automatic Computer - UNIVAC.......................................................................................... 7
Micro Processor – INTEL 4004 ........................................................................................................... 7
5 Generation of Computers .......................................................................................................................... 7
First Generation Computers (1946 – 1959) ....................................................................................... 7
Second Generation Computers (1959 – 1965) .................................................................................. 7
Third Generation Computers (1965 – 1971) ...................................................................................... 7
Fourth Generation Computers (1971 – 1980) ................................................................................... 8
Fifth Generation Computers (1980 – Present)................................................................................... 8
6 Types of Computers ................................................................................................................................... 8
Based on Operation ........................................................................................................................... 8
Analog Computer ............................................................................................................................... 8
6.2.1 Digital Computer ........................................................................................................................ 8
6.2.2 Hybrid Computer........................................................................................................................ 9
Based on Configuration...................................................................................................................... 9
6.3.1 Super Computer ......................................................................................................................... 9
6.3.2 Mainframe Computer ................................................................................................................ 9
6.3.3 Mini Computer ........................................................................................................................... 9
6.3.4 Micro Computer ......................................................................................................................... 9

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 6.3.5 Personal Computer (PC) ............................................................................................................. 9
Based on Utility ................................................................................................................................10
6.4.1 General Purpose Computer .....................................................................................................10
6.4.2 Special Purpose Computer .......................................................................................................10
Based on mode of Use .....................................................................................................................10
6.5.1 Client and Server ......................................................................................................................10
6.5.2 Workstation .............................................................................................................................10
6.5.3 Information Appliances ............................................................................................................11
6.5.4 Embedded Computers .............................................................................................................11
7 Uses of Computer ....................................................................................................................................11

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 1 Computer
A computer is a electronic machine or device that
performs processes, calculations and operations
based on instructions provided by a software or
hardware program. It has the ability to accept raw
data as input, processes it and produce information
as output.

Computers can also store data for later uses in

appropriate storage devices, and retrieve whenever
it is necessary.

Modern computers are electronic devices used for

a variety of purposes ranging from browsing the
web, writing documents, editing videos, creating applications, playing video games, etc. They are
designed to execute applications and provide a variety of solutions by combining integrated
hardware and software components.

2 Characteristics of Computer
Computer are the foundation of business, travel and leisure of life today. The common
characteristics that makes computers of all sizes such a powerful machine are speed, accuracy and
reliability, storage capacity, ability to operate automatically, diligence, scientific approach and
versatility.

✓ Speed : Computer provide the processing speed required by all facets of society. The quick service
we expect at the bank, at the grocery store, on the stock exchange and on the Internet are
dependent on the speed of computers. The speed of a computer is measured in the following
time units for the access time or instructions per second.

Milli second (1ms) A thousandth of a second or 10-3

Micro second (1µs) A millionth of a second or 10-6
Nano second (1ns) A thousand millionth of a second or 10-9
Pico second (1ps) A million millionth of a second or 10-12
KIPS Kilo Instructions Per Second
MIPS Million Instructions Per Second
✓ Accuracy and Reliability : Computers are quite accurate and extremely reliable as well. They are
only a machine and do not make errors on their own. Errors are caused by humans, not by
computers.
✓ Storage : Computers are capable of storing enormous amounts of data that must be located and
retrieved very quickly. The capability to store and retrieve volumes of data is the core of the
Information Age.
✓ Automation : Once a process has been initiated, it is capable of functioning automatically. It does
not require an operator at each stage of the process.
✓ Diligence : It is capable of operating at exactly the same level of speed and accuracy even if it has
to carry out the most voluminous and complex operations for a long period of time. It does not
suffer from physical and mental fatigue, lack of concentration and laziness.

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 ✓ Versatility : The wide use of computers in so many areas such as commerce, scientific application,
education in day to day life is an ample evidence of its versatility.

3 Limitations of Computers
Following are certain limitations of computers:

✓ No I.Q. – A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task. Each instruction
has to be given to the computer. A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
✓ Prone to Virus – The computer sometimes malfunctions and results in loss of data if some virus
attacks.
✓ Dependency – It functions as per the user’s instruction; thus, it is fully dependent on humans.
✓ Environment – The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.
✓ No feeling – Computer have no feelings or emotions. It cannot make judgement based on feeling.
Taste, experience and knowledge unlike humans.

4 History of Computers
A Computer was intended for making a person capable of performing numerical calculations with
the help of a mechanical computing device.

Abacus
✓ Abacus was the first counting device which was developed in China. It consists
of a rectangular wooden frame and beads. The wooden frame contains
horizontal rods and the beads which are passed through the rods.
✓ The beads of counters represent digits. The device is used to perform simple
addition and subtraction.

Napier’s Bones
✓ It was a device which contained a set of rods made of bones. It was
developed by a Scottish Mathematician, John Napier.
✓ To perform multiplication and division, the device was developed.
Napier also invented logarithms.

Pascaline
✓ Pascaline was the first calculating device with a capability to perform
additions and subtractions on whole numbers. It was developed by
Blaise Pascal, a French Mathematician.
✓ The device made up of interlocked cog wheels having numbers 0 to 9 on
its circumference. When one wheel completes its rotation, the other
wheel moves by one segment.

Punched Card System

✓ Punched Card System was invented by Herman Hollerith, an American Statistician. It was used
for storing and retrieving data. In the form of punched holes, the system data could be stored.

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 Charles Babbage’s Calculating Engines (1792-1871)
✓ Charles Babbage invented the Difference Engine to solve algebraic
expressions and mathematical tasks accurately.
✓ Later, he designed some improvements to his first computer. The
modified machine is called the Analytical Engine.
✓ He intended to design a machine with a collection of the four basic
arithmetic functions. The design principle of the Analytical Engine
can be divided into Input, Output, Memory, Central Processing Unit.
The parts and working principle of an Analytical engine are the same
as today’s computer.
✓ Charles Babbage is known as the father of Computer.

Alan Turing is known as the father of the Modern computer.

• He conceptualized the Turing machine, a theoretical framework that laid the foundation
for modern computers.
• His work provided insights into the design and operation of digital computers, including
concepts such as the stored-program computer, which became a fundamental principle in
modern computer design.
• During World War II, Turing's work in breaking the Enigma code, a cryptographic device
used by the Germans, showcased the practical application of computing technology in
cryptanalysis.

Mark I Computer
✓ The first electro-mechanical computing device was developed by Howard
Hathaway Aiken. He used Hollerith’s punch card and Babbage’s statements
to develop Mark I computer with IBM.
✓ In Mark III computer, he used some electronic components and Magnetic
drum memory.
✓ In Mark IV computer, he used all electronic components and Magnetic
drum memory & Magnetic core memory.

First Un-programmable Electronic Digital Computer (ABC)

✓ The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) was the first electronic computer. It was designed by John
Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry.
✓ It was designed to solve systems of linear algebraic equations. It was also the first to use
capacitors for storage.

Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator – ENIAC

✓ ENIAC was the first electronic computer used for general purposes, such as solving numerical
problems.
✓ It was invented by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly.

Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer – EDVAC

✓ EDVAC was the successor of ENIAC. In this computer, Binary numbers were used for arithmetic
operations and the internal storage of instructions were also written in digital forms.

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 Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator – EDSAC
✓ EDSAC was the first practical general-purpose stored-program electronic computer. It was built
according to the von Neumann machine principles.

Universal Automatic Computer - UNIVAC

✓ UNIVAC was the first commercially available computer. It was made by the Eckert-Mauchly
Computer Company. It represents the birth of the modern computers.

Micro Processor – INTEL 4004

✓ In 1969, Intel Corporation designed the first general-purpose programmable processor INTEL
4004. It was a set of four chips known as the MCS-4.
✓ It included a central processing unit chip (the 4004) as well as a supporting read-only memory
chip for the custom applications programs, a random-access memory (RAM) chip for processing
data, and a shift-register chip for the input/output (I/O) port.

5 Generation of Computers
First Generation Computers (1946 – 1959)
✓ The first-generation computers were used vacuum tubes as the electronic
components. They produce more heat, so needed cooling devices.
✓ They consumed huge electricity, occupied a very large space, huge cost etc.
✓ Machine languages are used as programming language.
✓ Examples – EDSAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, IBM-701, IBM-650.

Second Generation Computers (1959 – 1965)

✓ The second-generation computers replaced Vacuum Tubes with Transistors.
✓ They were cheap, compact, faster programming and produced less heat than
the first-generation computers.
✓ They used assembly languages and batch processing operating system.
✓ Magnetic cores and magnetic tapes were used as storage.
✓ Examples – IBM-1620, IBM -7094, CDC-1604, CDC-3600.

Third Generation Computers (1965 – 1971)

✓ The third-generation computers replaced transistors with integrated circuits
(ICs). They performed computation in Nanoseconds.
✓ It used high-level languages like FORTRAN, COBOL, PASCAL, ALGO-68, BASIC
was used.
✓ In this generation, remote processing, time-sharing, multi-programming
operating system were used.
✓ Examples – IBM-360 series, Honeywell-6000 series, PDP, IBM-370/168.

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 Fourth Generation Computers (1971 – 1980)
✓ The fourth-generation computers are used Very Large Scale Integrated
(VLSI) circuits.
✓ Semi-conductor devices are used as primary memory. Magnetic disks are
used as secondary storage.
✓ Problem-oriented fourth generation languages (4GL) are used. Multi-
processing and multiprogramming operating systems are used.
✓ Example – Apple series – I & II, IBM 4341, DEC 10, STAR 1000, PUP 11.

Fifth Generation Computers (1980 – Present)

✓ The fifth-generation computers use Ultra Large Scale Integrated (ULSI) chips
that contain millions of components on a single chip.
✓ They are in the developmental stage which is based on the artificial
intelligence.
✓ These computers can also respond to natural language input.
✓ Biochips will be used as memory devices and KIPS (Knowledge-based
Information Processing System) architecture will be used.
✓ Examples – Robots, Supercomputers.

6 Types of Computers
Based on Operation

Based on Operation

Analog computer Digital Computer Hybrid computer

Analog Computer
✓ An Analog computer stores data continuously in the form of physical
quantities and perform calculations with the help of measures.
✓ It produces output in the form of a graph. They are used in the
calculation of physical variables such as voltage, pressure, temperature,
speed, etc.
6.2.1 Digital Computer
✓ A Digital computer is the most commonly used type of computer and is
working with data represented in digital form, usually binary 0s and 1s.
✓ It can perform faster and give more accurate results. They are
extensively used for solving complex problems in the field of engineering
& technology, design, research and data processing.

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 6.2.2 Hybrid Computer
✓ A Hybrid computer is a combined feature of Analog and Digital
computers.
✓ In large industries and businesses, a hybrid computer can be used
for logical operations as well as efficient processing of differential
equations.

Based on Configuration
Based on Configuration

Super Mainframe Mini Micro Personal

computer Computer Computer Computer Computer

6.3.1 Super Computer

✓ Supercomputers are powerful, expensive and the fastest computers.
They have architectural and operational principles from parallel and
grid processing for performing billions and trillions of calculations per
second.
✓ They are used for applications that require large amounts of
mathematical computations like weather forecasting, fluid
dynamics, graphic design etc.
6.3.2 Mainframe Computer
✓ Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer
capable of supporting hundreds or even thousands of users
simultaneously.
✓ Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and supports
many simultaneous executions of programs.
6.3.3 Mini Computer
✓ Minicomputers possess most of the features and capabilities of a large
computer but are smaller in physical size.
✓ They are used as small or midrange operating business and scientific
applications.
6.3.4 Micro Computer
✓ Microcomputers are small, inexpensive computer for personal use.
✓ They are popularly used at homes for playing games and surfing
the Internet.
6.3.5 Personal Computer (PC)
✓ A personal computer is a cost-effective computer that is designed
for a single end-user. PC is dependent on microprocessor
technology, which allows PC makers to set the entire central
processing unit (CPU) on a single chip.

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 Based on Utility

Based on Utility

General Purpose computer Special Purpose Computer

6.4.1 General Purpose Computer

✓ A general-purpose computer can perform an extensive variety of operations. It can store
and execute different programs in its internal storage.
✓ All mainframes, servers, laptop and desktop computers, smartphones and tablets are
general-purpose devices.
6.4.2 Special Purpose Computer
✓ Special purpose computers are designed to solve specific problems. The instructions are pre-
programmed permanently in the computer.
✓ It completely controlled by automated manufacturing processes. Example – Aircraft control
system, Electronic voting machines etc.

Quantum computers
These are a type of special-purpose computers designed to leverage the principles of quantum
mechanics to perform computations. Unlike classical computers, which use bits as the fundamental
unit of information (either 0 or 1), quantum computers use quantum bits, or qubits, which can exist
in multiple states simultaneously due to phenomena such as superposition and entanglement.

Based on mode of Use

Based on Mode of Use

Client and Information Embedded
Server Workstation Appliances Computers
6.5.1 Client and Server
✓ The server is a device that manages the sharing of network resources to the users. An
Application server, File server, Virtual server, Mail server are some types of server. A client
is the receiving end of the service which made by the server. It requests the server and gains
access with the server.
6.5.2 Workstation
✓ Workstation (WS) is faster than Personal Computer. It is designed for a user or group of users
with better multitasking capability, additional Random-Access Memory, Higher-speed
graphics adapters and drive capacity.

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 6.5.3 Information Appliances
✓ Information appliances are the portable or handy devices designed to perform simple
operations like calculations, games, etc. They have limited memory and limited operations
capabilities and software. Example – Mobile phones, Tablets, etc.
6.5.4 Embedded Computers
✓ Embedded computers are used in other machines to serve limited requirements. It executes
program in the non-volatile memory to operate an intended machine or electronic device.
They cannot be rebooted unlike normal computers, required to operate continuously.
Embedded computers are used widely in day-to-day life. Example – Washing Machine, DVD
player, etc.

7 Uses of Computer
Computers are used to control large and small machines which in the past were controlled by
humans.

✓ Distance Learning – Distance learning is a new learning methodology. The computer plays the key
role in this kind of learning. Many institutes are providing distance learning programs. The student
does not need to come to the institute. The institute provides the reading material and the student
attends virtual classroom.
✓ Online Examination – The trend of online examination is becoming popular. Different examination
like GRE, GMAT and SAT are conducted online all over the world. The questions are marked by
computer. It minimizes the chance of mistakes. It also enables to announce the result in time.
✓ Computer Games – An important use of computers at home is playing games. Different types of
games are available. These games are a source of entertainment and recreation. Many games are
available that are specially developed to improve your mental capability and thinking power.
✓ Working from Home – People can manage the office work at home. The owner of a company can
checks the work of the employees from home. He can control his office while sitting at home.
✓ Banking sector – In banks, computers are used to access the customer data quickly. By using the
computer, transactions can be done easily. Online banking is very useful technology for people
who are unable to go to the bank. Now, customers can access information and process
transactions through online.
✓ Entertainment – People can find entertainment on the internet. They can watch movies, listen to
songs, and watch videos download different stuff. They can also watch live matches on the
internet.
✓ Information – People can find any type of information on the internet. Educational and
informative websites are available to download books, tutorials etc. to improve their knowledge
and learn new things.
✓ Chatting & Social Media – People can chat with friends and family on the internet using different
software like Skype etc. One can interact with friends over social media websites like Facebook,
Twitter & Google Plus. They can also share photos and videos with friends
✓ Marketing – Marketing applications provide information about the products to customers. The
computer is also used to manage distribution system, advertising, and selling activities. Companies
can know more about their customers and their needs and requirements etc.
✓ Hospital Management System – Specialized hospital management software’s are used to
automate the day to day procedures and operations at hospitals. These tasks may be online

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 appointments, payroll admittance and discharge records etc. and it can be used in Patients
Monitoring, Diagnosis Purpose.

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CONCEPT NOTES

Computer Organization and Data

Processing
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 Contents
1 Component of Computer System .............................................................................................................. 4
Input Unit ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Central Processing Unit ...................................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)........................................................................................................ 5
1.2.2 Control Unit (CU)........................................................................................................................ 5
Memory Unit ...................................................................................................................................... 5
1.3.1 Primary Memory ........................................................................................................................ 5
1.3.2 Secondary Memory .................................................................................................................... 5
Output Unit ........................................................................................................................................ 5
2 Data Processing Cycle ................................................................................................................................ 6
Data .................................................................................................................................................... 6
Information ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Data Processing .................................................................................................................................. 6
Stages of Data Processing .................................................................................................................. 7
2.4.1 Input Stage ................................................................................................................................. 7
2.4.2 Processing Stage ........................................................................................................................ 7
2.4.3 Output Stage .............................................................................................................................. 7
2.4.4 Storage Stage ............................................................................................................................. 8
Types of Data Processing ................................................................................................................... 8
2.5.1 Manual Data Processing............................................................................................................. 8
2.5.2 Electronic Data Processing (EDP) ............................................................................................... 8
2.5.3 Online Processing ....................................................................................................................... 8
2.5.4 Real time processing .................................................................................................................. 8
2.5.5 Batch processing ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.5.6 Distributed Processing ............................................................................................................... 8
2.5.7 Multi-Processing ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.5.8 Time sharing ............................................................................................................................... 9
3 Interconnection of Units ............................................................................................................................ 9
Internal Bus ........................................................................................................................................ 9
External Bus ....................................................................................................................................... 9
4 Instruction cycle .......................................................................................................................................10
Fetch.................................................................................................................................................11

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 Decode .............................................................................................................................................11
Execute .............................................................................................................................................11
Store .................................................................................................................................................11
5 Computer Design .....................................................................................................................................11

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 1 Component of Computer System
Any computer system consists of :

1. Input Unit
2. Output Unit
3. Central Processing Unit
4. Memory Unit

System unit
It is a metal or plastic case that holds all the physical parts of the computer. The
components that process data are located in it.

Input Unit
✓ The Input Unit is used for giving instructions and data by using input devices.
✓ The computer accepts coded information through input unit by the user. This unit is used to
give required information to the computer. For example, keyboard, mouse, etc.
✓ An input unit performs the following functions:
• It accepts the instructions and data from the user.
• It converts these instructions and data to computer acceptable format.
• It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further
processing.

Central Processing Unit

✓ Central Processing Unit is often called the brain of computer. The CPU is fabricated as a single
Integrated Circuit (IC) and is also known as microprocessor. Physically, a CPU can be placed on
one or more microchips called integrated circuits (IC). The ICs comprise semiconductor
materials
✓ It consists a set of registers, arithmetic logic unit and control unit, which together interpret and
execute instructions in assembly language.
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 ✓ The primary functions of the CPU are as follows
• The CPU transfers instructions and input data from main memory to registers.
• The CPU executes the instructions in the stored sequence.
• When necessary, CPU transfers output data from registers to main memory.
• A CPU controls all the internal and external devices and performs arithmetic and logic
operations.
✓ The CPU consists of following main sub-systems

1.2.1 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

✓ ALU contains the electronic circuitry that executes all arithmetic and logical operations on
the available data. ALU uses registers to hold the data that is being processed.
✓ Most ALUs can perform the following operations
• Logical operations (AND, NOT, OR, XOR).
• Arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division).
• Bit-shifting operations (shifting or rotating a word by a specified number of bit to the
left or right with or without sign extension).
• Comparison operations (=, <, <=, >, >=)

Registers
These are used to quickly accept, store and transfer data and instructions that are being used
immediately by the CPU. These registers are the top of the memory hierarchy and are the fastest
way for the system to manipulate data. The number and size of registers vary from processor-to-
processor

1.2.2 Control Unit (CU)

✓ CU coordinates with the input and output devices of a computer. It directs the computer to
carry out stored program instructions by communicating with the ALU and the registers. It
organises the processing of data and instructions.
✓ The basic function of control unit is to fetch the instruction stored in the main memory,
identify the operations and the devices involved in it and accordingly generate control
signals.

Memory Unit
✓ This unit is responsible to store programs or data on a temporary or permanent basis. It has
primary memory (main memory) and secondary memory (auxiliary memory).

1.3.1 Primary Memory

✓ It is volatile (losses data on power dissipation). It is used to hold running program instruction,
data intermediate results and results of ongoing processing of jobs.
1.3.2 Secondary Memory
✓ It is non-volatile (retains data even without power). It is used to hold stored program
instructions and a large volume of information.

Output Unit
✓ This unit sends the processed results to the user. It is mainly used to display the desired result
to the user as per input instructions.For example, monitor, printer, plotter, etc.

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 ✓ The following functions are performed by an output unit
• It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and hence cannot
be easily understood by user.
• It converts these coded results to readable form which convenient to users.
• It produces the converted results to the user.

2 Data Processing Cycle

To know about the working of a computer, first need to understand various terms such as Data,
Information and Data Processing. First of all, lets start with three basic terms:-

Data
✓ Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized
manner, which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human
or electronic machine.
✓ Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or
special characters (+, -, /, *, <, >, = etc.)

Information
✓ Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for the receiver.
It is the end point or the final output of any processed work. Information is the processed data
on which decisions and actions are based.
✓ For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics –
• Timely − Information should be available when required.
• Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
• Completeness − Information should be complete.

Data Processing
✓ Data processing refers to the transformation of raw data into meaningful output. Data can be
done manually using a pen and paper, mechanically using simple devices e.g. typewriter or
electronically using modern data processing tools e.g. computers.

Process Time
Process time typically refers to the time taken by a specific process or task to complete within a
computer system. It may include various stages such as data processing, computation, and output
generation.

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 Stages of Data Processing
✓ These four stages constitute the data processing cycle:

Input Processing Output Storage

Stage Stage Stage Stage

Data Collection
Performing
Decoding Storing data
instructions
Data Capture

Encoding

Data
Transform raw
Transmission Presenting data
data into Retrieve data
to user
information
Data
Communication

2.4.1 Input Stage

✓ This is the feeding of raw and sieved data for processing. If the input is not done properly or
done wrong, then the result will be adversely affected. This is because software follows the
rule of “Garbage in – garbage out (GIGO)”. Utmost care should be taken to provide the right
data.
✓ Input stage contains the following activities:
• Data Collection – Gathering data from the environment and preparing it for input. • The
document on which data is recorded when it is collected is called a source code.
• Data Capture – Entering the collected data into a data processing system such as a computer
system.
• Encoding – Converting data into a form that is easier to input into a data processing system.
Example: Date as DD/MM/YYYY. This saves a lot of time and reduces error.
• Data Transmission – Sending input data to the processor and carrying it across its various
components. It also involves carrying data from the processor to the output devices.
• Data Communication – Set of activities that allow data to be sent from one data-processing
system to another.
2.4.2 Processing Stage
✓ This is the stage where data is processed by electronic data processing, mechanical processing
or automated means. The processed data is one which gives information to the user and can
be put to use. The raw data cannot be understood and thus needs processing which is done in
this stage. Processing of data may take time depending on the complexity of the data and the
volume of input data.

2.4.3 Output Stage

✓ The result of the proceeding processing stage is collected. The particular form of the output
data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may be pay-checks for
employees.

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 ✓ Decoding – Decoding is the process of converting code into plain text or any format that is
useful for subsequent processes. Decoding is the reverse of encoding. It converts encoded
data communication transmissions and files to their original states.
2.4.4 Storage Stage
✓ This is the outcome, and the raw data provided in the first stage is now “processed,” and the
data is useful and provides information and no longer called data. The data that has been
processed is stored for later processing or reading. Storage can be done on external hard
disk, inbuilt hard disk, pen drives, micro SD cards, compact disks or even in registers.

Types of Data Processing

2.5.1 Manual Data Processing
✓ This method of data processing involves human intervention. The manual process of data
entry implies many opportunities for errors, such as delays in data capture, as every single
data field has to be keyed in manually, a high amount of operator misprints or typos, high
labor costs from the amount of manual labor required. Manual processing also implies
higher labor expenses in regards to spending for equipment and supplies, rent, etc.
2.5.2 Electronic Data Processing (EDP)
✓ Electronic data processing (EDP) can refer to the use of automated methods to process
commercial data. Typically, this uses relatively simple, repetitive activities to process large
volumes of similar information.
2.5.3 Online Processing
✓ This processing method is a part of automatic processing method. This method at times
known as direct or random-access processing. Under this method the job received by the
system is processed at same time of receiving. This can be considered and often mixed with
real-time processing. This system features random and rapid input of transaction and user
defined/ demanded direct access to databases/content when needed.
2.5.4 Real time processing
✓ In a real-time processing, there is a continual input, process and output of data. Data has to
be processed in a small stipulated time period (real time), otherwise it will create problems
for the system. For example, when a bank customer withdraws a sum of money from his or
her account it is vital that the transaction be processed and the account balance updated as
soon as possible, allowing both the bank and customer to keep track of funds.
2.5.5 Batch processing
✓ In a batch processing group of transactions collected over a period of time is collected,
entered, processed and then the batch results are produced. Batch processing requires
separate programs for input, process and output. It is an efficient way of processing high
volume of data. For example: Payroll system, Examination system and billing system.
2.5.6 Distributed Processing
✓ This method is commonly utilized by remote workstations connected to one big central
workstation or server. ATMs are good examples of this data processing method. All the end
machines run on a fixed software located at a particular place and make use of exactly same
information and sets of instruction.
2.5.7 Multi-Processing
✓ This type of processing perhaps the most widely used types of data processing. It is used
almost everywhere and forms the basis of all computing devices relying on processors.
Multi-processing makes use of CPUs (more than one CPU). The task or sets of operations are

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 divided between CPUs available simultaneously thus increasing efficiency and throughput.
The result and benefit of this type of processing is the reduction in time required and
increasing the output.
2.5.8 Time sharing
✓ Time based used of CPU is the core of this data processing type. The single CPU is used by
multiple users. All users share same CPU but the time allocated to all users might differ. The
processing takes place at different intervals for different users as per allocated time. Since
multiple users can uses this type it is also referred as multi access system.

3 Interconnection of Units
CPU sends data, instruction and information to the components inside the peripheral device attached
to it.

A Bus is a set of wires used for interconnection where each wire can carry 1 bit of data. In other
words, bus is a set of electrical signal pathways that allows information and signals to travel between
component inside of outside of a computer.

A computer bus can be divided into two types:

Computer Bus

Internal Bus External Bus

Internal Bus
✓ It connects the component inside the motherboard and system memory. It is also called the
system bus. The Internal bus includes the following buses:
• The command to access the memory or the Input Output devices is carried by the control
bus.
• The address of Input- Output devices or memory is carried by the address bus.
• The data to be transferred is carried by the data bus.

External Bus
✓ It connect the different external devices, peripherals, expansion slot, Input/Output ports and
drive connection to the rest of computer. It is also referred to as the expansion bus.

There are several types of computer bus interfaces, each serving a specific purpose. Here are
some common types:

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 Interface Name Introduced in Purpose
Peripheral Component 1992 Standard bus for connecting peripheral devices to a
Interconnect (PCI) computer's motherboard. Evolved into PCI-X and PCIe.
Universal Serial Bus 1996 Widely used interface for connecting peripherals to
(USB) computers. Supports plug-and-play functionality.
Handles various devices.
Serial Advanced 2003 Used for connecting storage devices like HDDs and SSDs
Technology to a computer's motherboard. Provides high-speed data
Attachment (SATA) transfer rates.
Small Computer 1986 Set of standards for connecting peripherals like hard
System Interface (SCSI) drives, tape drives, scanners, and printers to a computer.
Industry Standard 1981 Early standard bus architecture for IBM-compatible
Architecture (ISA) computers. Largely replaced by newer standards like PCI.
Accelerated Graphics 1996 Specialized high-speed bus for connecting graphics cards
Port (AGP) to the motherboard. Mostly replaced by PCIe for modern
systems.
Peripheral Component 2004 Latest standard for connecting internal components like
Interconnect Express graphics cards, network cards, and SSDs to a
(PCIe) motherboard.
IEEE 1394 (FireWire) 1995 High-speed serial bus interface for connecting
multimedia devices like camcorders, digital cameras, and
external hard drives.
Thunderbolt 2011 High-speed interface combining PCI Express and
DisplayPort into a single connection. Used for
peripherals like external hard drives and monitors.
Serial Attached SCSI 2004 High-speed serial interface for connecting storage
(SAS) devices like hard drives and tape drives in enterprise
environments.

4 Instruction cycle
A program residing in the memory unit of a computer consists of a sequence of instructions. These
instructions are executed by the processor by going through a cycle for each instruction.
Machine Language

Computers understand instruction only in terms of 0s and 1s, which is called machine language. Instruction
is divided into two parts operation (op-code) and operand. Op-code represents an action that the processor
must execute and the operand defines the parameter of the action and depends on the operation.

Each computer's CPU can have different cycles based on different instruction sets, but will be
similar to the following cycle -

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 Fetch
✓ The CPU fetches the instruction from main memory via the data bus, and it is then placed into
the CIR. the Program Counter is instructed to contain the address of the next instruction.

Decode
✓ The instruction decoder interprets instructions. If an instruction has an indirect address, the
effective address is read from main memory. and any required data is fetches from main
memory to be processed and then placed into data registers.

Execute
✓ The CU passes the decoded information as a sequence of control signals to the relevant function
units of the CPU to perform the actions required by the instruction, such as reading values from
registers, passing them the ALU to perform mathematical or logic functions on them, and
writing the result back into a register. If the ALU is involved, it sends a condition signal back to
the CPU.

Store
✓ The result generated by the operation is stored in the main memory, or sent to an output
device. Based on the condition of any feedback from the ALU, Program Counter may be updated
to a different address from which the next instruction will be fetched. The cycle is then
repeated.

Execution time

It refers to the time taken by a computer to process a given set of instructions or a program.
It measures the duration from the start of program execution to its completion, including the
time spent on fetching instructions, decoding them, executing them, and storing the results.
Execution time is a critical performance metric used to evaluate the efficiency and speed of
computer systems and programs.

5 Computer Design
It is the structure in which components relate to each other. The designer deals with a particular level
of system at a time and there are different types of issues at different levels. At each level, the
designer is concerned with the structure and function. The structure is the skeleton of the various
components related to each other for communication. The function is the activities involved in the
system.
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 Different types of Computer Architecture:

Architecture Description
1. Von Neumann • Uses a single shared memory for both data and instructions.
Architecture Instructions and data are stored in the same memory and
accessed via a single bus.
• Historically, two types of computers existed: Fixed Program
Computers, which had specific functions and could not be
reprogrammed, and Stored Program Computers, which could
execute various tasks as programs were stored in their
memory.
• Modern computers follow the stored-program concept
introduced by John Von Neumann, where programs and data
are stored in separate memories and treated the same,
allowing for easier reprogramming.
2. Stack-Based • Primarily operates on a stack data structure. Instructions often
Architecture manipulate data directly on the top of the stack, simplifying
instruction formats.
• Uses a data structure called a stack for organizing data and
instructions. Operates on the Last In First Out (LIFO) access
method. ALU operations are performed directly on stack data,
requiring both operands to be on the stack.
• Resulting data is placed back onto the stack. The stack pointer
(SP) register stores the address of the topmost element of the
stack.
3. Harvard • Harvard Architecture is the computer architecture that
Architecture contains separate storage and separate buses (signal path) for
instruction and data.
• It was basically developed to overcome the bottleneck of Von
Neumann’s Architecture. The main advantage of having
separate buses for instruction and data is that the CPU can
access instructions and read/write data at the same time.
4. CISC (Complex • Features a rich instruction set with complex instructions
Instruction Set capable of performing multiple operations in a single
Computing) instruction.
5. RISC (Reduced • Employs a simplified instruction set with a smaller number of
Instruction Set instructions. Executes instructions in a single clock cycle,
Computing) leading to efficient execution.
6. Parallel • Utilizes multiple processing units to execute instructions
Architectures simultaneously, enabling parallelism and improved
performance.
7. Distributed • Involves multiple independent computers working together as
Computing a single system. Commonly used for tasks requiring high
Architectures scalability and fault tolerance.

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 8. Neuromorphic • Inspired by biological neural networks, aims to mimic the
Computing parallelism, low power consumption, and adaptability of the
human brain using specialized hardware.
9. Single Accumulator • Contains a single accumulator register in the CPU, serving as
Architecture the primary location for arithmetic and logic operations.
Common in early computers and microprocessors.

Structure of Harvard

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CONCEPT NOTES

Computer Hardware

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 Contents
1 Hardware .............................................................................................................................................. 4
2 Hardware Component of Computer ..................................................................................................... 4
Processor....................................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.1 Word Size .............................................................................................................................. 5
2.1.2 Memory Size ......................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.3 Clock Speed ........................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.4 Cores Core ............................................................................................................................. 5
Motherboard................................................................................................................................. 5
2.2.1 Components of Motherboard ............................................................................................... 5
Case ............................................................................................................................................... 6
RAM............................................................................................................................................... 6
Graphics Card ................................................................................................................................ 7
Hard Drive/ Hard Disk ................................................................................................................... 7
Optical Drive.................................................................................................................................. 7
Power Supply ................................................................................................................................ 7
Sound Card .................................................................................................................................... 7
Ports .............................................................................................................................................. 8
2.10.1 Types of Port ......................................................................................................................... 8
2.10.2 Computer connectors ........................................................................................................... 8
Input Output Peripherals .............................................................................................................. 9
Expansion card .............................................................................................................................. 9
3 Classification of Input Output Peripherals ............................................................................................ 9
Input Devices................................................................................................................................. 9
3.1.1 Keyboard ............................................................................................................................... 9
3.1.2 Mouse ................................................................................................................................. 11
3.1.3 Joy Stick ............................................................................................................................... 11
3.1.4 Track Ball ............................................................................................................................. 11
3.1.5 Scanner................................................................................................................................ 11
3.1.6 Barcode Reader ................................................................................................................... 12
3.1.7 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)....................................................................... 12
3.1.8 Optical Character Recognition (OCR) .................................................................................. 12
3.1.9 Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) ........................................................................................ 12

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 3.1.10 Digitizer ............................................................................................................................... 12
3.1.11 Touch Screen ....................................................................................................................... 13
3.1.12 Microphone......................................................................................................................... 13
3.1.13 Web Camera ....................................................................................................................... 13
3.1.14 Light Pen.............................................................................................................................. 13
Output Devices............................................................................................................................ 13
3.2.1 Monitor ............................................................................................................................... 13
3.2.2 Printer ................................................................................................................................. 14
3.2.3 Plotter ................................................................................................................................. 16
3.2.4 Speaker................................................................................................................................ 16
3.2.5 Digital Projectors ................................................................................................................. 17
4 Other important Related terms .......................................................................................................... 17

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 1 Hardware
Hardware, which is abbreviated as HW, refers to all physical components of a computer system,
including the devices connected to it. You cannot create a computer or use software without
using hardware. The screen on which you are reading this information is also a hardware.

Computer hardware is the collection of physical parts of a computer system. This includes the
computer case, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. It also includes all the parts inside the computer
case, such as the hard disk drive, motherboard, video card, and many others. Computer
hardware is what you can physically touch.

All computers have a common structure. These components can be very different in terms of
expense, speed and quality, but every computer has them to one degree or another.The main
components are as follows:

✓ Form Factor - This is the physical configuration of the computer: desktop, laptop, tablet or
netbook.
✓ The Processor - This is the 'brain' of the computer
✓ Data Storage - This is where your data are stored, as well as all the programmes and other files
that your computer needs to run.
✓ The Operating System - The OS is the software that runs on computers - Windows, Macintosh or
Linux are the most popular.
✓ Monitor - This is the viewing screen that you use to operate the computer. It is a very important
part of the digital photography computer.

2 Hardware Component of Computer

Processor
✓ The speed that the computer can run an operation is largely determined by how fast the
processor can make calculations. A processor (CPU) which is implemented on a single
microchip is called microprocessor. Nowadays, almost all the CPUs are microprocessors.
Hence, the terms are used synonymously for practical purpose.
✓ Microprocessors are classified on the basis of different features which include chip type,
word size, memory size, clock speed, etc.
✓ The following companies are involved in Microprocessor production:
• Intel Corporation
• Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (AMD)
• Qualcomm Incorporated
• NVIDIA Corporation
• IBM Corporation
• ARM Limited (Acquired by NVIDIA)
• MediaTek Inc.
• Apple Inc.

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 2.1.1 Word Size
✓ Word size is the maximum number of bits that a microprocessor can process at a time.
Earlier, a word was 8 bits, as it was the maximum limit at that time. At present, the
minimum word size is 16 bits and maximum word size is 64 bits.
2.1.2 Memory Size
✓ Depending upon the word size, the size of RAM varies. Initially, RAM was very small
(4MB) due to 4/8 bits word size. As word size increased to 64 bits, it has become
feasible to use RAM of size upto 16 Exabytes (EB).
2.1.3 Clock Speed
✓ Computers have an internal clock that generates pulses (signals) at regular intervals of
time. Clock speed simply means the number of pulses generated per second by the
clock inside a computer. The clock speed indicates the speed at which the computer can
execute instructions. Earlier, it was measured in Hertz (Hz) and Kilohertz (kHz). But with
advancement in technology and chip density, it is now measured in Gigahertz (GHz), i.e.,
billions of pulses per second.
2.1.4 Cores Core
✓ It is a basic computation unit of the CPU. Earlier processors had only one computation
unit, thereby capable of performing only one task at a time. With the advent of
multicore processor, it has become possible for the computer to execute multiple tasks,
thereby increasing the system’s performance. CPU with two, four, and eight cores is
called dual-core, quad-core and octa-core processor, respectively.

Motherboard
✓ The motherboard connects all the other components to one another, and is the physical
base on which everything is built. It contains a lot of the machine's core features, like the
number of USB, physical ports, and the number of expansion cards can put in (such as
video, sound, and Wi-Fi), and also partially determines how big a computer will be. Which
motherboard can be picked will depend on whether you want to build a low, medium, or
high-performance machine and how advanced of a user you are.

2.2.1 Components of Motherboard

✓ CPU Slot
It is provided to install the CPU. It is a link between a microprocessor and a
motherboard. It facilitates the use of CPU and prevents the damage when it is installed
or removed.
• RAM Slot
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 It is a memory slot or socket provided in the motherboard to insert or install the RAM
(Random Access Memory). There can be two or more memory slots in a computer.
• Expansion Slot
It is also called the bus slot or expansion port. It is a connection or port on the
motherboard, which provides an installation point to connect a hardware expansion
card, for example, you can purchase a video expansion card and install it into the
expansion slot.
• Capacitor
It is made of two conductive plates, and a thin insulator sandwiched between them.
These parts are wrapped in a plastic container.
• Inductor (Coil)
It is an electromagnetic coil made of a conducting wire wrapped around an iron core. It
acts as an inductor or electromagnet to store magnetic energy.
• Northbridge
It is an integrated circuit that allows communications between the CPU interface, AGP,
and memory. Furthermore, it also allows the southbridge chip to communicate with
the RAM, CPU, and graphics controller.
• USB Port
It stands for Universal Serial Bus. It allows you to connect hardware devices like mouse,
keyboard to your computer.
• PCI Slot
It stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect slot. It allows you to connect the PCI
devices like modems, network hardware, sound, and video cards.
• AGP Slot
It stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. It provides the slot to connect graphics cards.
• Heat Sink
It absorbs and disperses the heat generated in the computer processor.
• Power Connector
It is designed to supply power to the motherboard.
• CMOS battery
It stands for Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor. It is a memory that stores
the BIOS settings such as time, date, and hardware settings.
Dumb terminal
It is simply an output device that accepts data from CPU.

Case
✓ The case holds all of your computer's parts together. For the most part, a case is less about
features that affect how a computer runs and more about features that affect you and your
home that is, how quiet it is, how large it is, and of course, how it looks in the office/home.

RAM
✓ RAM, or Random Access Memory (or "Memory" for short), is like your computer's short-
term memory. It stores data that a computer needs quick access to help your programs run
faster and help to run more programs at one time. More the Ram more will be the speed.
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 In general, you want to have as much RAM in your computer as you can afford. If you are running a
32 bit operating system, then each program can make use 2GB to 3 GB of RAM. If you have a 64bit
OS, then each program can use as much RAM as you have available

Graphics Card
✓ The Graphics card, or GPU, is a processor specifically designed to handle graphics. It's what
you hook your monitor up to, and it's what draws your desktop and your windows on the
screen.

Hard Drive/ Hard Disk

✓ Hard drive stores all of data, ranging from operating system to documents,
music, and movies. If the RAM is considered as the computer's short-term
memory, then hard drive is the long-term memory. It stores all the things
you want to keep around for a while.

Optical Drive
✓ An optical drive, more commonly known as a CD or DVD drive, is what is required to read
CDs, DVDs, and even Blu-Ray discs.

Power Supply
✓ The power supply directs electricity to the other components in the machine.

Sound Card
✓ A sound card is an electronic circuit board that is mounted inside the computer to control
sound output to speakers or headphones, to record sound input from a microphone
connected to the computer, and to manipulate sound stored on a disk. Sound cards are

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 essential for multimedia applications and have become common on modern personal
computers.

Ports
✓ A port is an interface on a computer to which you can connect a device. Personal
computers have various types of ports. Internally, there are several ports for connecting
disk drives, monitors, and keyboards. Externally, personal computers have ports for
connecting modems, printers, mouse, and other peripheral devices.

2.10.1 Types of Port

✓ Parallel ports (for most printers): A parallel port is an
interface for connecting eight or more data wires. The
data flows through the eight wires simultaneously. They
can transmit eight bits of data in parallel. As a result,
parallel ports provide high speed data transmission.
Parallel port is used to connect printer to computer.

✓ Serial ports (for most modems and some mouse): A serial

port transmits one bit of data through a single wire. Since,
data is transmitted serially as single bits. Serial ports
provide slow-speed data transmission. Serial port is used to
connect external modems, plotters, barcode, reader etc.

✓ USB (Universal Serial Bus) ports (for about every peripheral

made in a USB version): The provides a single, standardized,
easy-to-use way to connect up to 127 devices to a computer. The
USB connectors let you attach everything from mouse to printers
to your computer more quickly and easily. The operating system
supports USB as well, so the installation of the device drives is
quick and easy, too.

Firewire - It is used to connect audio and video multimedia devices like video camera it has data
transfer rate of upto 400 Mb/s.

2.10.2 Computer connectors

✓ These are physical interfaces used to establish connections between various computer
components, peripherals, and external devices. These connectors facilitate the transfer
of data, signals, and power between different parts of a computer system. Some
common types of computer connectors include:

Connector Description
HDMI (High-Definition Primarily used for connecting displays such as monitors, TVs, and
Multimedia Interface) projectors to computers and other devices.

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 VGA (Video Graphics An older standard for connecting displays to computers, primarily
Array) found in older monitors and projectors.
A VGA (Video Graphics Array) connector typically has 15 holes/pins.
Ethernet (RJ45) Used for wired network connections, allowing computers to connect
to local area networks (LANs) and the internet.
Audio Jacks Commonly used for connecting headphones, microphones, and
speakers to computers and other audio devices.
DisplayPort Similar to HDMI, used for connecting displays to computers and other
devices, often found in high-resolution monitors and graphics cards.
DVI (Digital Visual Another older standard for connecting displays, gradually being
Interface) replaced by HDMI and DisplayPort.
PS/2 Used for connecting keyboards and mice to older computers, now
mostly replaced by USB.

Input Output Peripherals

✓ A computer peripheral is any external device that provides input and output for the
computer. For example, a keyboard and mouse are input peripherals, while a monitor and
printer are output peripherals. Computer peripherals, or peripheral devices, are sometimes
called "Input/Output devices" because they provide input and output for the computer.
Some peripherals, such as external hard drives, provide both input and output for the
computer.

Expansion card
✓ An expansion card is an electronic card/board that is used to add extra functionality to a
computer. It is inserted into an expansion slot on the motherboard of a computer.
Expansion cards contain edge connectors that are used to create an electronic link
between motherboard and card, thus enabling these two to communicate.

3 Classification of Input Output Peripherals

Computer hardware/ Input Output Peripherals devices are classified into two different
categories:

Input Devices
✓ Input devices serve as a link between a user and the computer. It allows users to feed
instructions and data to computers for processing, display, storage and/or transmission.

3.1.1 Keyboard
✓ A computer keyboard is an input device that allows a person
to enter letters, numbers, and other symbols (these are called
characters in a keyboard) into a computer. Using a keyboard to
enter lots of data is called typing. A keyboard contains many
mechanical switches or push-buttons called "keys".
✓ There are different types of keyboards such as QWERTY,
DVORAK and AZERTY.QWERTY keyboards contains 104 keys.
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 Some important keys in a keyboard are:
✓ Toggle Keys – It is used to change the input mode of a group of keys on a keyboard. Caps
Lock, Num Lock, Scroll Lock are toggle keys.
• Caps Lock – Capitalizes all letters.
• Num Lock – Makes sure numbers are inputs from the keypad.
• Scroll Lock – Allows the arrow keys to scroll through the contents of a window.
✓ Modifier Keys – It is a special key (key combination) that temporarily modifies the normal
action of another key when pressed together. Shift, Alt, Ctrl, Fn are modifier keys.
• Shift – used for capitalizing letters and entering different types of symbols.
• Function (Fn) – Other functions such as brightness and volume control.
• Control (Ctrl) – used for entering keyboard shortcuts, such as Ctrl+S, Ctrl+P etc.
• Alt – used in combination with the numeric keys and the Control key for entering
keyboard shortcuts.

✓ Function Keys – A key on a computer keyboard, distinct from the main alphanumeric
keys, to which software can assign a function. F1 - F12 keys are known as function keys
and each key performs a different function. It may be used as single key commands
(e.g., F5) or combined with one or more modifier keys (e.g., Alt+F4).
✓ Escape Key – It is located in the upper left corner of a computer keyboard. It is often
used to quit, cancel, or abort a process which is running on a computer.
✓ Alphanumeric key- Includes the Alphbet keys (A, B, C…, Z) and Number key (0,1,2,…9).
✓ Numeric Key- there keys are located at the right side of the keyboard.
✓ Cursor Control Key/ Navigation Key- These include 4 directional arrow keys arranged
between alphanumeric and numeric keys. Apart from the arrow keys, it also include
Home, End, Page up and Page down.
✓ Other Keys
✓ Enter key- It is used to finish and begin and begin new entry in the document.
✓ Escape key- It allows a user to cancel or abort operation, which are executing at
present.
✓ Backspace key and Delete Key- It is used to erase anything type.

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 ✓ Window key- It is used to open the start menu.
3.1.2 Mouse
✓ It is a pointing and cursor-control device. A round ball at its base
senses the movement of a mouse and sends corresponding signals to
CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed. A mouse has two or three
buttons called Left, Right, and Middle button.

3.1.3 Joy Stick

✓ It is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is mainly used in Computer
Aided Design (CAD) and playing games on the computer. It can also be helpful as an
input device for people with movement disabilities.

3.1.4 Track Ball

✓ A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball held by a socket
containing sensors to detect a rotation of the ball about two axes—like
an upside-down mouse with an exposed protruding ball. Users roll the
ball to position the on-screen pointer, using their thumb, fingers, or
commonly the palm of the hand while using the fingertips to press the
mouse buttons.

3.1.5 Scanner
✓ The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or a
document. The scanned picture or document then converted into a digital format or file
and is displayed on the screen as an output. It uses optical character recognition
techniques to convert images into digital ones. Some of the common types of scanners
are as follows:
3.1.5.1 Flatbed Scanner
✓ It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD array. The light
illuminates the pane, and then the image is placed on the glass pane.
The light moves across the glass pane and scans the document and
thus produces its digital copy. You will need a transparency adapter
while scanning transparent slides.
3.1.5.2 Handheld Scanner
✓ It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is rolled
over a flat image that is to be scanned. The drawback in using this
device is that the hand should be steady while scanning; otherwise, it
may distort the image. One of the commonly used handheld scanners
is the barcode scanner which you would have seen in shopping stores.
3.1.5.3 Sheetfed Scanner
✓ In this scanner, the document is inserted into the slot provided in the
scanner. The main components of this scanner include the sheet-
feeder, scanning module, and calibration sheet. The light does not
move in this scanner. Instead, the document moves through the
scanner. It is suitable for scanning single page documents, not for thick
objects like books, magazines, etc.

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 3.1.5.4 Drum Scanner
✓ Drum scanner has a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to scan images. It
does not have a charge-coupled device like a flatbed scanner. The
photomultiplier tube is extremely sensitive to light. The image is
placed on a glass tube, and the light moves across the image, which
produces a reflection of the image which is captured by the PMT and
processed. These scanners have high resolution and are suitable for
detailed scans.
3.1.5.5 Photo Scanner
✓ It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color
depth, which are required for scanning photographs. Some photo
scanners come with in-built software for cleaning and restoring old
photographs.

3.1.6 Barcode Reader

✓ It is an electronic device for reading printed barcodes. A light sensor in the
barcode reader can read the barcode and translates optical impulses into
electrical impulses to store the data into the computer. It is an important
tool for warehouse management and operations.

3.1.7 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

✓ It is a character recognition system that uses special ink and characters. It
is used to verify the legitimacy or originality of paper documents,
especially cheques. Information can be encoded in the magnetic
characters. It provides a secure, high-speed method of scanning and
processing information.

3.1.8 Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

✓ Optical character recognition or optical character reader is the
electronic or mechanical conversion of images of typed, handwritten
or printed text into machine-encoded text, whether from a scanned
document, a photo of a document, a scene-photo or from subtitle
text superimposed on an image.

3.1.9 Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

✓ Optical mark recognition is the process of capturing human-marked
data from document forms such as surveys and tests. They are used
to read questionnaires, multiple choice examination paper in the
form of lines or shaded areas.

3.1.10 Digitizer
✓ A digitizer is a hardware device that receives analog information, such
as sound or light, and records it digitally. Usually, the information is
stored in a file on a computing device. It allows users to draw and
manipulate graphics on the screen. It is also known as a graphics tablet.
These kinds of tablets typically designed for CAD/CAM professionals.

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 3.1.11 Touch Screen
✓ It is a computer display screen that serves as an input device. A touchscreen can be
touched by a finger or stylus. Touchscreen records the event and sends it to a controller
for processing.
3.1.12 Microphone
✓ Microphone translates sound vibrations in the air into
electronic signals. It enables many types of audio recording
devices for purposes including communications, music and
speech recording.
3.1.13 Web Camera
✓ It captures and stores images in digital form. The stored images can be can be archived
on a photographic compact disc or external hard disk.

3.1.14 Light Pen

✓ A light pen is a computer input device in the form of a light-sensitive
wand used in conjunction with a computer's cathode-ray tube
display. It allows the user to point to displayed objects or draw on the
screen in a similar way to a touchscreen but with greater positional
accuracy.

Output Devices
✓ An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment which converts
information into human-readable form. It can be text, graphics, tactile, audio, and video.
3.2.1 Monitor
✓ It is also known as Visual Display Unit (VDU). The monitor is provided
alongwith the computer to view display the result.
✓ An image on the monitor is created by a configuration of dots, also known
as pixels.

A monitor is of two kinds; monochrome display monitor and colour display monitor.

A monochrome display monitor uses only one colour to display text and colour display monitor can
display 256 colours at a time.

✓ The clarity of image depends on three factors which are as follows

• Resolution of Screen Resolution refers to the number of pixels in horizontal and vertical
directions. The resolution of a monitor is higher when the pixels are closer together.
• Dot Pitch It refers to the diagonal distance between two coloured pixels. The smaller
the dot pitch, the better the resolution.
• Refresh Rate The refresh rate of your display refers to how many times per second the
display is able to draw a new image. The higher the refresh rate, the more solid the
image looks on the screen. The refresh rate of monitor is measured in Hertz (Hz).
✓ The popular types of monitor are as follows

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 3.2.1.1 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
✓ The CRT works in a same way as a television. CRT has a vacuum tube. The screen of
CRT is covered with a fine layer of phosphorescent elements, called phosphores. CRT
tube creates an image on the screen using a beam of electrons.

3.2.1.2 Flat- Panel Display

✓ The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume,
weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. . They can be of following
types:

• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor

✓ LCD monitors use compact fluorescent tubes to illuminate and brighten the image on
the screen and produce good image quality, resolution and contrast levels. A special
type of liquid is sandwiched between two plates. It is a thin, flat and light weight screen
made up of any number of color or monochrome pixels arranged in front of a light
source.

• Light Emitting Diode (LED) Monitor

✓ LED monitors use new backlighting technology to improve picture quality. The LED
monitor is more lifelike and accurate due to the improved contrast ratios and colour
saturation over LCD.

• Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) Monitor

✓ This type of monitor made up of some organic material (containing carbon, like wood,
plastic or polymers) that is used to convert the electric current into light. They are
directly used to produce the correct colour and there is no need for backlight which
saves power and space.

3.2.2 Printer
✓ Printers are output devices that prints information in the form of text/images on a
paper. Impact Printers and Non-impact printers are the two types of printers.

3.2.2.1 Impact Printer

The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then
pressed on the paper. Examples: Dot-Matrix Printers, Line Printers, Daisy wheel printer,
Drum printer, Chain printer, Band printer.
✓ Dot-Matrix Printer – It prints characters as a combination of dots. They have a matrix of
pins on the print head of the printer which form the character. They generally have 9-24
pins. Their speed is measured in cps (Character Per Second).

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 ✓ Daisy Wheel Printer- Their operation revolves around a daisy-shaped wheel featuring
embossed characters. When a character needs printing, the mechanism aligns the
corresponding petal with the print position, striking it against an ink ribbon and paper to
leave an impression. Despite their crisp output, daisy wheel printers are slow and
limited to single fonts and sizes unless the wheel is replaced.

✓ Line Printer – A line printer is an impact printer which can print one line of text at a time.
It is also known as a bar printer. They can be of two types Chain Printer or Drum Printer.

3.2.2.2 Non-Impact Printer

Non-impact printers print the characters on the paper without using ribbon. These
printers print a complete page at a time, so they are also called as page printers.
Examples - Laser Printers, Inkjet Printers etc.
✓ Laser Printers – A laser printer is a popular type of computer printer that are known for
their fast printing speed and ability to handle high volumes of printing tasks efficiently.
The type of ink used in a laser printer is dry. It gives high-quality output. The resolution of
laser printers is measured in dpi (dots-per inch).

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 ✓ Inkjet Printers – Inkjet printers work by spraying ink on a sheet of paper. The type of ink
used in an inkjet printer is wet.

3.2.2.3 Other Types

✓ Solid Ink Printer – It is a type of colour printer. It works by melting the solid ink that
applies the images to the paper. It is non-toxic and convenient to handle.
✓ LED Printer – This type of printer uses a light emitting diode instead of a laser. It starts by
creating a line-by-line image of the page.

Resolution of Printer
It refers to the level of detail that a printer can reproduce in its output. It's usually measured in dots
per inch (DPI). A higher resolution means more dots per inch, resulting in finer detail and smoother
curves in printed images and text.

3.2.3 Plotter
✓ A plotter is an output device used to produce hard copies of large graphs and designs on
paper, such as construction drawings, architectural plans, and business charts. Drum
plotters and Flatbed plotters are the types of plotters.

✓ Drum plotter – It is a pen plotter that wraps the paper around a drum with a pin feed
attachment. The drum then rotates the paper as pens move across it and draw the image.
It is used to produce continuous output, such as plotting of earthquake activity. It is also
known as Roller Plotter.
✓ Flatbed plotter - It plots on paper that is spread and fixed over a rectangular flatbed table.
It is used in the design of cars, ships, aircrafts, buildings, highways etc. It is also known as
Table Plotter.
3.2.4 Speaker
✓ Speaker is one of the output devices used with computers. They are transducers that
convert electromagnetic waves into sound waves.

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 3.2.5 Digital Projectors
✓ Projector is a device that connects with a computer and projects the output onto a
white screen or wall.

4 Other important Related terms

• Swapping: In the context of computing, refers to the process of moving data between main
memory (RAM) and secondary storage (typically a hard disk drive or SSD) to free up memory
space.
• Peripheral Management: Peripheral management involves the management and control of
peripheral devices connected to a computer system. This includes tasks such as device
configuration, driver installation, device monitoring, and troubleshooting.
• Device Driver: A device driver is software that allows the operating system to communicate
with and control peripheral devices. It acts as an intermediary between the hardware device
and the operating system, enabling the system to recognize and utilize the device's
functionality.
• Plug and Play (PnP): Plug and Play is a technology that allows the operating system to
automatically detect and configure peripheral devices when they are connected to the
computer, without requiring manual intervention or driver installation by the user.
• Hot Swapping: Hot swapping is the ability to replace or remove peripheral devices from a
computer system while the system is running, without the need to shut down or restart the
computer. This capability is particularly useful for devices like USB flash drives and external
hard drives.
• Bay Swap: This term typically refers to the practice of swapping components or drives in
drive bays within a computer chassis. For example, swapping out a hard drive or optical drive
from a drive bay.
• Peripheral Interface: A peripheral interface is a standardized connection or communication
protocol used to connect peripheral devices to a computer system. Common examples
include USB (Universal Serial Bus), Thunderbolt, HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia
Interface), and Ethernet.
• Peripheral Port: A peripheral port is a physical connector or socket on a computer system
where peripheral devices can be connected. Examples include USB ports, HDMI ports, audio
jacks, and Ethernet ports.
• Peripheral Configuration: Peripheral configuration involves setting up and adjusting the
settings of peripheral devices to ensure compatibility and optimal performance with the
computer system. This may include adjusting parameters such as resolution, refresh rate,
and input sensitivity.
• Turn Around time:Turn Around time refers to the total time taken by a process to complete
from its arrival in the system to its completion, including both the waiting time and the
execution time. It includes the time the process spends waiting in the ready queue before

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 getting CPU time, the time it spends executing on the CPU, and any time it spends waiting
for input/output operations to complete.
• Burst time: Burst time is the amount of time that a process requires to execute on the CPU
without any interruptions. It represents the time taken by a process to complete its CPU-
bound execution phase before it might need to wait for input/output operations or other
system events.

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 Memory Organization

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 Contents
1 Memory Organization ........................................................................................................................... 3
2 Memory Hierarchy ................................................................................................................................ 3
3 Memory Management .......................................................................................................................... 3
Register Memory........................................................................................................................... 4
3.1.1 Types and Functions of Computer Registers: ....................................................................... 4
Cache Memory .............................................................................................................................. 5
Primary Memory ........................................................................................................................... 5
3.3.1 Random Access Memory (RAM) ........................................................................................... 5
3.3.2 Read Only Memory (ROM) .................................................................................................... 6
Secondary Memory (Auxiliary Memory) ....................................................................................... 7
3.4.1 Secondary Storage Devices ................................................................................................... 7
3.4.2 Cloud Computing ................................................................................................................ 11
4 Memory Measurement ....................................................................................................................... 13

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 1 Memory Organization
The computer memory holds the data and instructions needed to process raw data and
produce output. The computer memory is divided into large number of small parts known as
cells. Each cell has a unique address which varies from 0 to memory size minus one.

2 Memory Hierarchy
The memory is characterized on the basis of two keys factors; capacity and access time. The
lesser the access time, the faster is the speed of memory. The computer uses a hierarchy of
memory that is organized in a manner to enable the fastest speed and largest capacity of
memory.

3 Memory Management
Following are the memories of a computer:
✓ Register Memory

✓ Cache Memory

✓ Primary memory

✓ Secondary memory

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 Register Memory
DRAM

RAM SRAM
Cache Memory
SDRAM
Primary Memory
MROM

PROM
ROM
EPROM

EEPROM
Memory
Floppy Disk

Zip Disk

Winchester Disk
Magnetic Memory
Hard Disk

Tape Cassette

Magnetic Tapes
Secondary Memory
CD
Optical Memory
DVD

Solid State Storage USB, SD card and memory Card

Register Memory
✓ Register memory is the smallest and fastest memory in a computer. It is not a part of the
main memory and is located in the CPU in the form of registers, which are the smallest
data holding elements. A register temporarily holds frequently used data, instructions, and
memory address that are to be used by CPU.

3.1.1 Types and Functions of Computer Registers

✓ General Purpose Register- These register store data and intermediate results during the
execution of a program
✓ Data Register – It is a 16-bit register, which is used to store operands (variables) to be
operated by the processor. It temporarily stores data, which is being transmitted to or
received from a peripheral device.
✓ Program Counter (PC) – It holds the address of the memory location of the next
instruction, which is to be fetched after the current instruction is completed. So, it is used
to maintain the path of execution of the different programs and thus executes the
programs one by one, when the previous instruction gets completed.

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 ✓ Instructor Register – It is a 16-bit register. It stores the instruction which is fetched from the
main memory. So, it is used to hold instruction codes, which are to be executed. The
Control Unit takes instruction from Instructor Register, then decodes and executes it.
✓ Accumulator Register – It is a 16-bit register, which is used to store the results produced by
the system. For example, the results generated by CPU after the processing are stored in
the AC register.
✓ Address Register – It is a 12-bit register that stores the address of a memory location where
instructions or data is stored in the memory.
✓ Memory Data Register- The data register (MDR) is the register of a computer’s control unit
that contains the data to be stored in the computer storage (e.g RAM) or the data after a
fetch from the computer.
✓ Memory Address Register- MAR holds the address of the next memory location where the
next instruction to be executed.
✓ I/O Address Register – Its job is to specify the address of a particular I/O device.
✓ I/O Buffer Register – Its job is to exchange the data between an I/O module and the CPU.

Cache Memory
✓ Cache memory is a type of memory used to hold frequently used data. Cache memory is a
very high speed semiconductor memory, which can speed up the CPU.
✓ It act as the buffer between the CPU and the main memory. Most web browsers use a
cache to load regularly viewed web pages fast. The most important type of cache memory
is the CPU cache.
✓ Once the data is stored in cache, it can be used by accessing the cached copy rather than
recomputing the original data.
✓ Cache memory provides backup storage for instructions and data that are not currently being
used by the processor. Cache memory is faster to access than RAM and ROM, making it ideal
for temporarily storing frequently accessed instructions and data to improve the overall
performance of the system.

Primary Memory
✓ Primary memory is also called as the main memory or internal memory of the computer as
it communicates directly with the CPU.
✓ It holds only those data and instruction on which computer is currently working. Its
generally made up of semiconductor device.
✓ It is divided into two subcategories: RAM and ROM

3.3.1 Random Access Memory (RAM)

✓ RAM performs both read and writes operations on memory. It stores data for
temporally. If power failures happened in systems during memory access then you will
lose your data permanently. So, RAM is a volatile memory.
✓ RAM categorized into following types.

3.3.1.1 Dynamic RAM

✓ Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DRAM) is a type of random-access memory used
in computing devices. It is made up of memory dell where each cell is composed of
one capacitors and one transistors.
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 ✓ DRAM must be constantly refreshed, or it loses its contents. This type of memory is
more economical.

3.3.1.2 Static RAM

✓ Static Random-Access Memory (SRAM) is a type of RAM that holds data in a static
form, i.e., as long as the memory has power. SRAM does not need to be refreshed
periodically.
✓ It uses multiple transistor for each memory cell and does not use capacitor
✓ SRAM often uses cache memory due to its high speed.

3.3.1.3 Synchronous Dynamic RAM

✓ A type of DRAM that can run at much higher clock speeds.
3.3.2 Read Only Memory (ROM)
✓ ROM is a type of non-volatile memory.
✓ ROM is the memory from which we can only read. However the data stored in these
chips is either unchangeable or requires a special operation to change.
✓ The information is usually stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A
ROM stores the instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is
referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other
electronic items like washing machines and microwave oven.
✓ There are four basic types of ROM:

3.3.2.1 Masked Read Only Memory (MROM)

✓ The first very ROMS were very hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed
set of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as Masked ROMs which
are inexpensive.

3.3.2.2 Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

✓ PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys
a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the
PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can
be programmed only once and is not erasable.

3.3.2.3 Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

✓ It is similar to PROM, but EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. It is also known as Ultra Violet
Erasable Programmable ROM (UVEPROM).
✓ During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The
charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path.
For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window
(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge.

3.3.2.4 Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

✓ EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed
about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms
(millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed.

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 ✓ EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip.
Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.

Flash Memory

It is a kind of semiconductor based non volatile rewritable memory used in digital camera, mobile
phone, printer etc. Flash Memory is an example of quite recent type of storage technology known
as solid device.

Solid state devices

These are regarded as being robust and reliable because they have no moving parts with the data
stored in the semiconductor chips, this technology already exists in the forms of flash memory used
to store the Basic Input/Output system (BIOS) of a motherboard.

Secondary Memory (Auxiliary Memory)

✓ The main memory is very small and volatile in nature. To overcome these issues, another
memory is used in the computer system called as Secondary memory or auxiliary memory
or external memory.
✓ It is slower and cheaper than the main memory. These are used for storing
data/information permanently.
✓ CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output
routines.
✓ The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then
the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

3.4.1 Secondary Storage Devices

✓ These are the hardware devices that can hold information. These can either be external
or internal.
✓ Following are different types of Secondary storage devices:

3.4.1.1 Magnetic Storage Devices

✓ It is the manipulation of magnetic field on a medium in order to record data, audio or
video.
1. Floppy Disk/ Diskette
✓ Floppy disk is composed of a thin, flexible magnetic disk sealed in a
square plastic carrier. Floppy disks were widely used to distribute
software, transfer files, and create backup copies of data. To read and
write data from a floppy disk, a computer system must have a floppy
disk drive (FDD).
1 1
✓ Floppy Disks come in three basic sizes: 8-inch, 54-inch and 32-inch.

2. Zip Disks

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 ✓ An advanced version of the floppy disk is known as Zip Disks. It was
developed by Iomega. Zip disks are available in 100 and 250-MB and 750
MB capacities and they are used to store, share and back up large amounts
of data.

3. Magnetic Tape
✓ Magnetic Tape was often used for digital data storage, because of its
low cost and ability to store large amounts of data.
✓ The technology essentially consisted of a magnetically thin coated piece
of plastic wrapped around wheels.
✓ Its relative slowness and unreliability compared to other data storage
solutions has resulted in it now being largely abandoned as a media.

4. Hard Disk Drive

✓ It is a non-removable storage device containing
magnetic disks or platters rotating at high speeds. The
hard drives store data in segments of concentric
circles. It may spin at 5,400 to 15,000 RPM.
✓ It is a non-volatile storage device that can be modified
or deleted n number of times without any problem.
✓ HDD stands for Hard Disk Drive. HDD is also known as
Hard disk, Hard drive, or Fixed disk. Most computers
and laptops have HDDs as their secondary storage
device. HDDs are also capable of storing operating
system, large system files and are found in desktops,
mobiles, and consumer electronics.

5. Winchester disk
✓ It is also known as Winchester drive or Winchester disk drive, is an early form of hard
disk drive (HDD) technology that revolutionized data storage in computers. A
Winchester disk is a Disk Stack. The term Winchester comes from an early type of disk
drive developed by IBM that had 30MB of fixed storage and 30MB of removable
storage.

6. Tape Cassette
✓ It is also known as a music cassette. It is a rectangular flat container
in which the data is stored in an analog magnetic tape. It is generally
used to store audio recordings.

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 Disk formatting

It is the process of configuring data-storage devices like hard drives, floppy disks, and flash drives for
initial usage or when additional storage space is needed. It's often necessary when a new operating
system is being installed or when there's a need for more storage capacity. Formatting a disk erases
all existing files on it, making it ready for new data to be stored.

Formatting Description Performer Data Impact

Type
Low-level Involves marking cylinders and tracks Hard disk Erases all data on the
Formatting on a blank hard disk and dividing tracks manufacturers hard disk, making data
into sectors with sector markers. recovery impossible.
Partitioning Divides the hard disk into one or more Users Affects disk
regions called partitions. performance.
High-level Involves writing file system information, Users Erases the hard disk
Formatting cluster size, partition label, etc., for a and reinstalls the
newly created partition or volume. operating system.

3.4.1.2 Optical Storage Device

✓ It is the type of storage device in which data is written and read with a laser.
1. Compact Disc (CD)
✓ A compact disc is a portable storage medium that can be used to
record, store data in digital form. Its most popular and least expensive
type of optical disc. A CD is capable of being used as a data storage
device along with storing of digital audio.
✓ CD is categorised into three main types as follows:
• CD-ROM : Compact Disc Read-Only Memory can be read but can’t
change or delete it.
• CD-R: Compact Disc Recordable are write once.
• CD-RW: Compact Disc Rewritable can be written and erased many times.

2. Digital Video Disc/ Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)

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 ✓ DVDs offer higher storage than CDs while having same size.
✓ Depending upon the disc type DVD can store several GB of data (4.7-
17.8GB). A Single Layer DVD can hold 4.7 GB and a Dual Layer DVD can
hold 8.5 GB of data.
✓ DVD is categorised into three main types as follows:
• DVD-ROM : DVD Read-Only Memory can be read but can’t change or
delete it.
• DVD-R: DVD Recordable are write once.
• DVD-RW: DVD Rewritable can be written and erased many times.

3. Blu-ray Disc
✓ The upgraded version of CD and DVDs and drives are the Blu-ray discs.
Blu-ray refers to the blue laser used to read the disc which allows the
information to be stored at a greater density.
✓ The Maximum capacity of BD disc is 25GB if single layer and 50 GB if dual
layer.
✓ The variation in the format includes BD-ROM(Read only), BD-R(BD
Recordable), BD-RW(Rewritable), BD-RE(Rewritable)

Throughput

In the context of data storage and transfer, throughput refers to the rate at which data can be read from
or written to a memory storage device within a given unit of time. It measures the efficiency and speed of
data transfer between the storage device and other components of a computer system, such as the central
processing unit (CPU) or random access memory (RAM).

Throughput is typically measured in units such as bytes per second (B/s), kilobytes per second (KB/s),
megabytes per second (MB/s), or gigabytes per second (GB/s), indicating the amount of data that can be
transferred in one second.

Higher throughput values indicate faster data transfer rates and better performance of the storage device.

3.4.1.3 Solid State Storage

1. USB Flash Drives
✓ USB Flash drives are small, ultra-portable storage device. USB refers to
the USB connection that allows users to plug the device into the USB
port of a computer. They are often referred to as pen drives, thumb
drives, or jump drives. Mostly they have a storage capacity from 8 GB
to 64 GB.

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 2. SD Card
✓ It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used with electronic
devices like phones, digital cameras, etc. to store larger data. It is portable
and the size of the SD card is also small so that it can easily fit into
electronic devices. It is available in different sizes like 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, etc.

3. Memory Card
✓ It is generally used in digital cameras, printers, game consoles, etc. It is also used to
store large amounts of data and is available in different sizes. To run a memory card on
a computer you require a separate memory card reader.

3.4.2 Cloud Computing

✓ Cloud computing is a broad term encompassing various services and technologies that
utilize hosted services over the Internet. Nowadays, secondary memory has been
upgraded to virtual or cloud storage devices. We can store our files and other stuff in
the cloud and the data is stored for as long as we pay for the cloud storage.

3.4.2.1 Cloud Computing Services

✓ Cloud computing services can be categorized into the following types:
• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): In the IaaS model, virtualized infrastructure is
provided and managed by external cloud providers for businesses. This includes
services such as automated backup, recovery, and other policy-driven
operations.
• Software as a Service (SaaS): SaaS involves delivering software applications over
the Internet based on demand and subscription basis. Common examples of
SaaS include Microsoft Office 365, Oracle CRM, and Marketo.
• Platform as a Service (PaaS): PaaS offers an on-demand environment for
developing, testing, delivering, and managing software applications. Key players
in the PaaS domain include Bluemix, CloudBees, and Salesforce.com.

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 Cloud Storage

• Cloud Storage is a specific aspect of cloud computing. Cloud storage services provide scalable
and reliable storage solutions without the need for users to manage physical hardware.
• Cloud storage is like having a virtual hard drive that you can access from anywhere with an
internet connection. Instead of storing your files, photos, or videos on your computer's hard
drive or a physical storage device like a USB drive, you can store them securely on servers
maintained by a cloud storage provider.

3.4.2.2 Types of Cloud Deployments

✓ Cloud deployments are categorized based on an organization's ability to manage and

secure assets. There are three primary types:
• Public Cloud: Public clouds are managed by third-party providers who offer
services over the Internet to the general public. These clouds help in reducing IT
infrastructure costs and are beneficial for managing peak loads on local
infrastructure. Public clouds are designed to serve multiple users rather than a
single customer.
• Private Cloud: Private clouds consist of distributed systems that operate on a
private infrastructure, providing users with dynamic provisioning of computing
resources.
• Hybrid Cloud: Hybrid clouds are created by combining the capabilities of both
public and private clouds. They are also known as heterogeneous clouds due to
their mixed nature.

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 Some Next Generation Memories

• FeFET or FeRAM A next generation ferroelectric memory.

• Nanotube RAM In R & D for years, nanotube RAM is targeted to displace DRAM. Others are
developing carbon nanotubes and next generation memories on the same device.
• Spin Orbit Torque MRAM(SOT-MRAM)- A next generation MRAM targeted to replace SRAM.

4 Memory Measurement
The data is measured in term of bits in the memory.

• A Bit is a single binary value that may be 0 or 1.

• A Nibble is a group of 4 bits.
• A Byte is a group of 8 bits and is equal to one character.

Name Size
1 bit Single digit 0 or 1
1 nibble 4 bits
1 byte 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) 1024 Bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) 1024 KB
1 Gigabyte (GB) 1,024 MB
1 Terabyte (TB) 1,024 GB
1 Petabyte (PB) 1,024 TB
1 Exabyte (EB) 1,024 PB
1 Zetta byte (ZB) 1,024 EB
1 Yotta Byte (YB) 1,024 ZB
1 Brontobyte (BB) 1,024 YB
1 Geop Byte 1,024 BB

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CONCEPT NOTES

Computer Software

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 Contents
1 Software ................................................................................................................................................ 4
System Software ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.1.1 Operating System .................................................................................................................. 5
1.1.2 Utility Programs .................................................................................................................... 5
1.1.3 Device Drivers ....................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.4 Language Translator.............................................................................................................. 6
Application Software..................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.1 General Purpose Software .................................................................................................... 8
1.2.2 Specific Purpose Software .................................................................................................... 9
Programming Software ............................................................................................................... 10
2 Algorithm ............................................................................................................................................ 10
Need for Algorithm ..................................................................................................................... 11
Characteristics of Algorithm ....................................................................................................... 11
How to Design an Algorithm? ..................................................................................................... 11
3 Flowcharts ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Flowchart symbols ...................................................................................................................... 12
Uses of Flowcharts in Computer Programming/Algorithms ....................................................... 12
4 Computer Language ............................................................................................................................ 13
Low level language ...................................................................................................................... 13
4.1.1 Machine language ............................................................................................................... 13
4.1.2 Assembly language.............................................................................................................. 13
High level Language .................................................................................................................... 13
4.2.1 Procedural Programming Languages .................................................................................. 14
4.2.2 Object Oriented Languages................................................................................................. 14
Elements of Programming Language .......................................................................................... 15
4.3.1 Data Type ............................................................................................................................ 15
4.3.2 Syntax .................................................................................................................................. 15
4.3.3 Variable ............................................................................................................................... 15
4.3.4 Constant .............................................................................................................................. 15
4.3.5 Statements .......................................................................................................................... 16
4.3.6 Expressions.......................................................................................................................... 16
4.3.7 Functions/Methods ............................................................................................................. 16

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 4.3.8 Classes and Objects (Object-Oriented Programming) ........................................................ 16
4.3.9 Comments ........................................................................................................................... 16
4.3.10 Libraries and Modules......................................................................................................... 16
5 Other Important related Terms .......................................................................................................... 16

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 1 Software
Software, which is abbreviated as SW or S/W, is a collection
of instructions, data, or programs that are designed to
enable a computer system to perform specific tasks or
functions. All the programs that run the computer are
software.

Software is essential for controlling and coordinating the

hardware components of a computer system, enabling users
to interact with the machine and accomplish various computing tasks.
Software

System Software Application Software Programming Software

Operating System General Purpose

Utility Programs Specific Purpose

Device drivers

Language Translators

System Software
✓ The system software is the main software that runs the computer. It consists of several
programs that are directly responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the
individual hardware components of a computer system. It serves as an interface
between a computer user, computer hardware, and application software. The
application programs are also controlled by system software.
✓ Based on the functionality, there are four types of system software

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Language
Operating System Utility Programs Device drivers
Translators

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 1.1.1 Operating System
✓ An operating system works as an interface to enable the user to communicate with the
computer. It manages and coordinates, the
functioning of the hardware and software of
the computer.
✓ The Operating System performs the following
function:
• It recognizes input from the keyboard and
sends output to the display screen.
• It makes sure that the program running at the
same time does not interfere with each other.
• It is also responsible for the security and ensure
that unauthorized user do not access the
system.
✓ The commonly used operating systems are
Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Apple Mac OS
X.

1.1.2 Utility Programs

✓ Utility Programs help to manage, maintain, and control computer resources. They are
also known as service programs.
✓ They are used to support, enhance, expand, and secure existing programs and data in
the computer.
✓ Examples of utility programs are:

1.1.2.1 Disk Compression

✓ It increases the amount of information that can be stored on a hard disk by
compressing all information stored on a hard disk.
✓ This utility works automatically and the user does not need to be aware of its
existence, e.g. DiskDoubler, SuperStor Pro, DoubleDisk Gold, etc.

1.1.2.2 Disk Defragment

✓ It detects computer files whose contents are broken across several locations on the
hard disk and moves the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
✓ It can be used to rearrange files and unused space on your hard disk. e.g. MyDefrag,
Diskeeper, Defraggler, etc.

1.1.2.3 Backup Utilities

✓ It can make a copy of all information stored on a disk and restore either the entire disk
or selected files.

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 1.1.2.4 Disk Cleaner
✓ It is used to find files that have not been used for a long time. This utility also serves to
increase the speed of a slow computer, e.g. Bleach Bit cleaner, etc.

1.1.2.5 Anti-virus
✓ It is the utility which is used to scan a computer for viruses and prevent the computer
system files from being corrupt, e.g. Kaspersky, AVG, McAfee, Avira, etc.

1.1.2.6 Text Editor

✓ It is a program that facilitates the creation and correction of text. It is used to type only
text which can be stored for future reference. A text editor supports special commands
for text editing, i.e. you can write, delete, find, and replace words, lines, paragraphs,
etc. e.g. MS Word, WordPad, Notepad, etc. in which Notepad is the most popular text
editor.
Testing

Testing involves running the software and checking its behavior to identify any bugs or issues. This process
helps ensure that the software functions correctly and meets its requirementinto machine language know as
Object code.

1.1.3 Device Drivers

✓ A Device Driver is software that makes a
device function when it is connected to the
computer. It controls a device that is attached
to your computer.
✓ Every device whether it is Printers, Displays,
CDROM readers, Disk drives, etc. has a driver
program associated with it for its proper
functioning.
✓ Operating systems generally come with most
of the device drivers. If the operating system
does not have a device driver for hardware,
you have to install the device driver before
using that hardware device.

1.1.4 Language Translator

✓ Language Translator translates the high-level language program (input) into an
equivalent machine language program (output). It also detects and reports the error
during translation.
✓ There are three different kinds of language translators- Assembler, Compiler, and
Interpreter.

1.1.4.1 Assembler
✓ It converts assembly language programs into machine language( i.e 1 or 0).

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 Source Program Object Code
Assembler
(Assembly) (Machine Language)

Code

Code written into high level language or Assembly Language know as Source Code and the converted code
into machine language know as Object code.

1.1.4.2 Compiler
✓ It converts the program from a high-level language into low-level language and reports
all the errors of the program along with the line numbers. C, C++ use compilers.
Source Program Object Code
Compiler
(HLL) (Machine Language)

1.1.4.3 Interpreter
✓ It converts the programs in a high-level language to low-level language. It translates
line by line and reports the error once after completing the translation process. It gives
better error diagnostics than a compiler. Python, BASIC, and Ruby use interpreters.
Source Program Object Code
Interpreter
(HLL) (Machine Language)

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 Linker
A linker is a program that takes one or more object files and combines them into a single executable
program or library.
It resolves references between different object files, ensuring that all necessary code and data are included
and properly connected.
This includes resolving external references to functions or variables defined in other files, as well as
removing unused code and data to optimize the size of the final executable.
The linker produces the final binary executable or library file that can be loaded and executed by the
operating system or other programs.

Object Code

Execution
Linker
Results

External

Libraries

Loader
It is a kind of system software responsible for loading and relocation of executable programs in the main
memory.
Essentially, a loader is responsible for loading the program residing in the disk into memory so that it can
be executed by the processor into machine language know as Object code.

Application Software
✓ Application software is a program or group of programs designed for end users. It
enables the user to complete tasks, such as creating documents, spreadsheets,
databases, and publications, doing online research, sending emails, designing graphics,
etc.

Application Software

General Purpose Specific Purpose

1.2.1 General Purpose Software

1.2.1.1 Word Processing Software
✓ This software allows users to create, edit, format, and manipulate the text and more. It
offers lots of options for writing documents, creating images, and more. For example,
MS Word, WordPad, Notepad, etc.
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 1.2.1.2 Spreadsheet Software
✓ It is designed to perform calculations, store data, create charts, etc. It has rows and
columns, and the data is entered in the cell, which is an intersection of a row and
column, e.g., Microsoft Excel.

1.2.1.3 Presentation Software

✓ It is used to create presentations of slides containing text and graphics. It typically
includes three major functions – an editor that allows text to be inserted and
formatted, methods for inserting and manipulating graphic images and a slideshow
system to display the content e.g. MS PowerPoint.

1.2.1.4 Multimedia Software

✓ This software is developed to perform editing of video, audio, and text. It allows you to
combine texts, videos, audio, and images. Thus, you can improve a text document by
adding photos, animations, graphics, and charts through multimedia software. For
example, VLC player, Window Media Player, etc.

1.2.1.5 Desktop Publishing Software

✓ DTP Software is used to produce high publications at low cost. It takes in text created
on a word processor direct to the DTP system and combine this electronically with a
graphic element and the resulting completed pages are then printed using high
resolution output devices.

1.2.1.6 Database Package Software/ Database Management System

✓ Database software is a software program or utility used for creating, editing and
maintaining database files and records. This type of software allows users to store data
in the form of structured fields, tables and columns, which can then be retrieved
directly and/or through programmatic access.

1.2.2 Specific Purpose Software

✓ These software are designed to perform specific tasks. This type of application software
generally has one purpose to execute. Some of the specific purpose application software
are described below

1.2.2.1 Inventory Management System and Purchasing System

✓ Inventory is a list of goods and materials available in a stock. Inventory management
system is generally used in departmental stores or in an organisation to keep the
records of the stock of all the physical resources.
✓ For example, Fishbowl, AdvancePro, etc.

1.2.2.2 Payroll Management System

✓ It is used by all modern organizations to encompass every employee of the
organization who receives regular wages or other compensation. For example, Namely,
UltiPro, etc.

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 1.2.2.3 Hotel Management System
✓ It refers to the management techniques used in the hotel sector. These can include
hotel administration, accounts, billing, marketing, housekeeping, front office or front
desk.
✓ For example, Djubo, Aatithya HMS, Hotelogix PMS, etc.

1.2.2.4 Reservation System A reservation system or Central Reservation System (CRS)

✓ It is a computerized system used to store and retrieve information and conduct
transactions related to air travel, hotels, car rental or other activities.
✓ Today, a number of websites like www.yatra.com, www.makemytrip.com provide
online booking for tourists.

1.2.2.5 Accounting Software

✓ It is an application software that records and processes accounting transactions within
functional modules such as accounts payable, accounts receivable, payroll and trial
balance

Programming Software
✓ It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in writing other software or programs.
It assists them in creating, debugging, and maintaining software or programs or
applications.
✓ We can say that these are facilitator software that helps translate programming language
such as Java, C++, Python, etc., into machine language code. So, it is not used by end-users.
For example, compilers, linkers, debuggers, interpreters, text editors, etc. This software is
also called a programming tool or software development tool.
✓ Some examples of programming software include:
• Eclipse – It is a java language editor.
• Coda – It is a programming language editor for Mac.
• Notepad++ - It is an open-source editor for windows.
• Sublime text – It is a cross-platform code editor for Linux, Mac, and Windows.

2 Algorithm
The word Algorithm means a set of finite rules or instructions to be followed in calculations or
other problem-solving operations
A procedure for solving a mathematical problem in a finite number of steps that frequently
involves recursive operations.

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 Need for Algorithm
✓ Algorithms are necessary for solving complex problems efficiently and effectively.
✓ They help to automate processes and make them more reliable, faster, and easier to
perform.
✓ Algorithms also enable computers to perform tasks that would be difficult or impossible for
humans to do manually.
✓ They are used in various fields such as mathematics, computer science, engineering,
finance, and many others to optimize processes, analyze data, make predictions, and
provide solutions to problem.

Characteristics of Algorithm

How to Design an Algorithm?

✓ To write an algorithm, the following things are needed as a pre-requisite:
• The problem that is to be solved by this algorithm i.e. clear problem definition.
• The constraints of the problem must be considered while solving the problem.
• The input to be taken to solve the problem.
• The output is to be expected when the problem is solved.
• The solution to this problem is within the given constraints.

3 Flowcharts
Flowchart are nothing but the graphical representation of the data or the algorithm for a better
understanding of the code visually.

A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents a workflow or process. A flowchart can also be
defined as a diagrammatic representation of an algorithm, a step-by-step approach to solving a
task.

To draw a flowchart, certain rules need to be followed which are followed by all professionals
to draw a flowchart and are widely accepted all over the countries.
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 Flowchart symbols

Uses of Flowcharts in Computer Programming/Algorithms

✓ The following are the uses of a flowchart:
• It is a pictorial representation of an algorithm that increases the readability of the
program.
• Complex programs can be drawn in a simple way using a flowchart.
• It helps team members get an insight into the process and use this knowledge to collect
data, detect problems, develop software, etc.
• A flowchart is a basic step for designing a new process or adding extra features.
• Communication with other people becomes easy by drawing flowcharts and sharing
them.

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 4 Computer Language
A Computer Language is the means by which instructions and data are transmitted to
computers. Languages are divided into two categories:

Low level language

✓ These programming languages are more difficult to understand. It is designed to operate
and handle the entire instruction set of a computer system directly which are generally
used to write the system software.
✓ There are two types of low-level language, which are as follows:

4.1.1 Machine language

✓ In machine language programs can be developed in binary language (0 or 1). It is also
known as machine code or object code or binary language.
✓ It is a collection of binary digits (0 or 1) or bits that the computer reads and interprets.

4.1.2 Assembly language

✓ It is a low level programming language which is used as an interface with computer
hardwares.
✓ It is known as symbolic language. It is a low-level language programming language using
the human-readable instruction of the CPU.
✓ It uses structured commands as substitutions for numbers, allowing humans to read the
code easier than looking at binary codes.
✓ It is written as:
• move ab, cd
• move ax, 50

High level Language

✓ It is an advanced computer programming language that is not limited to one computer,
designed for a specific job and is easier to understand.
✓ Programmer can write code in simple English language. It is very user friendly as compare
to low level language. e.g.: PASCAL, FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC, PROLOG, JAVA etc.
✓ High Level Language is divided into Procedural Programming Language and Object oriented
language.

Procedural programming Object-oriented programming

• In object-oriented programming, the

• In procedural programming, the
program is divided into small parts
program is divided into small parts
called objects.
called functions.
• Object-oriented programming follows
• Procedural programming follows a top-
a bottom-up approach.
down approach.
• Object-oriented programming has access
• There is no access specifier in specifiers like private, public, protected,
procedural programming. etc.

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 • Code reusability present in object-
• Code reusability absent in procedural
oriented programming.
programming,
• Examples: C, FORTRAN, Pascal, Basic, • Examples: C++, Java, Python, C#, etc.
etc.

4.2.1 Procedural Programming Languages

✓ In procedural programming, the program is divided into small parts called functions.
Procedural programming does not have any proper way of hiding data so it is less secure

4.2.1.1 BASIC
✓ Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC) was developed for students
to write simple computer programs. It was designed by John Kemeney and Thomas
Kurtz in 1963.

4.2.1.2 ALGOL
✓ ALGOL is a short form of ALGOrithmic Language. It is a family of portable programming
languages for scientific computations.

4.2.1.3 PROLOG
✓ Prolog is used widely for artificial intelligence applications, particularly expert systems.

4.2.1.4 PASCAL
✓ It is used to teach programming techniques. It was developed by Niklaus Wirth.

4.2.1.5 FORTRAN
✓ It is a programming language designed for numeric computation and scientific
computing. FORmula TRANslation is an acronym of FORTRAN.

4.2.1.6 COBOL
✓ Common Business Oriented Language is the full form of COBOL. It is used for business
and administrative purposes. It can be read like regular English.

4.2.2 Object Oriented Languages

✓ Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a software programming model built around
objects. This model classifies data into objects and describes object contents and
performance through the declaration of classes.
✓ Object-oriented programming provides data hiding so it is more secure.
✓ Simula is the first object-oriented programming language.
✓ The examples of object-oriented programming languages are Java, Python, JavaScript,
C++, C#, PHP, Perl, .NET, Ruby Curl, Visual Basic, Smalltalk, Delphi, and Eiffel.

4.2.2.1 Java
✓ Java is used for developing Mobile, Desktop, web, server-side and dynamic web
applications.

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 4.2.2.2 JavaScript
✓ JavaScript is designed for styling HTML Pages, interactivity to HTML Pages, Server-Side
Scripting Operation, executing query related to DB on Serve.

4.2.2.3 Python
✓ Python is a general-purpose programming language. It is used for developing complex
scientific, numeric applications, data analysis, and visualization.

4.2.2.4 C++
✓ C++ is a general-purpose language was designed by Microsoft to be used for
developing apps on the Microsoft platform.

4.2.2.5 PHP
✓ PHP stands for Hypertext Pre-processor. It is a scripting language used for the
development of web applications.

4.2.2.6 .Net
✓ Net is a programming framework developed by Microsoft, which can be used to build
different types of applications such as Windows, Web application and Mobile based
applications etc.

Visual Basic
Visual Basic is an approachable language with a simple syntax for building type-safe, object-oriented
apps.

Elements of Programming Language

4.3.1 Data Type
✓ In computer programming language, the term data refers to anything and everything
processed by the computer. Data type defines a set of related values/integers, number
with fraction, characters and a set of specific operations that can be performed on
those values. e.g. int for integer value, char for character value.

4.3.2 Syntax
✓ The set of rules that define the structure of valid statements and expressions in the
programming language. This includes rules for keywords, identifiers, operators,
punctuation symbols, and the order in which they can appear.

4.3.3 Variable
✓ Variable is a character or group of characters assign by the programmer to a single
memory location and used in the program as the name of that memory location in
order to access the value stored in it. e.g. int a, char a

4.3.4 Constant
✓ It has fixed value. String constant is simply a sequence of character. The numeric
constant can be integer representing whole quantities or a number. e.g. int A=10; char
A= „hello‟;

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 4.3.5 Statements
✓ Instructions that perform actions or control the flow of execution within a program.
Examples of statements include variable declarations, assignments, control structures
(e.g., if statements, loops), function calls, and input/output operations.

4.3.6 Expressions
✓ Every computer language specify as in which various arithmetic operators are
evaluated in a given expressions. An expression may contain operators such as *, +, -,
/, (), ^. e.g. 2+4*8(4-6/3)

4.3.7 Functions/Methods
✓ Named blocks of code that perform specific tasks or operations. Functions can accept
parameters (input) and return results (output), encapsulating reusable and modular
code.

4.3.8 Classes and Objects (Object-Oriented Programming)

✓ Constructs used to implement data abstraction and encapsulation in object-oriented
programming languages. Classes define blueprints for creating objects, which are
instances of a class with their own state (attributes) and behavior (methods).

4.3.9 Comments
✓ Annotations in the source code that provide explanations, documentation, or notes to
developers. Comments are ignored by the compiler or interpreter and serve to
improve code readability and maintainability.

4.3.10 Libraries and Modules

✓ Collections of reusable code that provide pre-written functions, classes, and other
components to perform common tasks. Libraries and modules facilitate code reuse
and modular programming.

5 Other Important related Terms

✓ BIOS: It stands for Basic Input Output System. It is a type of system software, which is stored
in Read Only Memory (ROM) located on the motherboard. However, in advanced computer
systems, it is stored in flash memory. BIOS is the first software that gets activated when you
turn on your computer system. It loads the drivers of the hard disk into memory as well as
assists the operating system to load itself into the memory.
✓ SMPS stands for Switched Mode Power Supply. It is a type of power supply unit that
converts electrical power efficiently and provides continuous power to a PC. SMPS units are
commonly used in desktop computers to regulate and stabilize the voltage and current
supplied to the internal components.
✓ Boot Program: Boot/Booting refers to starting up a computer. When you switch on the
computer, the commands in the ROM are executed automatically to load the boot program
into memory and execute its instructions. The BIOS program has a basic set of commands
that enables the computer to perform the basic input/output instructions to start the
computer.

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 • Cold Booting : When you turn the computer off and back on, you're performing what's
called a cold booting. During a cold boot, the computer runs self-tests on its hardware
and loads its operating system before it's ready for you to use.
• Warm Booting : When you restart the system without interrupting power, it's a warm
booting. We also call it a RESTART.
✓ Firmware: Firmware is a software program that is written to a hardware device. It allows the
hardware to be updated. The contents are saved when a hardware device is turned off or
loses its external power source.
✓ Middleware: Middleware is a software layer situated between applications and operating
systems. It enables communication and data management for distributed applications.
✓ Power On Self Test: A power-on self-test is a process performed by firmware or software
routines immediately after a computer or other digital electronic device is powered on. The
results of the POST may be displayed on a panel that is part of the device, output to an
external device, or stored for future retrieval by a diagnostic tool.

✓ Server Programs: Server programs are dedicated computer programs that run as services
and serve the needs or request of other programs. These services may run on a dedicated
hardware or on the same computer as the requesting programs.Some common example of
server programs is:
• Web Server – For hosting websites.
• Print Server – manage multiple print requests for multiple printers
• File server – manages the storage and retrieval of shared computer files
• Database Server – provide database services to another computer programs
• Mail server – managed and transfers electronic mail messages
✓ User Interface (UI): The means by which a user interacts with a software application,
typically through graphical elements such as menus, buttons, and windows.
✓ User Experience (UX): The overall experience a user has when interacting with a software
application, including usability, accessibility, and satisfaction.
✓ Open Source Software (OSS): Software with its source code made available and licensed in a
way that allows users to modify and distribute the software freely.
✓ Closed Source Software: Software whose source code is not made available to the public,
and typically requires a license or purchase to use.
✓ Freeware: Software that is available for use at no cost, but may have restrictions on
distribution or modification.

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 ✓ Shareware: It is a software distribution model where users can try a limited version of the
software for free before purchasing the full version. It typically includes a trial period, limited
functionality during the trial, and requires users to pay for the full version if they decide to
continue using it.
✓ Beta Version: A pre-release version of software made available to a select group of users for
testing and feedback before the final release.
✓ Patch: A software update designed to fix issues or vulnerabilities in a program, typically
released after the initial software version.
✓ Upgrade: A newer version of software that provides additional features, improvements, or
fixes compared to the previous version.
✓ Software as a Service (SaaS): A software distribution model where applications are hosted
by a third-party provider and made available to customers over the internet.
✓ Software Development Kit (SDK): A set of tools and resources used by developers to create
software applications for a specific platform or framework.
✓ Integrated Development Environment (IDE): Software that provides comprehensive tools
for software development, including code editing, debugging, and project management.
✓ Version Control: The management of changes to documents, computer programs, large
websites, and other collections of information. It is commonly used in software development
to track and manage changes to source code.
✓ Data Structure: A data structure is a group of data which can be processed as a single unit.
This group of data may be of similar or dissimilar data types. Data Structures are very useful
while programming because they allow processing of the entire group of data as a single
unit. Data structures are of two types: Linear and Non - Linear. In a linear data structure, the
elements are stored in a sequential order. On the other hand, in a non linear data structure
no sequential order is followed. It is a sort of multilevel data structure. Arrays, lists, stacks,
queues, linked lists etc. are examples of linear data structure while tree, graph etc. is a non -
linear data structure.
• Stack: A stack is a data structure whose elements are accessed according to the Last-In
First-Out (LIFO) principle. This is because in a stack, insertion and deletion of elements
can only take place at one end, called top of the stack.
• Queue: Another most common data structure found in computer algorithm(s) is queue.
A queue is a container of elements, which are inserted and removed according to the
first-in first-out (FIFO) principle.
• Array: An array is a data structure that stores a collection of elements of the same type
in contiguous memory locations. Each element in the array is accessed using an index.

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 Operating System

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 Contents
1 Operating System.................................................................................................................................. 5
2 System Component of Operating System ............................................................................................. 5
Kernel ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Memory management .................................................................................................................. 6
Processor Management ................................................................................................................ 6
Device/Hardware management.................................................................................................... 6
Data management ........................................................................................................................ 6
Storage Management ................................................................................................................... 6
User Interface ............................................................................................................................... 6
3 Other Functions of Operating System .................................................................................................. 6
Evaluates the system's health ....................................................................................................... 6
Security ......................................................................................................................................... 7
Time Management ........................................................................................................................ 7
Deadlock Prevention ..................................................................................................................... 7
Interrupt Handling ........................................................................................................................ 7
4 Types of Operating System ................................................................................................................... 8
Batch Processing Operating System ............................................................................................. 8
Multiprogramming Operating System .......................................................................................... 8
Multitasking Operating System..................................................................................................... 8
Multiprocessors Operating System ............................................................................................... 8
Single User Operating System ....................................................................................................... 8
Multi-user Operating System ........................................................................................................ 9
Time Sharing Operating System .................................................................................................... 9
Distributed Operating System....................................................................................................... 9
Real-Time Operating System......................................................................................................... 9
4.9.1 Hard Real-Time Systems ....................................................................................................... 9
4.9.2 Soft Real-Time Systems ......................................................................................................... 9
Network Operating System ......................................................................................................... 10
5 User Interface ..................................................................................................................................... 10
Graphical User Interface (GUI) .................................................................................................... 10
Character User Interface (CUI) .................................................................................................... 11
Touch-based Interface ................................................................................................................ 11

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 Voice-based Interface ................................................................................................................. 11
Gesture-based Interface ............................................................................................................. 11
6 Some Important Operating System .................................................................................................... 11
UNIX ............................................................................................................................................ 11
Apple Macintosh (Mac OS) ......................................................................................................... 12
LINUX........................................................................................................................................... 12
SOLARIS ....................................................................................................................................... 12
BOSS (Bharat Operating System Solutions) ................................................................................ 12
7 Mobile Operating System ................................................................................................................... 12
7.1.1 Android................................................................................................................................ 12
7.1.2 Symbian............................................................................................................................... 12
7.1.3 iOS ....................................................................................................................................... 13
7.1.4 BlackBerry ........................................................................................................................... 13
8 MS-DOS (Microsoft-Disk Operating System) ...................................................................................... 13
8.1.1 Structure of DOS ................................................................................................................. 13
8.1.2 Configuration of DOS .......................................................................................................... 13
8.1.3 Types of DOS Commands .................................................................................................... 14
Microsoft Windows ..................................................................................................................... 16
8.2.1 Important versions of MS-Windows ................................................................................... 16
Window Desktop......................................................................................................................... 19
8.3.1 Icons .................................................................................................................................... 20
8.3.2 Task Bar ............................................................................................................................... 20
8.3.3 Start Menu .......................................................................................................................... 21
8.3.4 Title Bar ............................................................................................................................... 21
8.3.5 Scroll Bar ............................................................................................................................. 22
8.3.6 Menu Bar............................................................................................................................. 22
8.3.7 Dialog Box ........................................................................................................................... 22
Main Programs Inside the Window ............................................................................................ 23
8.4.1 Notepad .............................................................................................................................. 23
8.4.2 WordPad ............................................................................................................................. 23
8.4.3 Paint .................................................................................................................................... 23
8.4.4 Calculator ............................................................................................................................ 23
8.4.5 Media Player ....................................................................................................................... 23
8.4.6 Games ................................................................................................................................. 23
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 8.4.7 Files ..................................................................................................................................... 23
MS-Windows Shortcut Keys ........................................................................................................ 24
MS Windows Touchpad gestures................................................................................................ 26
Common File Operations Used in Operating Systems ................................................................ 27
9 Utilities and tools available for managing processes and resources in OS ......................................... 28

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 1 Operating System
An operating system is a type of software without which you cannot operate or run a computer.
It acts as an intermediary or translation system between computer hardware and application
programs installed on the computer. In other words, you cannot directly use computer
programs with computer hardware without having a medium to establish a connection
between them.

Examples – Linux (Ubuntu), Windows (Windows XP, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10 etc.),
DOS, Apple IOS (MacOS 10.15), etc.

2 System Component of Operating System

Kernel
✓ A kernel is the central part of an operating system. It manages the operations of the
computer and the hardware, most notably memory and CPU time.
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 Memory management
✓ It manages both the primary and secondary memory such as RAM, ROM, hard disk, pen
drive, etc. It checks and decides the allocations and deallocation of memory space to
different processes.
✓ When a user interacts with a system, the CPU is supposed to read or write operations, in
this case, OS decides the amount of memory to be allocated for loading the program
instructions and data into RAM.
✓ After this program is terminated, the memory area is again free and is ready to be allocated
to other programs by the OS.

Processor Management
✓ It facilitates processor management, where it decides the order for the processes to access
the processor as well as decides the processing time to be allocated for each process.
✓ Besides this, it monitors the status of processes, frees the processor when a process is
executed then allocates it to a new process.

Device/Hardware management
✓ The operating system also contains drivers to manage devices. A driver is a type of
translation software that allows the operating system to communicate with devices, and
there are different drivers for different devices as each device speaks a different language.
✓ Run software applications: It offers the environment to run or use software applications
developed to perform specific tasks, for example, MS Word, MS Excel, Photoshop, etc.

Data management
✓ It helps in data management by offering and displaying directories for data management.
You can view and manipulate files, folders, e.g., you can move, copy, name, or rename,
delete a file or a folder.

Storage Management
✓ The storage management function of an operating system involves organizing and
controlling access to data storage resources such as hard drives and memory. It oversees
tasks like allocating storage space, managing file systems, ensuring data integrity, and
optimizing performance for efficient storage utilization and retrieval.

User Interface
✓ An operating system provides an interface between the computer user and the hardware.
We will Discuss this in detail in coming part of this concept notes.

3 Other Functions of Operating System

Evaluates the system's health
✓ It gives us an idea about the performance of the hardware of the system. For example, you
can see how busy the CPU is, how fast the data is retrieved from the hard disk, etc.

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 Security
✓ It has a security module to protect the data or information stored in the memories of the
computer against malware and unauthorized access. Thus, it not only manages your data
but also helps to protect it.

Time Management
✓ It helps CPU in time management. The Kernel OS keeps checking the frequency of
processes that requests CPU time.
✓ When two or more processes that are equally important compete for the CPU time, then
the CPU time is sliced into segments and allocated to these processes in a round-robin
fashion to prevent a single process from monopolizing the CPU.

Unix Time

Unix time, also known as Epoch time, is a system for tracking time in computing. It is defined as the
number of seconds that have elapsed since midnight on January 1, 1970, UTC (Coordinated Universal
Time). Many operating systems, including Unix-like systems and POSIX-compliant systems, use Unix
time internally for time representation into machine language know as Object code.

Deadlock Prevention
✓ Sometimes a resource that is supposed to be shared by two or more processes is held by
one process due to which the resource cannot continue. This situation is known as
deadlock.
✓ The OS does not let this situation arise by carefully distributing the resources among the
different processes.

Interrupt Handling
✓ OS also responds to interrupts, which are signals generated by a program or a device to
seek the attention of the CPU.
✓ The OS checks the priority of the interrupt, and if it is more important than the currently
running process, it stops the execution of the current process and preserves this state of
CPU then executes the requested process. Thereafter the CPU returns to the same state
where it was stopped.

Response time

Response time is the time elapsed from when a request is submitted until the first response is produced. In the
context of process management in an operating system, it represents the time it takes for a process to start
executing after it arrives in the system.

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 4 Types of Operating System
Batch Processing Operating System

✓ The interaction between a user and the computer does not occur in this system. The user is
required to prepare jobs on punch cards in the form of batches and submit them to the
computer operator.
✓ The computer operator sorts the jobs or programs and keeps similar programs or jobs in
the same batch and run as a group to speed up processing.
✓ It is designed to execute one job at a time. Jobs are processed on a first-come, first-serve
basis, i.e., in the order of their submission without any human intervention.

Multiprogramming Operating System

✓ Multi programming operating system which in addition to supporting multiple concurrent
process allows the instruction and data from two or more separate process to reside in
primary memory simultaneously.
✓ Multiprogramming System are multitasking, multiprocessing and multiuser Operating
System.

Multitasking Operating System

✓ Multitasking is the ability of a computer to run more than one program, or task, at the
same time. A multitasking operating system supports two or more active processes
simultaneously.

Multiprocessors Operating System

✓ A multiprocessing operating system is one that can run on computer systems that contain
more than one processor.

Single User Operating System

✓ A single User OS as the name suggests is designed for one user to effectively use a
computer at a time. e.g. DOS, Windows 95/98 etc

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 Multi-user Operating System
✓ This type of OS allows multiple users to simultaneously use the system, while here as well,
the processor splits its resources and handles one user at a time, the speed and efficiency
at which it does this makes it apparent that users are simultaneously using the system,
some network systems utilize this kind of operating system. e.g. Windows XP, Vista, 7 etc.

Time Sharing Operating System

✓ It enables multiple users located at different
terminals to use a computer system and to share the
processor's time simultaneously. In other words,
each task gets time to get executed, and thus all
tasks are executed smoothly.
✓ Each user gets the processor's time as they get while
using a single system. The duration of time allocated
to a task is called quantum or time slice; when this
duration is over, OS starts the next task.

Distributed Operating System

✓ It uses or runs on multiple independent processors
(CPUs) to serve multiple users and multiple real-time
applications. The communication between processors
is established through many communication lines
such as telephone lines and high-speed buses. The
processors may differ from each other in terms of size
and function.

Real-Time Operating System

✓ It is developed for real-time applications where data should be processed in a fixed, small
duration of time. It is used in an environment where multiple processes are supposed to be
accepted and processed in a short time. RTOS requires quick input and immediate
response.

4.9.1 Hard Real-Time Systems

✓ These are used for the applications where timing is critical or response time is a major
factor; even a delay of a fraction of the second can result in a disaster. For example,
airbags and automatic parachutes that open instantly in case of an
accident. Besides this, these systems lack virtual memory.

4.9.2 Soft Real-Time Systems

✓ These are used for application where timing or response time is less
critical. Here, the failure to meet the deadline may result in a
degraded performance instead of a disaster. For example, video
surveillance (cctv), video player, virtual reality, etc. Here, the deadlines
are not critical for every task every time.

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 Network Operating System
✓ This OS connects computers and devices to a local area network
and manages network resources.
✓ The software in a NOS enables the devices of the network to share
resources and communicate with each other. It runs on a server
and allows shared access to printers, files, applications, files, and
other networking resources and functions over a LAN.
✓ Besides this, all users in the network are aware of each other's
underlying configuration and individual connections. Examples: Ms
Windows Server 2003 and 2008, Linux, UNIX, Novell NetWare,
Mac OS X, etc.

Operating System Type Examples

1. Batch Processing Operating System IBM OS/360, UNIVAC EXEC 8, Burroughs MCP

2. Multiprogramming Operating System UNIX, Linux, Windows 95/98 (to some extent)

3. Multitasking Operating System Windows 10, macOS, Linux (e.g., Ubuntu)

4. Multiprocessors Operating System Windows Server, Linux Kernel, FreeBSD

5. Single User Operating System MS-DOS, Classic Mac OS, Palm OS

6. Multi-user Operating System Unix-like systems (Linux, BSD variants), Windows
Server, IBM z/OS
7. Time Sharing Operating System CTSS, Unix, Windows Server
8. Distributed Operating System Amoeba, Plan 9 from Bell Labs, GNU Hurd
9. Real-Time Operating System VxWorks, QNX, FreeRTOS
a. Hard Real-Time Systems RTLinux, INTEGRITY RTOS, eCos
b. Soft Real-Time Systems Linux with PREEMPT-RT patch, Windows CE, Android
10. Network Operating System Novell NetWare, Windows Server, Linux (with Samba)

5 User Interface
An operating system provides an interface between the computer user and the hardware.

The user interface is one of the most important parts of any operating system because it allows
users to easily access and communicate with the applications and the hardware.

The user can interact with the computer by using mainly different kinds of interfaces.

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

✓ Graphical User Interface (GUI) lets users run programs or give instructions to the computer
in the form of icons, menus and other visual options. Icons usually represent files and

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 programs stored on the computer and windows represent running programs that the user
has launched through the operating system.
✓ The first graphical user interface was designed by Xerox Corporation in 1970s. GUIs can be
found in handheld devices such as MP3 players, portable media players, gaming devices,
etc.
✓ The input devices used to interact with the GUI commonly include the mouse and the
keyboard. Examples of operating systems with GUI interfaces include Microsoft Windows,
Ubuntu, Fedora and Macintosh, among others.

Character User Interface (CUI)

✓ It is also known as Command Line Interface (CLI). CUI is a mechanism of interacting with a
computer system or software by typing commands to perform specific tasks.
✓ Programs with character user interface are generally easier to automate via scripting. CUI
only uses text types one after another just as commands used in MS-DOS.

Touch-based Interface
✓ Today smartphones, tablets and PCs allow users to interact with the system simply using
the touch input. Using the touchscreen, a user provides inputs to the operating system,
which are interpreted by the OS as commands like opening an app, closing an app, dialing a
number, scrolling across apps, etc.
✓ Examples of popular operating systems with touchbased interfaces are Android and iOS.
Windows 8.1 and 10 also support touch-based interfaces on touchscreen devices.

Voice-based Interface
✓ Modern computers have been designed to address the needs of all types of users including
people with special needs and people who want to interact with computers or
smartphones while doing some other task.
✓ For users who cannot use the input devices like the mouse, keyboard, and touchscreens,
modern operating systems provide other means of human-computer interaction. Users
today can use voice-based commands to make a computer work in the desired way.
✓ Some operating systems which provide voice-based control to users include iOS (Siri),
Android (Google Now or “OK Google”), Microsoft Windows 10 (Cortana) and so on.

Gesture-based Interface
✓ Some smartphones based on Android and iOS as well as laptops let users interact with the
devices using gestures like waving, tilting, eye motion and shaking. This technology is
evolving faster and it has promising potential for application in gaming, medicine and other
areas.

6 Some Important Operating System

Some popular operating systems are as follows:

UNIX
✓ The first version of Unix was developed in 1969 by Ken-Thompson and Dennis Ritchie at AT
& T Bell Laboratories. It is primarily used to a server rather than a workstation and should
not be used by anyone who does not understand the system.
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 Apple Macintosh (Mac OS)
✓ It was introduced in January 1984 by Steve Jobs and was initially named as system
software, which was later renamed as Mac OS. The most recent version of OS is based on
Unix because it has a good graphical interface. Version of Mac OSX are Yosemite,
Mavericks, Mountain Lion, Tiger, Tiger Oanther, Jaguar etc.

LINUX
✓ The first Linux Kernel was released in October 1991 by Linus Torvalds. It is an open source
software, means anyone can download it and use it without any fees. Linux is similar to
Unix in operations. It is difficult to understand by anyone who does not understand the
system and can be difficult to learn.
✓ Kernal is the core of the Operating System that supports the process by providing path to
the peripheral devices.
Linux in Space

Linux has been used in various space missions and aerospace applications due to its stability, flexibility,
and open-source nature. For instance, NASA's Mars rover Curiosity runs on Linux, as do many satellites and
space station systems.

SOLARIS
✓ It is a free UNIX based OS developed by Sun Microsystems. The first version of Sun
Microsystems was published in 1992 and coined as SunOS.

BOSS (Bharat Operating System Solutions)

✓ BOSS GNU/Linux (or simply BOSS) developed by C-DAC (Centre for Development of
Advanced Computing) was initially released in 2007 and derived from Debian for enhancing
the use of Free/Open Source Software throughout India. BOSS Linux provides GUI to the
user.

Mobile Operating System

✓ This OS operates on Smartphones, Tablets and Digital Mobile devices. It controls mobile
devices and its design supports wireless communication and different types of mobile
applications. It has built-in support for mobile multimedia formats.
✓ Some popular mobile operating systems are as follows:
6.6.1 Android
✓ It is a mobile OS developed by Google, which is based on Linux Kernel. It is basically
designed for touch screen mobile devices like Tablets, Smartphones, etc. Nowadays, it is
most commonly used in mobile phones. Android 14 is the fourteenth major release and
the 21st version of Android. It was released to the public and the Android Open Source
Project (AOSP) on October 4, 2023.
6.6.2 Symbian
✓ It is the OS developed and sold by Symbian Ltd. It is an open source mobile OS designed
for Smartphones. It has been used by many major handset manufacturers including
Motorola, Nokia, Samsung, Sony, etc. The Symbian operating system was discontinued.

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 6.6.3 iOS
✓ It is the popular mobile operating system developed by Apple Incorporation. This
operating system is commonly used in Apple iPhone, iPod Touch, iPad, etc. The latest
version of iOS is 17.3.1.
6.6.4 BlackBerry
✓ It is the most secure operating system used in leading Smartphones developed by
BlackBerry company. It also supports WAP 1.2. The BlackBerry operating system was
discontinued.

MS-DOS (Microsoft-Disk Operating System)

✓ The DOS OS was developed by Microsoft in 1980 for microcomputers. MS-DOS was the first
operating system that run on PC developed by IBM corporation in 1981. DOS is a single
user operating system. It is only operating system, which can be loaded in the main
memory of the computer using a single disk.

6.7.1 Structure of DOS

✓ There are four essential programs associated with the control of computer and the way
it interacts with them.
6.7.1.1 Boot Record
✓ It includes loading the operating system into main memory. It is the main program of
MS-DOS.
6.7.1.2 Basic Input/ Output System (BIOS)
✓ It provides an interface between the hardware and programs.
6.7.1.3 MSDOS.sys Program
✓ It is a collection of program routines and data tables that provides high level programs
such as application programs.
6.7.1.4 Command.com Program
✓ It provides a standard set of commands that gives users access to file management,
configuration and miscellaneous functions.

6.7.2 Configuration of DOS

✓ Config.sys, Autoexec.bat provide the environment to computer to set commands.
• Config.sys – It adjusts the system according to commands.
• Auto Exec.bat – When the system is powered On, this file executes in automatically
command line.
Extension Meaning
.txt Text file
.doc/.docx Microsoft Word document
.exe Executable file
.csv Comma-Separated Values
.com Command file (executable)
.bat Batch file (script)
.prg Program file
.ovr Overlay file
.sys System file

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 6.7.3 Types of DOS Commands
✓ There are two types of DOS command
• Internal Commands – These commands are automatically loaded into main memory
when the booting process gets completed e.g. DATE, TIME, VER, VOL, DIR, COPY, etc
• External Commands – These commands require external file to be loaded in the
computer to run e.g. Checking disk, comparing disk, formatting, etc.
✓ Following are some fundamental commands of MS-DOS

6.7.3.1 Internal Commands

Command Description
CD Changes the current directory.
COPY Copies one or more files.
DEL Deletes one or more files.
DIR Lists the contents of a directory.
MD / MKDIR Creates a new directory.
RD / RMDIR Removes a directory.
REN Renames a file or directory.
TYPE Displays the contents of a text file.
VER Displays the operating system version.
CLS Clears the command prompt window.
DATE Displays or sets the system date.
TIME Displays or sets the system time.
EXIT Exits the command interpreter.
HELP Provides help information for commands.
VOL Displays the disk volume label and serial number.
PROMPT Changes the command prompt.

6.7.3.2 External Commands

Command Description
CHKDSK Checks a disk and displays a status report.
FORMAT Formats a disk for use with the file system.
ATTRIB Displays or changes file attributes.
MOVE Moves one or more files from one directory to another.
FC Compares two files or sets of files.
SET Displays, sets, or removes environment variables.
ECHO Displays messages or enables or disables echoing of command line.
FIND Searches for a text string in files.
MORE Displays output one screen at a time.
TREE Displays the folder structure of a directory or drive.
XCOPY Copies files and directory trees.
PING Tests connectivity between two hosts.
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 TASKKILL Terminates processes by process ID (PID) or image name.
TASKLIST Displays a list of currently running processes.
NET Manages network resources.
SHUTDOWN Shuts down or restarts the computer.
SORT Sorts input.
DISKPART Manages disk partitions.
LABEL Creates, changes, or deletes the volume label of a disk
REG Manages the Windows registry.
POWERCFG Configures power settings.
WMIC Provides command-line access to WMI (Windows Management
Instrumentation).
SFC Scans and repairs corrupted system files.
SC Manages Windows services.
IPCONFIG Displays TCP/IP network configuration information.
COMMAND to load the DOS command interpreter (COMMAND.COM) into
memory.

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 Microsoft Windows
✓ It is an operating system, based on GUI, developed by Microsoft. Microsoft first introduced
an operating environment named Windows in November 1985 in response to the growing
interest in GUIs. Microsoft Windows stands for ‘Microsoft – Wide Interactive Network
Development for Office Work Solution’. Microsoft Windows is a series of graphical
interface operating system developed, marked and sold by Microsoft. It enables you to
work with a wide variety of programs on your computer, often simultaneously.

6.8.1 Important versions of MS-Windows

6.8.1.1 Windows NT (New Technology)

✓ A version of Windows introduced in July, 1993 and made specifically for businesses
offering better control over workstation capabilities to help network administrators.
Features:
• It is based on High Level Language.
• It is able to run on DOS, Windows 3 and Win 32 applications.
• It has a 32-bit Windows applications.
• It uses preemptive multitasking.
• It provides higher stability and security.

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 6.8.1.2 Windows 95
✓ It is a graphical user interface-based operating system. It was released on 24th August,
1995 by Microsoft.
Features
• It is a mixed of 16-bit/32-bit Windows operating system.
• It is consumer-oriented.
• It supports graphical user interface operating system.
• It supports FAT32 file system, multi-display, Web TV and the Internet Explorer.

6.8.1.3 Windows 98
✓ It was developed in 1998. This was produced in two main versions. The first Windows 98
version was plagued with programming errors but the Windows 98 second edition came
out later was much better with many errors resolved.
Features
• It supports Internet Explorer 4.0.1.
• It has Intel 80486DX2/66 MHz or a compatible CPU with a Math coprocessor (Pentium
processor recommended).
• Windows 98 was the first operating system to use the Windows Driver Model (WDM).
• It includes a FAT32 converter utility for converting FAT16 drives to FAT32 without
formatting the partition.
• It also supports many peripherals devices (MX, USB, DVD).

6.8.1.4 Windows ME
✓ An upgraded version from Windows 98 (Millennium Edition) launched in June 2000, but
it has been historically plagued with programming errors which may be frustrating for
home users.
Features
• It is designed for single CPU or SMP 32-bit Intel X86 computer.
• It supports 8 or more CPU (the maximum 32 CPU).
• The minimum internal storage is 64MB and maximum 4GB.
• It introduced Multilingual User Interface (MUI).

6.8.1.5 Windows XP
✓ It is an OS produced by Microsoft for use on personal computers. Microsoft released
Windows XP on 25th October, 2001.
✓ Some versions of Windows XP are as follows:
• Windows XP Home edition is a version made for home users.
• Windows XP Professional is made for business users.
Features
• It has various users with independent proles.
• It has 3.75 GB free space on the disk and that the total size of the disk is 19.5 GB.
• At least 64 MB of RAM internal storage.
• It provides 1.5 GB of available space on the hard disk.
• It includes a video adapter and monitor with Super VGA (800 X 600) or higher
resolution.
• It supports sound card, CD-ROM, DVD-ROM drive, speakers or headphones.

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 6.8.1.6 Windows Vista
✓ It is an operating system by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home
and business desktops, laptops, tablet PCs and media center PCs. It was released
worldwide on 30th January, 2007.
Features
• It can be installed Pentium 4, higher, 512MB RAM, 32 MB video card and 40 GB hard
disk.
• It enhances the features of visual style.

Blue Screen of Death

The Blue Screen of Death (BSoD) is an error screen displayed by Microsoft Windows operating systems
when the system encounters a critical error that it cannot recover from, forcing a system crash. It is often
accompanied by a cryptic error message and a blue background.

6.8.1.7 Windows 7
✓ It is an OS released by Microsoft on 22nd July, 2009. It is an upgrade of Windows XP and
Vista. It does not include some standard applications like Windows Movie Maker,
Windows Mail, etc.
Features
• It supports 64-bit processor.
• It provides touch, speech, handwriting recognition.
• It supports a playback of media in MP4, MOV.
• It includes Windows Bio-metric framework.
• It provides multiple firewall.

6.8.1.8 Windows 8
✓ It is a part of Windows NT family as personal OS developed by Microsoft and released
on 1st August, 2012.
Features
• It is a 64-bit logical CPU.
• It supports 64 TB Dynamic Virtual Disk.
• It provides 3D Graphic supports and Internet Explorer-10.
• It enhances feature of NTML-5 is assumed.
• It is based on Microsoft’s ‘Metro design language’.
• It supports new emerging technology like USB 3.0, cloud computing.

6.8.1.9 Windows 10
✓ It is a personal computer operating system developed and released by Microsoft as part
of the Windows NT family operating system. The first version of the operating system
entered a public beta testing process in October 2014, leading up to its consumer
released on 29 July, 2015.
Features
• It is easy to use social media sites like Facebook, Twitter.
• Windows 10 will also include a “game DVR” mode to allow recordings of the last 30
seconds of play, all better for social gaming.
• Windows 10 interface adapts based on the hardware it is running on.

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 6.8.1.10 Windows 11
✓ Windows 11 is the latest iteration of Microsoft's operating system, released on October
5, 2021, as a successor to Windows 10. It introduces several new features and
improvements aimed at enhancing productivity, gaming, and user experience.
Features
• It features a centered Start Menu and Taskbar, providing a more streamlined and
modern look.
• Windows 11 introduces DirectX 12 Ultimate, Auto HDR, and Direct Storage
technologies, enhancing gaming performance and visuals.
• Windows 11 allows users to download and install Android apps from the Microsoft
Store, expanding the ecosystem of available applications.
• It introduces updated system requirements, including support for newer processors,
TPM 2.0 (Trusted Platform Module), and Secure Boot for enhanced security.

Window Desktop
✓ When we turn ON the computer then the first screen, which will be displayed on the
computer is known as desktop.
✓ The background image of desktop is called wallpaper.
✓ A small arrow or blinking symbol, moving on the desktop, is called cursor.
• Desktop contains Start menu, Task bar, icons, gadgets, etc.

Some important components of desktop are organized as follows:

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 6.9.1 Icons
✓ A small image of a program, shown on the desktop with program name is known as
icon. Icons are small pictures that represent files, folders, programs and other items.
Users can open these programs by double click on the icons. If you move an icon on
your desktop, this is called ‘dragging’ and after releasing it, it will be called ‘dropping.’
✓ Some of the icons displayed on the desktop are as follows:
6.9.1.1 Computer/PC
✓ It is the most important icon on the desktop, which contains icons of document
folders, hard disk’s partition, each removable disk drive, e.g. floppy disk, CD,
DVD, etc. It also allows the users to access drives, printers, removable disk or
other system applications. It is the main part of our Windows where all the
programs and software backup are stored.
6.9.1.2 Recycle Bin
✓ It is also a form of icon on the desktop, which contains deleted files, folders or
shortcuts. If we delete a file or folder then it goes to recycle bin. From recycle bin,
we can restore the deleted files or folders on proper place. It is like a dustbin of
the computer. Once the recycle bin is empty then we won’t be able to restore
those files and folders again.
6.9.1.3 Network
✓ It consists of all network connections, which make possible to connect the
computer from Intranet.
6.9.1.4 Documents
✓ This folder contains all your files which you have created and saved in it. This
folder contains all types of file format Word processor, Spreadsheet, PowerPoint,
image, etc.

6.9.2 Task Bar

✓ Initially, the long horizontal box at the bottom of our desktop is known as Task bar.
When we open a program or any window, then the button of that program will be
displayed on the task bar.

✓ Middle Section of the taskbar contains the button of programs or documents which are
currently being used by the user. Notification and the right end of the task bar, consists
of clock-date and time, icons of certain programs, computer setting, sound and icons of
removable disk, i.e. pen drive.

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 6.9.3 Start Menu
✓ This menu is the main gateway of our computer’s program such as files, folders and
settings. Start menu also contains most recently opened program.

✓ Start menu have following options

• Program – It contains a list of installed programs. When we installed any software, it
automatically shows in this menu.
• Favorites – It is a collection of book-marked Web pages.
• Documents - It shows a list of most recently opened documents.
• Setting - It includes Control Panel, Printers, Taskbar, etc.
• Find - It searches for specific files or folders.
• Log Off – End access to a computer system or a website.
• Turn Off (Shut down) - To shut down or restart the system.
6.9.4 Title Bar
✓ It is located at the top of window or any dialog box, which displays the name of the
window or software program. Title bar contains at least three small buttons:

• Close Button – At the right edge of the title bar, there is a square containing a [X]
called the Close button. It helps to terminate the running program.
• Minimize Button – It reduces to window to a button on the task bar. It helps to
shrink the window.
• Maximize Button – It enlarges the window to occupy the whole desktop. It expands
the size of window t to the desktop.

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 6.9.5 Scroll Bar
✓ It appears at the right (or left) side or at the bottom of the window. A window can
display a document, i.e. larger than the window area, so
with the help of scroll bar arrow, the user can scroll a
document in the window area to bring the view of hidden
portion of document.
✓ There are two types of scroll bars
• Horizontal scroll bar
• Vertical scroll bar.
6.9.6 Menu Bar
✓ Each window contains its own menu which performs specific actions when they have
been selected.
✓ The menu bar consists of several options as
follows:
• File Menu – Contains options like New,
Open, Close, Save, Save As and Print, etc.
• Edit Menu/Home Menu – Contains
options like Undo, Cut, Copy, Paste,
Clear, etc.
• View Menu – Like Normal, Toolbar, Print
layout, etc.
• Insert Menu - Contains options like
Header, Footer, etc.
• Help Menu – for tutorials or helpful
information.

6.9.7 Dialog Box

✓ When we perform certain operation on your document and click on the Close button
without saving your document then dialog box will appear on the screen.
✓ Generally, dialog box contains message, Close button, Yes button, No button and Cancel
button. It is mainly used to suggest what to do next.

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 Main Programs Inside the Window
6.10.1 Notepad
✓ It is a text editor program. Notepad is most commonly used to the edit or view text files.
The extension of Notepad files is .txt (text document).
✓ To open Click on
Start menu —> All Programs —> Accessories —> Notepad
6.10.2 WordPad
✓ It is another text editor program including some few features such as complex
formatting, pictures, etc. The extension of WordPad le is .rtf (rich text format).
✓ To open Click on
Start menu —> All Programs —> Accessories —> WordPad
6.10.3 Paint
✓ It is a drawing program, used to create drawing or edit digital pictures (images). The
extension of paint file is .png or. jpg or. bmp.
✓ To open Click on
Start menu —> All Programs —> Accessories —> Paint
6.10.4 Calculator
✓ It performs addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc.
✓ To open Click on
Start menu —>All Programs —>Accessories —> Calculator
6.10.5 Media Player
✓ Windows media player is an easy-to-use interface to play digital media files, organize
digital media collection, burn CDs, etc.
✓ To open Click on
Start menu —> All Programs —> Windows Media Player
6.10.6 Games
✓ Windows have some games like Chess titans., Hearts, Freecell, Mahjong titans, Purble
place, Solitaire, Spider solitaire, etc.
✓ To open Click on
Start menu —> All Programs —> Games
6.10.7 Files
✓ These are the collection of data stored on auxiliary storage media. In Windows, files are
the basic unit to store data. The name given to a file or document by the user is called
file name. Filename is used to identify the type of file format. Each file has a specific
filename and has a file extension that identifies the file type.
✓ Some common filename extensions are as
Common File Meaning Output Type
Extension
.txt Text file Plain Text
.doc/.docx Microsoft Word document Rich Text Format (RTF)
.pdf Portable Document Format Document
.jpg/.jpeg Joint Photographic Experts Group Image
.png Portable Network Graphics Image

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 .gif Graphics Interchange Format Image
.html/.htm Hypertext Markup Language Web Page
.css Cascading Style Sheets Style Sheet
.js JavaScript Script
.xls/.xlsx Microsoft Excel spreadsheet Spreadsheet
.ppt/.pptx Microsoft PowerPoint presentation Presentation
.zip ZIP archive Compressed Archive
.mp3 MPEG Audio Layer III Audio
.mp4 MPEG-4 Part 14 Video
.rtf WordPad document Rich Text Format (RTF)

✓ These are containers that you can use to store files. Folders can also store other folders,
i.e. sub-folders. You can create any number of sub-folders and each can hold any
number of files and additional subfolders.
✓ Different types of library are as follows
• Documents Library
It is used to organize and arrange Word processing documents, Spreadsheets,
Presentation and other text related files. It is used to store in My Document folder.
• Pictures Library
It is used to organize and arrange your digital pictures. By default, it is saved in the
Pictures folder.
• Music Library
It is used to organize and arrange your digital music, such as songs, etc. By default, it is
saved to the Music Library folder.
• Videos Library
It is used to organize and arrange your videos, such as clips, recording, etc. By default,
it is stored in My Videos folder.

MS-Windows Shortcut Keys

Keys Description
Ctrl + C Copy
Ctrl + X Cut
Ctrl + V Paste
Ctrl + Z Undo
Ctrl + Y Redo
Ctrl + A Select All
Ctrl + S Save

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 Ctrl + P Print
Ctrl + F Find
Ctrl + N New (File or Window)
Ctrl + W Close window or tab
Alt + F4 Close active program/window
Win + D Show Desktop (minimize or restore all windows)
Esc Cancel the current task
Win () key To display or hide the start menu
Alt + Tab Switch between open applications or windows
Win + Tab Opens Task View (thumbnail view of open
applications)
Alt + F4 Close active program/window
Win + Arrow Keys Snap window to sides or corners of the screen
Win + E Open File Explorer
Win + M To minimize all open window
Alt + Up Arrow Go up one level in File Explorer
F2 Rename selected file/folder
Ctrl + Shift + N Create new folder
Ctrl + Mouse Wheel Up/Down Zoom in/out in File Explorer
Alt + Enter Open Properties for selected file/folder
Win + 1, 2, 3, ... Open the corresponding program pinned to the
taskbar
Windows key + Ctrl + Left Switch between windows (while using a virtual
Arrow/Right Arrow desktop)
Shift + Click on Taskbar icon Open a new instance of the program
Ctrl + Shift + Click on Taskbar Open a program as Administrator
icon
Win + Plus (+)/Minus (-) Zoom in/out (Magnifier)
Win + Ctrl + Enter Activate Narrator (Screen reader)
Win + U Open Ease of Access Center
Ctrl + Shift + Esc Open Task Manager directly
Win + L Lock your PC or switch accounts
Win + R Open the Run dialog box
Ctrl + Shift + Esc Open Task Manager
Win + Pause/Break Open System Properties
Ctrl + Alt + Delete Open Security options menu
F3 Search for a file or folder in Windows Explorer
Alt + Spacebar Opens the shortcut menu for the active window
Ctrl + Esc Display the Start Menu
F5 Refresh the active window
Esc Cancel the current task

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 File Explorer

IIn Windows, File Explorer (previously known as Windows Explorer in older versions) allows users to perform
various tasks such as creating, deleting, copying, moving, and renaming files and folders. It also includes
features like searching for files, sorting and filtering files, previewing files without opening them, and
managing file properties.

Home Tab offers Copy, Paste, Cut, Move to, Copy to, Rename, New Folder, Properties

Share Tab offers Share, Email, Zip, Burn to disc, Print, Fax, Remove Access and Advanced Security

View Tab offers Navigation pane, Icon style, Sort by, Hidden Selected item and options

MS Windows Touchpad gestures

Action Gestures

Select an item Tap touchpad

Scroll Place two fingers on the screen and slide horizontally or

vertically
Zoom in or out Place two fingers on the touchpad and pinch in or stretch out

Show more commands (like Tap the touchpad with two fingers or press down in the lower-
right-clicking) right corner/ Press and hold the item
Show all open windows Swipe with three fingers up on the screen

Show the desktop Swipe with three fingers down on the screen

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 Switch between open apps or Swipe with three fingers left or right on the screen
windows
Switch desktops Swipe with four fingers to the left or right on the screen

Switch to the last open app Swipe with three fingers to the left or right on the screen

Open notification center Swipe with one finger in from the right edge of the screen

See widgets Swipe with one finger in from the left edge of the screen

Common File Operations Used in Operating Systems

✓ Open: Opening a file establishes a connection between the file and the program,
allowing the program to read from or write to the file. This operation typically requires
specifying the file path and mode (e.g., read, write, or both).
✓ Read: Reading from a file involves retrieving data from the file and transferring it into
memory for processing by the program. This operation typically requires specifying the
number of bytes to read and the location in memory to store the data.
✓ Write: Writing to a file involves transferring data from memory to the file for storage.
This operation typically requires specifying the data to write and the number of bytes to
write.
✓ Rename: Renaming a file involves changing its name while keeping its contents intact.
This operation is commonly used to give files more meaningful or descriptive names.
✓ Close: Closing a file refers to terminating the connection between the file and the
program accessing it. This operation releases the resources associated with the file and
ensures that any pending data is written to the file system.
✓ Truncate: Truncating a file involves reducing its size to a specified length. This operation
typically removes the contents of the file beyond the specified length while preserving
the initial data up to that point.
✓ Delete: Deleting a file removes it from the file system, freeing up storage space. This
operation permanently erases the file and its contents, making it irrecoverable unless a
backup exists.
✓ Copy: Copying a file involves creating a duplicate of the original file with the same
contents. This operation is useful for creating backups or duplicating files for sharing or
distribution.
✓ Move (or Rename and Move): Moving a file involves changing its location within the file
system while preserving its contents. This operation is commonly used to organize files
into different directories or folders.
✓ Lock (or Exclusive Access): Locking a file prevents other programs or users from
accessing or modifying it simultaneously. This operation is used to ensure data integrity
and prevent conflicts when multiple programs or users interact with the same file.
✓ Seek: Seeking in a file involves moving the file pointer to a specified position within the
file. This operation allows programs to navigate within the file to read or write data at
specific locations.

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 ✓ Append: Appending to a file involves adding data to the end of an existing file without
modifying its existing contents. This operation is commonly used to add new data to
files, such as log files or data storage files, without overwriting existing information.

7 Utilities and tools available for managing processes and resources in OS

There are numerous utilities and tools available for managing processes and resources on
various operating systems. Here are some commonly used ones:

• Task Manager (Windows): Task Manager is a built-in utility in Windows that allows
users to view and manage running processes, monitor system performance, and
manage startup programs. The primary purpose of a Task Manager is to manage tasks in
a project or workflow and monitor the performance of a computer system.
• Activity Monitor (macOS): Activity Monitor is a built-in utility in macOS that provides
information about processes, CPU usage, memory usage, disk activity, and network
activity. It allows users to monitor and manage system resources.
• htop: htop is an interactive process viewer for Unix-like systems (Linux, macOS,
FreeBSD) that provides a customizable, colorized view of system processes. It allows
users to monitor and manage processes, CPU usage, memory usage, and more.
• top: top is a command-line utility available in Unix-like systems that provides a dynamic,
real-time view of system processes. It displays information such as CPU usage, memory
usage, and process IDs, and allows users to manage processes interactively.
• Sysinternals Suite (Windows): Sysinternals Suite is a collection of advanced system
utilities for Windows developed by Microsoft. It includes tools such as Process Explorer,
which provides detailed information about processes, and Process Monitor, which
monitors file system, registry, and process activity.
• System Monitor (Linux): System Monitor, also known as System Monitor Tool or
GNOME System Monitor, is a graphical utility available in Linux-based distributions (e.g.,
Ubuntu) that provides information about system processes, resource usage, and file
systems.
• Windows Resource Monitor (Windows): Windows Resource Monitor is a built-in utility
in Windows that provides detailed information about CPU, memory, disk, and network
usage. It allows users to monitor and analyze resource usage by processes and services.
• GNU Parallel: GNU Parallel is a command-line utility for Unix-like systems that allows
users to execute multiple commands or processes in parallel. It can be used for
parallelizing tasks, managing resources efficiently, and speeding up data processing.

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CONCEPT NOTES

Data Communication and Computer

Network
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 Contents
1 Data Communication...................................................................................................................6
1.1 Components of Data Communication....................................................................................6
1.1.1 Sender .........................................................................................................................6
1.1.2 Receiver.......................................................................................................................6
1.1.3 Message ......................................................................................................................6
1.1.4 Communication media..................................................................................................6
1.1.5 Protocols......................................................................................................................6
1.2 Types of Data Communication ..............................................................................................6
1.2.1 Simplex mode...............................................................................................................7
1.2.2 Half-Duplex mode.........................................................................................................7
1.2.3 Full-duplex mode..........................................................................................................7
2 Switching Techniques ..................................................................................................................8
2.1 Circuit Switching ..................................................................................................................8
2.2 Packet Switching..................................................................................................................8
3 Transmission Media.....................................................................................................................8
3.1 Wired Transmission Media ...................................................................................................9
3.1.1 Twisted Pair Cable ........................................................................................................9
3.1.2 Coaxial cable ................................................................................................................9
3.1.3 Optical Fibre............................................................................................................... 10
3.2 Wireless Transmission Media ............................................................................................. 10
3.3 Wireless Technologies........................................................................................................ 11
3.3.1 Bluetooth................................................................................................................... 11
3.3.2 Wireless LAN .............................................................................................................. 11
4 Mobile Telecommunication Technologies ................................................................................... 11
4.1 First Gneration................................................................................................................... 12
4.2 Second Generation ............................................................................................................ 12
4.3 Third Generation ............................................................................................................... 12
4.4 Forth Generation ............................................................................................................... 12
4.5 Fifth Generation ................................................................................................................ 13
5 Protocol.................................................................................................................................... 13
5.1 Need for Protocols............................................................................................................. 13
5.2 Important Protocaols ......................................................................................................... 13

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 5.2.1 HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)............................................................................. 13
5.2.2 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) ......................................................................................... 14
5.2.3 Point to Point Protocol (PPP) ....................................................................................... 14
5.2.4 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol ..................................................................................... 14
5.2.5 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ............................................................................ 14
5.2.6 Internet Protocol (IP) .................................................................................................. 14
5.2.7 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) .................................................................................... 14
5.2.8 Post Office Protocol (POP)........................................................................................... 14
5.2.9 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) ............................................................... 15
5.2.10 Telnet ........................................................................................................................ 15
5.2.11 Gopher ...................................................................................................................... 15
5.2.12 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) .............................................................................. 15
5.2.13 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) ............................................................... 15
5.2.14 IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol) .................................................................. 15
5.2.15 SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) ................................................................................... 15
5.2.16 RTP (Real-Time Transport Protocol) ............................................................................. 15
5.2.17 RLP (Resource Location Protocol) ................................................................................ 16
5.2.18 RAP (Route Access Protocol) ....................................................................................... 16
5.2.19 L2TP (Layer Two Tunnelling Protocol) .......................................................................... 16
5.2.20 PPTP (Point To Point Tunnelling Protocol) .................................................................... 16
5.2.21 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) ........................................................... 16
5.2.22 TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol).............................................................................. 16
6 Computer Network.................................................................................................................... 16
7 Network Devices ....................................................................................................................... 17
7.1 Network Interface card (NIC) .............................................................................................. 17
7.2 Hub................................................................................................................................... 17
7.3 Switch ............................................................................................................................... 17
7.4 Cables and connectors ....................................................................................................... 18
7.5 Router............................................................................................................................... 18
7.6 Modem ............................................................................................................................. 18
7.7 Gateway............................................................................................................................ 18
7.8 Repeaters.......................................................................................................................... 18
8 Computer Network Architecture ................................................................................................ 19
8.1 Peer-To-Peer network........................................................................................................ 19
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 8.2 Client/Server Network........................................................................................................ 19
9 Types of Computer Network ...................................................................................................... 20
9.1 Personal Area Network (PAN) ............................................................................................. 20
9.1.1 Wireless Personal Area Network.................................................................................. 20
9.1.2 Wired Personal Area Network ..................................................................................... 20
9.2 Local Area Network (LAN)................................................................................................... 21
9.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) ..................................................................................... 21
9.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)................................................................................................. 21
10 Internetwork......................................................................................................................... 22
10.1 Types of Internetwork:....................................................................................................... 22
10.1.1 Extranet..................................................................................................................... 22
10.1.2 Intranet...................................................................................................................... 22
11 Network Topology ................................................................................................................. 22
11.1 Bus Topology..................................................................................................................... 22
11.2 Ring Topology.................................................................................................................... 23
11.3 Star Topology .................................................................................................................... 23
11.4 Tree topology .................................................................................................................... 23
11.5 Mesh topology................................................................................................................... 24
11.6 Hybrid Topology ................................................................................................................ 24
12 Identifying Nodes in a Networked Communication .................................................................. 24
12.1 MAC.................................................................................................................................. 24
12.2 IP Address ......................................................................................................................... 25
13 Computer Network Model ..................................................................................................... 25
13.1 Layered Architecture.......................................................................................................... 26
13.2 OSI Model ......................................................................................................................... 26
13.2.1 Functions of the OSI Layers ......................................................................................... 27
13.3 Physical layer..................................................................................................................... 27
13.4 Data-Link Layer.................................................................................................................. 28
13.5 Network Layer ................................................................................................................... 28
13.6 Transport Layer ................................................................................................................. 29
13.7 Session Layer..................................................................................................................... 29
13.8 Presentation Layer............................................................................................................. 30
13.9 Application Layer ............................................................................................................... 30
13.10 TCP/IP model ................................................................................................................. 30
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 13.11 Network Access Layer..................................................................................................... 31
13.12 Internet Layer ................................................................................................................ 31
13.13 Transport Layer.............................................................................................................. 31
13.14 Application Layer............................................................................................................ 31
14 Internet ................................................................................................................................ 32
14.1 History of Internet ............................................................................................................. 32
14.2 Basic Internet Knowledge ................................................................................................... 33
14.2.1 World Wide Web (WWW) ........................................................................................... 33
14.2.2 Search Engines ........................................................................................................... 33
14.2.3 Web Server ................................................................................................................ 33
14.2.4 Web Page................................................................................................................... 33
14.2.5 Web Browser ............................................................................................................. 34
14.2.6 Home Page................................................................................................................. 34
14.2.7 Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) .......................................................................... 35
14.2.8 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) ............................................................................. 37
14.2.9 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) ............................................. 37
14.2.10 Internet Host.......................................................................................................... 37
14.2.11 Internet Protocol Address (IP Address) ..................................................................... 37
14.2.12 Uniform Resource Locator (URL) .............................................................................. 37
14.2.13 Domain Name......................................................................................................... 38
14.2.14 Domain Name System (DNS).................................................................................... 38
14.2.15 Uploading............................................................................................................... 38
14.2.16 Downloading .......................................................................................................... 38
14.2.17 E-Mail .................................................................................................................... 38
14.3 Broadband access methods ................................................................................................ 39
14.4 Uses of the internet ........................................................................................................... 39

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 1 Data Communication
The term “Data Communication” comprises two words: Data and Communication. Data can be
any text, image, audio, video, and multimedia files. Communication is an act of sending or
receiving data.

Thus, data communication refers to the exchange of data between two or more networked or
connected devices. These devices must be capable of sending and receiving data over a
communication medium.

1.1 Components of Data Communication

✓ In communication between two computing devices using a network, the five most
important aspects are sender, receiver, communication medium, the message to be
communicated, and certain rules called protocols to be followed during communication.
The communication media is also called transmission media.
1.1.1 Sender
✓ A sender is a computer or any such device which is capable of sending data over a
network. It can be a computer, mobile phone, smartwatch, walkie-talkie, video
recording device, etc.
1.1.2 Receiver
✓ A receiver is a computer or any such device which is capable of receiving data from the
network. It can be any computer, printer, laptop, mobile phone, television, etc. In
computer communication, the sender and receiver are known as nodes in a network.
1.1.3 Message
✓ It is the data or information that needs to be exchanged between the sender and the
receiver. Messages can be in the form of text, number, image, audio, video, multimedia,
etc.
1.1.4 Communication media
✓ It is the path through which the message travels between source and destination. It is
also called medium or link which is either wired or wireless. For example, a television
cable, telephone cable, ethernet cable, satellite link, microwaves, etc. We will study
about various communication media in section 11.5.
1.1.5 Protocols
✓ It is a set of rules that need to be followed by the communicating parties in order to
have successful and reliable data communication. You have already come across
protocols such as Ethernet and HTTP.

1.2 Types of Data Communication

✓ The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as
transmission mode. The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
✓ Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media
provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a directional
mode. The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.
✓ The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

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 1.2.1 Simplex mode

✓ In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one
direction. A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data
but cannot send the data.
✓ The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but never
allows them to transmit back.
✓ Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only
accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the
screen.
1.2.2 Half-Duplex mode

✓ In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and
receive the data as well. Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a
time.
✓ A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode.
1.2.3 Full-duplex mode

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 ✓ In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the
directions. Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously. Full-
duplex mode has two simplex channels.
✓ One channel has traffic moving in one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing
in the opposite direction.
✓ The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices. The most
common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network.

2 Switching Techniques
In a network having multiple devices, we are interested to know how to connect the sender and
receiver so that one-to-one communication is possible. One solution is to make a dedicated
connection between each pair of devices (mesh topology) or between a central device and
every other device (a star topology). However, such methods are costly in case of large
networks.

An alternative to this is switching whereby data is routed through various nodes in a network.
This switching process forms a temporary route for the data to be transmitted. Two commonly
used switching techniques are — Circuit Switching and Packet Switching.

2.1 Circuit Switching

✓ In circuit switching, before a communication starts, a dedicated path is identified between
the sender and the receiver. This path is a connected sequence of links between network
nodes. All packets follow the same path established during the connection.
✓ In earlier days, when we placed a telephone call, the switching equipment within the
telephone system finds out a physical path or channel all the way from our telephone at
home to the receiver’s telephone. This is an example of circuit switching.

2.2 Packet Switching

✓ In packet switching, each information or message to be transmitted between sender and
receiver is broken down into smaller pieces, called packets. These packets are then
transmitted independently through the network. Different packets of the same message
may take different routes depending on availability.
✓ Each packet has two parts — a header containing the address of the destination and other
information, and the main message part. When all the packets reach the destination, they
are reassembled and the complete message is received by the receiver.
✓ Unlike circuit switching, a channel is occupied in packet switching only during the
transmission of the packet. On completion of the transmission, the channel is available for
transfer of packets from other communicating parties.

3 Transmission Media
A transmission medium can be anything that can carry signals or data between the source
(transmitter) and destination (receiver).

In data communication, transmission media are the links that carry messages between two or
more communicating devices.
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 Transmission can be classified as guided (wired) or unguided(Wireless Media).

In guided transmission, there is a physical link made of wire/cable through which data in terms
of signals are propagated between the nodes. These are usually metallic cable, fiber -optic
cable, etc. They are also known as wired media.

In unguided transmission, data travels in air in terms of electromagnetic waves using an

antenna. They are also known as wireless media.

3.1 Wired Transmission Media

3.1.1 Twisted Pair Cable
✓ A twisted-pair consists of two copper wires twisted like a DNA helical structure. Both the
copper wires are insulated with plastic covers. Usually, a number of such pairs are
combined together and covered with a protective outer
wrapping.
✓ Each of the twisted pairs act as a single communication
link. The use of twisted configuration minimises the effect
of electrical interference from similar pairs close by.
Twisted pairs are less expensive and most commonly used
in telephone lines and LANs.
✓ These cables are of two types: Unshielded twisted-pair
(UTP) and Shielded twisted-pair (STP).

3.1.2 Coaxial cable

✓ Coaxial cable is another type of data transmission
medium. It is better shielded and has more
bandwidth than a twisted pair. It has a copper wire
at the core of the cable which is surrounded with
insulating material.
✓ The insulator is further surrounded with an outer
conductor (usually a copper mesh). This outer
conductor is wrapped in a plastic cover. The key to
success of coaxial cable is its shielded design that

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 allows the cable's copper core to transmit data quickly, without interference of
environmental factors.
✓ These types of cables are used to carry signals of higher frequencies to a longer
distance.

3.1.3 Optical Fibre

✓ The optical fiber cable carries data as light, which travels inside a thin fiber of glass.
Optic fiber uses refraction to direct the light through the media. A thin transparent
strand of glass at the centre is covered
with a layer of less dense glass called
cladding.
✓ This whole arrangement is covered with
an outer jacket made of PVC or Teflon.
Such types of cables are usually used in
backbone networks.
✓ These cables are of light weight and have higher bandwidth which means higher data
transfer rate.
✓ Signals can travel longer distances and electromagnetic noise cannot affect the cable.
However, optic fibers are expensive and unidirectional. Two cables are required for full
duplex communication.

3.2 Wireless Transmission Media

✓ In wireless communication technology, information In wireless communication
technology, information travels in the form of electromagnetic signals through air.
Electromagnetic spectrum of frequency ranging from 3 KHz to 900 THz is available for
wireless communication.
✓ Wireless technologies allow communication between two or more devices in short to
long distance without requiring any physical media. There are many types of wireless
communication technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi, WiMax etc.
✓ The electromagnetic spectrum range (3KHz to 900THz) can be divided into 4 categories -
Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared waves and Visible or Light waves, according to their
frequency ranges.

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 3.3 Wireless Technologies
3.3.1 Bluetooth
✓ Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology(PAN) that can be used to connect
mobile-phones, mouse, headphones, keyboards, computers, etc. wirelessly over a short
distance. One can print documents with bluetooth-enabled printers without a physical
connection.
✓ All these bluetooth-enabled devices have a low cost transceiver chip. This chip uses the
unlicensed frequency band of 2.4 GHz to transmit and receive data. These devices can
send data within a range of 10 meters with a speed of 1 - 2 Mbps.
✓ In Bluetooth technology, the communicating devices within a range of 10 meters build a
personal area network called piconet. The devices in a piconet work in a master -slave
configuration. A master device can communicate with up to 7 active slave devices at the
same time.
✓ Bluetooth technology allows up to 255 devices to build a network. Out of them, 8
devices can communicate at the same time and the remaining devices can be inactive,
waiting for a response command from the master device.

3.3.2 Wireless LAN

✓ This is another way of wireless communication. Wireless LAN is a local area network
(LAN), and it is a popular way to connect to the Internet. The international organisation
IEEE assigns numbers to each different standards of LAN. The wireless LAN is number as
802.11, and it is popularly known as Wi-Fi.
✓ Wi-Fi gives users the flexibility to move around within the network area while being
connected to the network.

WiMax

It stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. Like Wi-Fi, it is also used for
communication in wireless networks but there is a difference. Whereas Wi-Fi is used to form small
wireless networks (WLANs), WiMax uses a larger spectrum to deliver connections to various
devices on the network. It has a higher data transfer rate and can span over a larger area. That is
why it is used in MAN applications.

4 Mobile Telecommunication Technologies

Today the mobile phone network is the most used network in the world. The ability to be
connected to the network on-the-go makes it very convenient to communicate with people via
call or instant messages. It is also handy to access the Internet using the mobile phone network
through wireless connection. Besides, the Internet of Things (IoT) is letting us control and
communicate with other smart devices as well.

The architecture of the mobile network has rapidly evolved over the last few decades. The
different landmark achievements in mobile communication technologies are classified as
different generations. They are identified as 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G. Let us briefly discuss the
mobile telecommunication generations.

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 4.1 First Gneration
✓ The first generation (1G) mobile network system came around 1982. It was used to
transmit only voice calls. The analog signals were used to carry voices between the caller
and receiver.

4.2 Second Generation

✓ The second generation (2G) mobile network system came around 1991. Instead of analog
signals, voice calls were transmitted in digital form thus providing improved call quality.
This increased capacity allowed more people to talk simultaneously, and led to improved
security as the signals could be encrypted. It also enabled an additional service to send SMS
and MMS (Multimedia messages).
Mobile Network Technologies

✓ GSM (2G): Global System for Mobile Communications was the foundation of the 2G network. It
provided the basic voice and text messaging services that were the hallmark of early mobile
phones.
✓ GPRS (2.5G): General Packet Radio Service was introduced as an enhancement to GSM,
transitioning mobile networks towards 2.5G. It introduced packet-switched data transmission,
enabling basic internet access and services beyond voice and text messaging.
✓ EDGE (2.75G): Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution further improved upon GPRS, offering
faster data speeds and enhanced data transmission capabilities. It bridged the gap between 2G
and 3G, providing a smoother transition to more advanced mobile data services.

While these technologies were primarily associated with 2G networks, they were also utilized in the
early stages of 3G networks before more advanced technologies like UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System) and HSPA (High-Speed Packet Access) became prevalent.

✓ 4G networks typically use technologies such as LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and WiMAX (Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access) for data transmission.
✓ 5G networks use a variety of new technologies and standards to achieve their high speeds and
low latency. While some aspects of 5G build upon existing technologies like LTE, 5G introduces
new technologies such as mmWave (millimeter wave) and advanced antenna technologies like
massive MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output).

4.3 Third Generation

✓ The third generation (3G) mobile network technology was developed during late 90s, but it
was introduced commercially around 2001.
✓ It offered both digital voice and data services. 3G provided Internet access via the same
radio towers that provide voice service to the mobile phone. It facilitated greater voice and
data capacity. Therefore, more simultaneous calls could happen in the same frequency
range and also a significantly faster data transfer speed.

4.4 Forth Generation

✓ Demand for faster data is always increasing and thus 4G mobile networks were developed
and now 5G networks have also come into being.
✓ 4G is much faster than 3G and this has revolutionised the field of telecommunication by
bringing the wireless experience to a new level altogether. 4G systems support interactive
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 multimedia, voice, video, wireless internet and other broadband services. Technologically,
4G is very different compared to 3G.

4.5 Fifth Generation

✓ The fifth generation or 5G is currently under development. It is expected to be a milestone
development for the success of IoT and Machine to Machine (M2M) communications.
✓ Machine to machine (M2M) is direct communication between devices — wired and
wireless. 5G is expected to allow data transfer in Gbps, which is much faster than 4G.
✓ It is expected to be able to support all the devices of the future such as connected vehicles
and the Internet of Things.

5 Protocol
In communication, Protocol is a set of standard rules that the communicating parties — the
sender, the receiver, and all other intermediate devices need to follow.

5.1 Need for Protocols

✓ We need protocols for different reasons such as flow control, access control, addressing,
etc.
✓ Flow control is required when the sender and receiver have different speeds of sending
and receiving the data.
✓ Access control is required to decide which nodes in a communication channel will access
the link shared among them at a particular instant of time. Otherwise, the transmitted data
packets will collide if computers are sending data simultaneously through the same link
resulting in the loss or corruption of data.
✓ Protocols also define:
• how computers identify one another on a network.
• the form to which the data should be converted for transit.
• how to decide whether the data received is for that node or to be forwarded to
another node.
• ensuring that all the data have reached the destination without any loss.
• how to rearrange the packets and process them at the destination.

5.2 Important Protocols

5.2.1 HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
✓ HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. It is the primary protocol used to access
the World Wide Web. Tim Berners-Lee led the development of HTTP at CERN in 1989 in
collaboration with Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C).
✓ HTTP is a request-response (also called client-server) protocol that runs over TCP.
✓ HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext among two or more systems. HTML tags
are used for creating links. These links may be in any form like text or images. HTTP is
designed on Client-server principles which allow a client system for establishing a
connection with the server machine for making a request. The server acknowledges the
request initiated by the client and responds accordingly.

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 5.2.2 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
✓ File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the protocol used for transferring files from one machine
to another over a TCP-based network.
✓ File transfer between two systems seems simple and straightforward because FTP takes
care of issues between two communicating devices, such as:
• use of different conventions while naming files.
• representation of text and data in different formats.
• having different directory structure

5.2.3 Point to Point Protocol (PPP)

✓ PPP is a communication protocol which establishes a dedicated and direct connection
between two communicating devices. This protocol defines how two devices will
authenticate each other and establish a direct link between them to exchange data. For
example, two routers with direct connection communicate using PPP. The Internet users
who connect their home computers to the server of an Internet Service Provider (ISP)
through a modem also use PPP.
✓ The communicating devices should have duplex modes for using this protocol. This
protocol maintains data integrity ensuring that the packets arrive in order. It intimates
the sender about damage or lost packets and asks to resend it.

5.2.4 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

✓ SMTP is a protocol used for email services. It uses information written on the message
header (like an envelope on a letter sent by post), and is not concerned with the content
of the email message.
✓ The SMTP sender program takes mails from the outgoing queue and transmits them to
the destination(s). When the SMTP sender successfully delivers a particular mail to one
or more destinations, it removes the corresponding receiver’s email address from the
mail’s destination list.

5.2.5 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

✓ TCP is a popular communication protocol which is used for communicating over a
network. It divides any message into series of packets that are sent from source to
destination and there it gets reassembled at the destination.

5.2.6 Internet Protocol (IP)

✓ IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol. It is mostly used with TCP. The IP
addresses in packets help in routing them through different nodes in a network until it
reaches the destination system. TCP/IP is the most popular protocol connecting the
networks.

5.2.7 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

✓ UDP is a substitute communication protocol to Transmission Control Protocol
implemented primarily for creating loss-tolerating and low-latency linking between
different applications.

5.2.8 Post Office Protocol (POP)

✓ Post Office Protocol (POP) is a type of computer networking and Internet standard
protocol that extracts and retrieves email from a remote mail server for access by the
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 host machine. POP is an application layer protocol in the OSI model that provides end
users the ability to fetch and receive email.

5.2.9 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)

✓ HTTPS is abbreviated as Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure is a standard protocol to
secure the communication among two computers one using the browser and other
fetching data from web server. HTTP is used for transferring data between the client
browser (request) and the web server (response) in the hypertext format, same in case
of HTTPS except that the transferring of data is done in an encrypted format. So it can
be said that https thwart hackers from interpretation or modification of data
throughout the transfer of packets.

5.2.10 Telnet
✓ Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one system with another. The connecting
process here is termed as remote login. The system which requests for connection is the
local computer, and the system which accepts the connection is the remote computer.

5.2.11 Gopher
✓ Gopher is a collection of rules implemented for searching, retrieving as well as
displaying documents from isolated sites. Gopher also works on the client/server
principle.

5.2.12 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

✓ The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol used by the Internet Protocol (IP)
[RFC826], specifically IPv4, to map IP network addresses to the hardware addresses
used by a data link protocol. The protocol operates below the network layer as a part of
the interface between the OSI network and OSI link layer.

5.2.13 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

✓ The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol is a network management protocol used on
Internet Protocol networks whereby a DHCP server dynamically assigns an IP address
and other network configuration parameters to each device on a network so they can
communicate with other IP networks.

5.2.14 IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol)

✓ IMAP4 stands for Internet Mail Access Protocol version 4, is an Internet standard
protocol for storing and retrieving messages from Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
hosts.

5.2.15 SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)

✓ The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is a signaling protocol used for initiating,
maintaining, and terminating real-time sessions that include voice, video and messaging
applications.

5.2.16 RTP (Real-Time Transport Protocol)

✓ The Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is a network protocol for delivering audio and
video over IP networks. RTP is used extensively in communication and entertainment
systems that involve streaming media, such as telephony, video teleconference
applications, television services and web-based push-to-talk features.
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 5.2.17 RLP (Resource Location Protocol)
✓ The Resource Location Protocol is a simple request/reply procedure. The querying host
constructs a list of resources which it would like to locate and sends a request message
on the network.

5.2.18 RAP (Route Access Protocol)

✓ RAP is a protocol that utilizes port 38 and is used for distributing routing information at
all levels of the Internet. RAP is further defined in RFC 1476.

5.2.19 L2TP (Layer Two Tunnelling Protocol)

✓ Layer Two Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) is an extension of the Point-to-Point Tunneling
Protocol (PPTP) used by an Internet service provider (ISP) to enable the operation of a
virtual private network (VPN) over the Internet.

5.2.20 PPTP (Point To Point Tunnelling Protocol)

✓ The Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol is an obsolete method for implementing virtual
private networks. PPTP has many well-known security issues. PPTP uses a TCP control
channel and a Generic Routing Encapsulation tunnel to encapsulate PPP packets. Many
modern VPNs use various forms of UDP for this same functionality.

5.2.21 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

✓ Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an application-layer protocol used to
manage and monitor network devices and their functions. SNMP provides a common
language for network devices to relay management information in a local area network
(LAN) or wide area network (WAN)

5.2.22 TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)

✓ Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is an Internet software utility for transferring files
that is simpler to use than the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) but less capable. It is used
where user authentication and directory visibility are not required.

Protocol Cable Topology

Ethernet Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Fiber Linear Bus, Star, Tree
Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber Star
LocalTalk Twisted Pair Linear Bus or Star
Token Ring Twisted Pair Star-Wired Ring
FDDI Fiber Dual Ring
ATM Twisted Pair, Fiber Linear Bus, Star, Tree

6 Computer Network
We are living in a connected world. Information is being produced, exchanged, and traced
across the globe in real time. It's possible as almost everyone and everything in the digital world
is interconnected in one way or the other.

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 A computer network is a group of two or more computers connected together to share
information and resources. A computer network permits the sharing of resources among
devices communicated in the network.

ARPANET is the first network developed by Robert Kahn and Vinton Cart in 1969.

7 Network Devices
7.1 Network Interface card (NIC)
✓ NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device. The network
interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol uses this
address to identify the system on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct
destination.

There are two types of NIC:

• Wireless NIC – All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a connection
is made using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.
• Wired NIC – Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.

7.2 Hub
✓ Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into
multiple devices. When computer requests for information from a
computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this
request to all the interconnected computers.
✓ The limitation of Hub is that if data from two devices come at the same time, they will
collide.

7.3 Switch
✓ Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices
over the network to transfer the data to another device.
✓ A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the
message over the network, i.e., it sends the message to
the device for which it belongs to.
✓ Therefore, we can say that switch sends the message directly from source to the
destination.

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 7.4 Cables and connectors
✓ Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. E.g. Twisted pair
cable, Coaxial cable or Fiber optic

7.5 Router
✓ Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly
used to connect the distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple
computers.

7.6 Modem
✓ Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem
is not integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC
slot found on the motherboard.

7.7 Gateway
✓ A gateway is a network node that connects two dissimilar networks using different
protocols together.

7.8 Repeaters
It is an electronic device that magnifies the signal it receives. It is implemented in
computer networks to expand the coverage area of the network. It is also known
as signal boosters.

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 8 Computer Network Architecture
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how
computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:

• Peer-To-Peer network
• Client/Server network

8.1 Peer-To-Peer network

✓ Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the
computers are linked together with equal privilege and
responsibilities for processing the data. It is useful for
small environments, usually up to 10 computers. It has no
dedicated server.
✓ Special permissions are assigned to each computer for
sharing the resources, but this can lead to a problem if the
computer with the resource is down.

8.2 Client/Server Network

✓ Client/Server network is a network model designed
for the end users called clients, to access the
resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central
computer known as Server.
✓ The central controller is known as a server while all
other computers in the network are called clients.
✓ A server performs all the major operations such as
security and network management and is
responsible for managing all the resources such as
files, directories, printer, etc. All the clients
communicate with each other through a server.

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 9 Types of Computer Network
A computer network is mainly of four types:
COMPUTER NETWORK
Personal Area Network
(PAN)

Local Area Network (LAN)

Metropolitan Area
Network (MAN)

Wide Area Network

(WAN)

9.1 Personal Area Network (PAN)

✓ Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters. Personal Area Network is used for
connecting the computer devices of personal use is known
as Personal Area Network.
✓ Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to
bring the idea of the Personal Area Network.
✓ Personal computer devices that are used to develop the
personal area network are the laptop, mobile phones,
media players and play stations.
✓ Examples Of Personal Area Network:
• Body Area Network : Body Area Network is a network
that moves with a person. For example, a mobile
network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network connection and
then creates a connection with another device to share the information.
• Offline Network : An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known
as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers,
computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
• Small Home Office : It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN.
✓ There are two types of Personal Area Network:
• Wired Personal Area Network
• Wireless Personal Area Network

9.1.1 Wireless Personal Area Network

✓ Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using wireless technologies such
as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
9.1.2 Wired Personal Area Network
✓ Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.
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 9.2 Local Area Network (LAN)
✓ Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such
as building, office. It is used for connecting two or
more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
✓ These types of networks can be extended up to 1 km.
✓ Data transfer in LAN is quite high, and usually varies
from 10 Mbps (called Ethernet) to 1000 Mbps (called
Gigabit Ethernet).
✓ It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware
such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet cables.
The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in
Local Area Network. It provides higher security.

9.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

✓ A Metropolitan Area Network is a network that covers a
larger geographic area by interconnecting a different
LAN to form a larger network. Government agencies use
MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
✓ Cable TV network or cable based broadband internet
services are examples of MAN. This kind of network can
be extended up to 30-40 km. Sometimes, many LANs are
connected together to form MAN
✓ The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232,
Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc. It has a higher
range than Local Area Network(LAN).

9.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)

✓ Wide Area Network connects computers and other
LANs and MANs, which are spread across different
geographical locations of a country or in different
countries or continents. A WAN could be formed by
connecting a LAN to other LANs via wired/wireless
media.
✓ Large business, educational and government
organisations connect their different branches in
different locations across the world through WAN.
✓ The Internet is the largest WAN that connects billions
of computers, smartphones and millions of LANs
from different continents.
✓ Examples Of Wide Area Network:
• Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
• Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers
in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
• Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This
network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

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 10 Internetwork
An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or computer
network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a local addressing
scheme. This process is known as internetworking.

An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government computer

networks can also be defined as internetworking. An internetworking uses the internet
protocol. The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection (OSI).

10.1 Types of Internetwork:

10.1.1 Extranet
✓ An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such as
Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information sharing.
The access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials.
An extranet is the lowest level of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN
or other computer networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have
one connection to the external network.

10.1.2 Intranet
✓ An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such as Transmission
Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an organization which is
only accessible by the organization's employee or members. The main aim of the
intranet is to share the information and resources among the organization employees.
An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconfer ences.

11 Network Topology
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to
each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.

11.1 Bus Topology

✓ The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the
stations are connected through a single cable known as a
backbone cable.
✓ Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by
drop cable or directly connected to the backbone cable.
When a node wants to send a message over the network, it
puts a message over the network.
✓ All the stations available in the network will receive the
message whether it has been addressed or not.
✓ The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks. The
configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies. The

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 backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is broadcast to
all the stations. The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access).

11.2 Ring Topology

✓ Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with
connected ends. The node that receives the message from
the previous computer will retransmit to the next node. The
data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
✓ The data flows in a single loop continuously known
as an endless loop. It has no terminated ends, i.e., each
node is connected to other node and having no termination
point.
✓ The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction. The most common access method
of the ring topology is token passing.
✓ Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to
another node.
✓ Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

11.3 Star Topology

✓ Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node
is connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer. The
central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known as clients. Hubs or Switches are
mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.

11.4 Tree topology

✓ Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus
topology and star topology. A tree topology is a type of structure
in which all the computers are connected with each other in
hierarchical fashion.
✓ The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root
node, and all other nodes are the descendants of the root node.
There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.

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 11.5 Mesh topology
✓ Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected
with each other through various redundant connections.
✓ There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer. It
does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts
as a central point of communication. The internet is an example of the
mesh topology.
✓ To calculate the total number of connections in a mesh network, you

can use the formula:

Where:
• C is the total number of connections.
• N is the number of nodes (devices) in the network
✓ Mesh topology is divided into two categories:
• Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the
computers available in the network.
• Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are
connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.

11.6 Hybrid Topology

✓ The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid
topology. A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links
and nodes to transfer the data.
✓ When two or more different topologies are combined together is
termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected
with each other will not result in Hybrid topology.
✓ For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI
bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting
these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

12 Identifying Nodes in a Networked Communication

Each node in a network should be uniquely identified so that a network device can identify the
sender and receiver and decide a routing path to transmit data. Let us explore further and
know how each node is distinguished in a network.

12.1 MAC
✓ It stands for Media Access Control. The MAC address, also known as the physical or
hardware address, is a unique value associated with a network adapter called a NIC. The
MAC address is engraved on NIC at the time of manufacturing and thus it is a permanent

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 address and cannot be changed under any circumstances. The machine on which the NIC is
attached, can be physically identified on the network using its MAC address.
✓ Each MAC address is a 12-digit hexadecimal numbers (48 bits in length), of which the first
six digits (24 bits) contain the manufacturer’s ID called Organisational Unique Identifier
(OUI) and the later six digits (24 bits) represents the serial number assigned to the card by
the manufacturer. A sample MAC address looks like:

12.2 IP Address
✓ IP address, also known as Internet Protocol address, is also a unique address that can be
used to uniquely identify each node in a network. The IP addresses are assigned to each
node in a network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.
✓ Thus, if we know a computer’s IP address, we can communicate with that computer from
anywhere in the world. However, unlike MAC address, IP address can change if a node is
removed from one network and connected to another network.
✓ The initial IP Address called version 4 (IPV4 in short), is a 32 bit numeric address, written as
four numbers separated by periods, where each number is the decimal (base-10)
representation for an 8-bit binary (base-2) number and each can take any value from 0 -
255. A sample IPV4 address looks like:
182:128:0:178

✓ With more and more devices getting connected to the Internet, it was realised that the 32-
bit IP address will not be sufficient as it offers just under 4.3 billion unique addresses. Thus,
a 128-bit IP address, called IP version 6 (IPV6 in short) was proposed.
✓ An IPv6 address is represented by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16) numbers
separated by colons. A sample IPV6 address looks like:

2001:CDBA:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652

13 Computer Network Model

A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early attempts for
implementing the software for such subsystems were based on a single, complex, unstructured
program with many interacting components. The resultant software was very difficult to test
and modify. To overcome such problem, the ISO has developed a layered approach. In a layered
approach, networking concept is divided into several layers, and each layer is assigned a
particular task. Therefore, we can say that networking tasks depend upon the layers.

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 13.1 Layered Architecture
✓ The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces. Each
lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to manage
communications and run the applications.
✓ The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to network.
However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to a higher layer
and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are implemented.
✓ The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
• Service – It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
• Protocol – It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with peer
entity. These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of the messages
used.
• Interface – It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to another
layer.

13.2 OSI Model

✓ OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
✓ OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
✓ Characteristics of OSI Model:

✓ The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
✓ The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they
are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both
the end user and the application layer interact with the software applications.
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 ✓ The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer
and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the
lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is
mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.
Functions of the OSI Layers
✓ There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions

13.2.1 Physical layer

✓ It is the first layer that physically connects the two systems that need to communicate. It
transmits data in bits and manages simplex or duplex transmission by modem. It also

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 manages Network Interface Card’s hardware interface to the network, like cabling, cable
terminators, topography, voltage levels, etc.
✓ Protocols used are ATM, RS232, and Ethernet.

13.2.2 Data-Link Layer

✓ It is the firmware layer of Network Interface Card. It assembles datagrams into frames and
adds start and stop flags to each frame. It also resolves problems caused by damaged, lost
or duplicate frames.
✓ Protocols used are HDLC, LSL, and ATM
✓ It has two sub-layers.
• Media Access Control (MAC) – It is responsible to the physical address of the sender
and/or receiver in the header of each frame. CSMA/CD, Ethernet are used as protocol.
• Logical Link Control (LLC) – It is responsible for frame management, error checking, and
flow control of data.

13.2.3 Network Layer

✓ It is concerned with routing, switching and controlling flow of information between the
workstations. It also breaks down transport layer datagrams into smaller datagrams.
✓ Protocols used are IPX, TCP/IP
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 13.2.4 Transport Layer

✓ Till the session layer, file is in its own form. Transport layer breaks it down into data
frames, provides error checking at network segment level and prevents a fast host from
overrunning a slower one.
✓ Transport layer isolates the upper layers from network hardware.

13.2.5 Session Layer

✓ This layer is responsible for establishing a session between two workstations that want to
exchange data.
✓ Protocols used are RPC, PPTP, SCP, SDP

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 13.2.6 Presentation Layer

✓ This layer is concerned with correct representation of data, i.e. syntax and semantics of
information. It controls file level security and is also responsible for converting data to
network standards.

13.2.7 Application Layer

✓ It is the topmost layer of the network that is responsible for sending application requests
by the user to the lower levels. Typical applications include file transfer, E-mail, remote
logon, data entry, etc.
✓ Protocols used are – HTTP, FTP, Telnet, SMTP and DNS.

13.3 TCP/IP model

✓ TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. TCP/IP is a set of
layered protocols used for communication over the Internet. The communication model of
this suite is client-server model. A computer that sends a request is the client and a
computer to which the request is sent is the server.

• Functions of TCP/IP layers:

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 13.3.1 Network Access Layer
✓ A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model. A network layer is the combination
of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI reference model.
✓ It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network. This layer is mainly
responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the same network.

13.3.2 Internet Layer

✓ An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model. An internet layer is also known as
the network layer.
✓ The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and
they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

13.3.3 Transport Layer

✓ The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data
which is being sent over the network.

13.3.4 Application Layer

✓ An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model. It is responsible for handling
high-level protocols, issues of representation.
✓ This layer allows the user to interact with the application. When one application layer
protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it forwards its data to the
transport layer.

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 14 Internet
The Internet is generally defined as a global network connecting millions of computers More
than 190 countries are linked into exchanges of data, news, and opinions. A protocol is a
standard procedure used to connect two data communication devices.

Moreover, smart electronic appliances like TV, AC, refrigerator, fan, light, etc. can also
communicate through a network. The list of such smart devices is always increasing e.g.,
drones, vehicles, door lock, security camera.

The Internet is evolving every day and it is difficult to visualise or describe each and every
aspect of the architecture of the Internet. Computers are either connected to a modem
through a cable or wirelessly (Wi- Fi). That modem, be it wired or wireless, is connected to a
local Internet Service Provider (ISP) who then connects to a national network. Many such ISPs
connect together forming a regional network and regional networks connect together forming
a national network, and such country-wise networks form the Internet backbone.

The Internet today is a widespread network, and its influence is no longer limited to the
technical fields of computer communications. It is being used by everyone in the society as is
evident from the increasing use of online tools for education, creativity, entertainment,
socialisation, and e-commerce.

The Internet is a massive network of networks. Packet switching is a digital networking

communication method used for transmitting data.

A Unique Resource Locator (URL) is a link that is used to access a website on the Internet. Each
site has a unique URL.

14.1 History of Internet

✓ ARPANET is the first Internet network. ARPANET stands for Advanced Research Projects
Agency Networks.
✓ ARPANET was introduced by the United States. ARPANET has made the TCP/IP
correspondences standard, which characterizes information exchange on the web. In 1972,
E-mail was adapted by Ray Tomlinson of BBN to ARPANET. In this, Ray has included @
symbol as address. TCP/IP was introduced in 1982.
✓ In 1978, the British post office telnet, DATAPAC and TRANSPAC teamed up to make the
main worldwide packet-switched system service, and this was referred to as the IPSS.
✓ The abbreviation of IPSS is International Packet Switched Service. Network control program
was developed by a group called “the network working group”.
✓ NSF, abbreviated as the National Science Foundation, is mainly used to create the similar
and parallel network called NSFnet.

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 14.2 Basic Internet Knowledge
14.2.1 World Wide Web (WWW)
✓ A web server is a computer that provides web services to the client. A page hosted on the
internet is known as web page. It can be viewed by a browser.
✓ A browser can help locate a website on the internet. The World Wide Web (WWW) permits
user to view multi-media-based documents like graphics, animations, audios and/or videos
and any subject. In 1990, the World Wide Web was introduced by Tim Berners-Lee of
CERN.

14.2.2 Search Engines

✓ Search engines are the programs which are needed to extract the information from the
internet.
✓ Web search engines work with the help of two programs, Spider which fetches as many
documents as possible. Another program, called an indexer, reads the documents and
creates an index based on the words contained in each document.
✓ Each search engine uses an algorithm to create its indices such that, only related results for
specified keywords is stored and returns a list of the documents where the keywords were
found.
✓ A search engine works in the following order:
• Web crawling: Web search engines work by storing information about many web pages.
These pages are retrieved by the program known as Web crawler - which follows every
link on the site. Web crawler may also be called a Web spider.
• Indexing: Indexing also known as web indexing, it stores data to facilitate fast and
accurate information retrieval.
• Searching: A web search query fetches the result

14.2.3 Web Server

✓ A web server stores, processes and delivers web pages to the users. The
intercommunication between users and servers is done using Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP).

14.2.4 Web Page

✓ It is a document was written in HTML that can be accessed through the internet by using
the web browser. It is identified by Uniform Resource Locator.

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 Thumbnail

A thumbnail is a small, reduced-size version of a larger image or graphic. It serves as a preview or

summary of the larger image or content. Thumbnails are commonly used in various contexts, such
as on websites, file browsers, and multimedia galleries, to provide a visual representation of
content while conserving space and reducing loading times. They allow users to quickly preview
and select content before viewing it in its full size or detail.

14.2.5 Web Browser

✓ It is a software application that allows users to access the websites. Internet Explorer,
Google Chrome, Opera, Mozilla Firefox, UC Browser, Apple Safari are some examples of a
web browser.

The first text-based web browser is generally considered to be "Line Mode Browser" (also known as
LMB). It was developed by Nicola Pellow in 1991 while she was a student at CERN (European
Organization for Nuclear Research). Line Mode Browser allowed users to access the World Wide Web
using only text, without any graphical elements.

While Line Mode Browser (LMB) was one of the earliest text-based web browsers, LYNX is often
credited as the first widely used text web browser.

LYNX was released in 1992. LYNX Unix-based systems was notable for its ability to render text-based
web pages in a simple and straightforward manner, making it accessible to users who preferred or
needed to browse the web without graphical elements. LYNX gained popularity among early internet
users, particularly those using, due to its ease of use and efficiency.

14.2.6 Home Page

✓ Homepage is the default page of the website.

14.2.7 Hyperlink
✓ A hyperlink, often referred to simply as a link, is a selectable element within a digital
document (such as a webpage or email) that, when clicked or activated, redirects the user

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 to another location within the same document or to a different document altogether.
Hyperlinks are typically highlighted text, images, or other media that serve as anchors to
connect various resources on the internet.

14.2.8 Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML)

✓ HTML is used to create web pages that are displayed on the Internet. It is a language which
is used to design standardised Web Pages so that the Web contents can be read and
understood from any computer. Basic structure of every webpage is designed using HTML.

14.2.8.1 HTML tags

✓ HTML tags are the keywords that are used to produce web pages in various formats.
Opening tags and closing tags are found in the majority of tags. The concluding tags
contain a forward slash (/), while the language of the beginning tags is the same.
Certain tags don’t need to be closed.

Tags Syntax Tags Syntax

abbreviati
<abbr title=” “> … </abbr> html <html> Contents </html>
on
<iframe src=”URL”
acronym <acronym title=” “> … </acronym> Iframes title=”description”></ifra
me>
<img src=”url”
address <address> … </address> image alt=”some_text”
width=”” height=””>
<input type = “value” ….
anchor <a herf=” “> …</a> input
/>
<label> form content…
applet <applet>….</applet> label
</label>
area <area> legend <legend> Text </legend>
article <article>..</article> list <li> List Items </li>
<main>Coontents</main
aside <aside>..</aside> main
>
<mark> Contents…
audio <audio>..</audio> mark
</mark>
<meta attribute-
base <base href = ” “> meta
name=”value”>
<meter attributes…>
basefont <basefont> meter
</meter>
<nobr> Statement
big <big> Contents… </big> nobreak
</nobr>
blockquot <blockquote> Contents… <noembed> Element
noembed
e </blockquote> </noembed>
<noscript> Contents…
body <body> Contents… </body> noscript
</noscript>
bold <b>… </b> object <object>…</object>
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 <option> Contents…
break <br> option
</option>
<output> Results…
button <button type = “button”> output
</output>
<caption align =
caption paragraphs <p> Content </p>
“value”></caption>
<canvas id = “script”> <param name=””
canvas param
Contents</canvas> value=””>
<em> Text Content
center <center> Contents.</center> phrase
</em>
<script> Script Contents…
cite <cite>Content</cite> script
</script>
<section> Section
code <code>Contents</code> section
Contents </section>
<small> Contents…
column <col attribute = “value”> small
</small>
<source src=””
comment <!–…–> source
type=””> </source>
data <data value=””> Contents </data> spacer <spacer type=”” size=””>
<span class=””>Some
datalist <datalist>Contents</datalist> span
Text</span>
<strike> Contents
define <dfn>Contents</dfn> strike
</strike>
<strong> Contents…
delete <del>Contents</del> strong
</strong>
<tagname
details <details>Contents</details> style
style=”property:value;”>
<dialog open> Contents… _{subscript
dialog sub and sup
</dialog> text}^{superscr
Tags
embed <embed attributes> ipt text}
<summary> Content
fieldset <fieldset>Contents</fieldset> summary
</summary>
<figcaption> Figure caption
figcaption table <table>… </table>
</figcaption>
<tbody> // Table
figure <figure> Image content… </figure> tbody
contents </tbody>
<font attribute = “value”> Content <template> Contents
font template
</font> </template>
<thead>Table head
footer <footer> … </footer> thead
Contents…</thead>
<time attribute> Time…
form <form> Form Content… </form> time
</time>
frame <frame/> title <title> Title name </title>
frameset <frameset cols = “pixels|%|*”> track <track attribute>
head <head>…</head> underline <u> Contents… </u>
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 <video src=”” controls>
header <header> …</header> video
</video>
<h1>Heading1</h1><h2>Heading2 <xmp> statement
heading xmp
</h2> </xmp>
14.2.9 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
✓ This protocol is used to transfer data over the web. It runs on top of the TCP/IP set of
protocols. It uses a server-client model.

14.2.10 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

✓ It is a set of communication protocols which is used to access the internet. TCP/IP was
developed by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf in 1978.

14.2.11 ISP
✓ Internet service provider which connect us to internet and charges amount for its
services. ISP has computers called servers which remains permanently connected to other
computers on net. ISP provides us user name and password to connect to internet.

14.2.12 Internet Host

✓ Host is a computer or application which is used to transfer the data on the internet. Each
host has a unique IP address called Hostname.

14.2.13 Internet Protocol Address (IP Address)

✓ It is a logical numeric address that is used to identify the host over the internet network.
• The stable version of IP – IPv4 (32 bits). It is written in decimal and separated by periods.
• Latest Version of IP – IPv6 (128 bits). It is written in Hexadecimal and separated by
colons.

14.2.14 Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

✓ A uniform resource locator (URL) is used to locate the address of a resource and protocol.
✓ It is also known as URI – Uniform Resource Identifier.

14.2.14.1 Format of URL

✓ Address of website is of the following format:
http://www.edutap.co.in

http - Protocol

www - World Wide Web

edutap - Domain name

.co.in - Type of domain

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 14.2.15 Domain Name
✓ A domain name serves as an address which is used to access the website.The web
resource is given a name against its IP address. It can be universally understood by Web
servers and online organizations.

14.2.16 Domain Name System (DNS)

✓ DNS translates domain names into IP addresses. It has a large database of domain names
and its IP addresses. Conversion of the domain name of each web server to its
corresponding IP address is called domain name resolution. It is done through a server
called DNS server.
✓ Thus, when we enter a URL on a web browser, the HTTP protocol approaches a computer
server called DNS server to obtain the IP address corresponding to that domain name.
After getting the IP address, the HTTP protocol retrieves the information and loads it in
our browser.

14.2.17 Uploading
✓ It refers to the transmission of data or files from the computer to the internet server.
Uploaded file can be retrieved by anyone.

14.2.18 Downloading
✓ It is the process of copying files from the internet to the user’s computer.

14.2.19 E-Mail
✓ Email is an electronic mail. It is used to send and receive the messages. It consists of two
components like message header and message body. The message header contains added
addresses and the body contains any information and sends any attached contents. The
Internet makes your work easy by communication technologies.
Folders of Email-page
• Inbox – contains the received messages
• Sent/Outbox – contains the messages you have sent to others
• Compose – this link opens the page where you write the message for sending to others
• Spam/Bulk – unwanted commercial messages
• Drafts – messaged you have created but not sent
• Trash – the received messages that you have deleted
E-mail address format
[email protected]

hello - username

edutap - hostname

.co.in - types of domain

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 14.2.19.1 Carbon copy (CC)
✓ It is used to share e-mail with one or more recipients. Both the main recipients and
other (CC) recipients can see all the mail addresses.

14.2.19.2 Blind Carbon Copy (BCC)

✓ In this, the recipients of the message and other recipients (BCC) cannot see the
persons who all receive the e-mail. Both BCC and CC are not mandatory.

14.3 Broadband access methods

It refer to the various technologies used to deliver high-speed internet access to users. Here are
some of the main broadband access methods:

• DSL (Digital Subscriber Line): DSL uses existing telephone lines to provide high-speed
internet access. It offers fast download speeds and is widely available in urban and
suburban areas.
• Cable Internet: Cable internet uses coaxial cables, typically the same infrastructure used
for cable television, to deliver high-speed internet access. It offers fast speeds and is
widely available in urban and suburban areas.
• Fiber Optic Internet: Fiber optic internet transmits data using light signals through fiber
optic cables. It provides the fastest and most reliable internet speeds, making it suitable
for bandwidth-intensive tasks.
• Satellite Internet: Satellite internet delivers internet access via satellites orbiting the
Earth. It is available in remote or rural areas where traditional wired internet options
may not be feasible.
• Fixed Wireless Internet: Fixed wireless internet uses radio signals to provide internet
access to specific locations. It's often used in areas where laying cables is impractical or
costly.
• Mobile Broadband: Mobile broadband utilizes cellular networks to provide internet
access to mobile devices like smartphones, tablets, and mobile hotspots. It offers
internet connectivity on the go but may be subject to data caps and network
congestion.
• Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi technology enables wireless local area networking (WLAN).
• WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access): WiMAX provides wireless
broadband access over longer distances compared to Wi-Fi. It's used to provide internet
access to areas where wired connections are not available.

14.4 Uses of the internet

✓ Checking emails
It is reported that the first thing that 90 % of Internet users do when they connected to the
net is to check if they have received any emails.

✓ Download

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 It is hard to find an Internet user, who has not used it to download music and movies. Apart
from it, there are lots of other things that can be downloaded using the internet as well.

✓ Search for relevant information

If you are not sure about something, then one of the easiest ways to know more about it is
by searching it on the internet.

✓ Book Tickets
Online booking has made things really easy. it may be movie ticket or flight ticket, you can
book just about anything using the Internet. The process is very easy, convenient and
super-fast.

✓ Shop Online
The use of internet is not limited merely to booking tickets. With help of net, you can do a
full-fledged online shopping. On popular e-stores like Ebay, Amazon etc., one can find
almost anything that he needs to buy.

✓ Socialize
Social networks have got really big since last decade. Facebook and Twitter are the new
online sites who like to share all the latest happening of their life on these social networks
and keep their profile duly updated.

✓ E Banking
Banking was never so easy and convenient before! Right from opening an account to
operating it, E-Banking has really useful for everyone. We can also do online transactions
from the other accounts sitting at the home.

✓ Data Sharing
Data sharing was never so easy and quick before! It doesn’t matter if you have to send a
file or song, a picture or an eBook, with help of internet, you can send just about anything
at anywhere and that too, in no time.

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CONCEPT NOTES

Data Representation- Number System

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 Contents
1 Number System...........................................................................................................................3
1.1 Binary number system .........................................................................................................3
1.2 Octal number system ...........................................................................................................3
1.3 Decimal Number System ......................................................................................................4
1.4 Hexadecimal number system................................................................................................4
1.5 Number System Conversion .................................................................................................5
1.5.1 Decimal to Other Base System.......................................................................................5
1.5.2 Other Base System to Decimal System ...........................................................................6
1.5.3 Other Base System to Non-Decimal System....................................................................6
1.5.4 Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Octal ................................................................................7
1.5.5 Shortcut Method ─ Octal to Binary ................................................................................7
1.5.6 Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Hexadecimal .....................................................................7
1.5.7 Shortcut Method - Hexadecimal to Binary ......................................................................7
1.6 Digital Codes .......................................................................................................................8
1.6.1 BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) Code .................................................................................8
1.6.2 ASCII (American Standard Code Information Interchange) Code ......................................8
1.6.3 EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) code ...................................8
1.6.4 Gray code.....................................................................................................................8
1.6.5 Excess-3 code ...............................................................................................................8

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 1 Number System
The language we use to communicate with each other is comprised of words and characters.
We understand numbers, characters and words. But this type of data is not suitable for
computers. Computers only understand the numbers.

So, when we enter data, the data is converted into electronic pulse. Each pulse is identified as
code and the code is converted into numeric format by ASCII. It gives each number, character
and symbol a numeric value (number) that a computer understands. So, to understand the
language of computers, one must be familiar with the number systems.

Each number system has a base also called a Radix.

The Number Systems used in computers are:

• Binary number system

• Octal number system
• Decimal number system
• Hexadecimal number system

1.1 Binary number system

✓ It has only two digits '0' and '1' so its base is 2.
✓ Accordingly, in this number system, there are only two types of electronic pulses; absence
of electronic pulse which represents '0'and presence of electronic pulse which represents
'1'. Each digit is called a bit. A group of four bits (1101) is called a nibble and group of eight
bits (11001010) is called a byte.
✓ The position of each digit in a binary number represents a specific power of the base (2) of
the number system.

1.2 Octal number system

✓ It has eight digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) so its base is 8. Each digit in an octal number
represents a specific power of its base (8).
✓ As there are only eight digits, three bits (23 = 8) of binary number system can convert any
octal number into binary number. This number system is also used to shorten long binary
numbers.
✓ The three binary digits can be represented with a single octal digit. Each position in an octal
number represents a 0 power of the base (8), e.g. 80. Last position in an octal number
represents a x power of the base (8). e.g. 8x where x represents the last position - 1

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 Example – Octal Number: 125708

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10
Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0) 10
Step 3 125708 549610
Note − 125708 is normally written as 12570.

1.3 Decimal Number System

✓ The decimal number system is used in our day-to-day life. It is known as base-10 system
since 10 digits (0 to 9) are used. A number is presented by its two values — symbol value
(any digit from 0 to 9) and positional value (in terms of base value).

1.4 Hexadecimal number system

✓ This number system has 16 digits that ranges from 0 to 9 and A to F. So, its base is 16. The
A to F alphabets represent 10 to 15 decimal numbers. The position of each digit in a
hexadecimal number represents a specific power of base (16) of the number system.
✓ As there are only sixteen digits, four bits (24=16) of binary number system can convert any
hexadecimal number into binary number. It is also known as alphanumeric number system
as it uses both numeric digits and alphabets.
✓ Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16), e.g., 160.
Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example 16x
where x represents the last position – 1.
✓ Example – Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

Calculating Decimal Equivalent –

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10
Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x 160))10
Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14) 10
Step 4 19FDE16 10646210
Note − 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

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 1.5 Number System Conversion

1.5.1 Decimal to Other Base System

✓ Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
✓ Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of
the new base number.
✓ Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
✓ Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base
number.
✓ Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes
zero in Step 3.
✓ The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new
base number.
✓ Example
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1
Step 2 14 / 2 7 0
Step 3 7/2 3 1
Step 4 3/2 1 1
Step 5 1/2 0 1
As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order
so that the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the last
remainder becomes the Most Significant Digit (MSD).

Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.

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 1.5.2 Other Base System to Decimal System
✓ Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the
position of the digit and the base of the number system).
✓ Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the
corresponding columns.
✓ Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in
decimal.
✓ Example
Binary Number: 111012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 111012 ((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x
20))10
Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
Step 3 111012 2910
Binary Number: 111012 = Decimal Number: 2910

1.5.3 Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

✓ Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).
✓ Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.
✓ Example
Octal Number: 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent −
Step 1 - Convert to Decimal
Step Octal Number Decimal Number
Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10
Step 2 258 (16 + 5)10
Step 3 258 2110
Octal Number: 258 = Decimal Number: 2110

Step 2 - Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1
Step 2 10 / 2 5 0
Step 3 5/2 2 1
Step 4 2/2 1 0
Step 5 1/2 0 1
Decimal Number: 2110 = Binary Number: 101012
Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012

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 1.5.4 Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Octal
✓ Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).
✓ Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.
Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Octal Equivalent −
Step Binary Number Octal Number
Step 1 101012 010 101
Step 2 101012 28 58
Step 3 101012 258
Binary Number: 101012 = Octal Number: 258

1.5.5 Shortcut Method ─ Octal to Binary

✓ Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal digits may be
treated as decimal for this conversion).
✓ Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary
number.
Example
Octal Number: 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent −
Step Octal Number Binary Number
Step 1 258 210 510
Step 2 258 0102 1012
Step 3 258 0101012
Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012

1.5.6 Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Hexadecimal

✓ Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).
✓ Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.
Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent −
Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number
Step 1 101012 0001 0101
Step 2 101012 110 510
Step 3 101012 1516
Binary Number: 101012 = Hexadecimal Number: 1516

1.5.7 Shortcut Method - Hexadecimal to Binary

✓ Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the hexadecimal
digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).
✓ Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary
number.
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 1516
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 Calculating Binary Equivalent −
Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number
Step 1 1516 110 510
Step 2 1516 00012 01012
Step 3 1516 000101012
Hexadecimal Number: 1516 = Binary Number: 101012

1.6 Digital Codes

✓ Computers and digital circuits processes information in the binary format. Each character is
assigned 7- or 8-bit binary code to indicate its character which may be numeric, alphabet or
special symbol. Example - Binary number 1000001 represents 65(decimal) in straight binary
code, alphabet A in ASCII code and 41(decimal) in BCD code.

1.6.1 BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) Code

✓ Four-bit code that represents one of the ten decimal digits from 0 to 9.
✓ Example - (37)10 is represented as 0011 0111 using BCD code, rather than (100101)2 in
straight binary code.
✓ Thus, BCD code requires more bits than straight binary code.
✓ Still it is suitable for input and output operations in digital systems.
✓ Note: 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, and 1111 are INVALID CODE in BCD code.
1.6.2 ASCII (American Standard Code Information Interchange) Code
✓ It is 7-bit or 8-bit alphanumeric code.
✓ 7-bit code is standard ASCII supports 127 characters.
✓ Standard ASCII series starts from 00h to 7Fh, where 00h-1Fh are used as control
characters and 20h-7Fh as graphics symbols.
✓ 8-bit code is extended ASCII supports 256 symbols where special graphics and math's
symbols are added.
✓ Extended ASCII series starts from 80h to FFh.
1.6.3 EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) code
✓ 8-bit alphanumeric code developed by IBM, supports 256 symbols.
✓ It was mainly used in IBM mainframe computers.
1.6.4 Gray code
✓ Differs from leading and following number by a single bit.
✓ Gray code for 2 is 0011 and for 3 is 0010.
✓ No weights are assigned to the bit positions.
✓ Extensively used in shaft encoders.
1.6.5 Excess-3 code
✓ 4-bit code is obtained by adding binary 0011 to the natural BCD code of the digit.
✓ Example - decimal 2 is coded as 0010 + 0011 = 0101 as Excess-3 code.
✓ It not weighted code.
✓ Its self-complimenting code, means 1's complement of the coded number yields 9's
complement of the number itself.
✓ Used in digital system for performing subtraction operations.

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CONCEPT NOTES

Microsoft Office

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 Contents
1 Microsoft Office ..........................................................................................................................3
1.1 Microsoft Word ...................................................................................................................3
1.1.1 Filename Extensions .....................................................................................................3
1.1.2 To open or start Microsoft Word ...................................................................................4
1.1.3 Word Window..............................................................................................................5
1.1.4 Ribbon .........................................................................................................................6
1.1.5 Features of Word Processor (MS Word) ....................................................................... 10
1.1.6 Shortcut Keys ............................................................................................................. 11
1.2 Microsoft Excel .................................................................................................................. 12
1.2.1 Filename Extensions ................................................................................................... 12
1.2.2 To open or start Microsoft Excel .................................................................................. 12
1.2.3 Excel Window............................................................................................................. 13
1.2.4 Ribbon ....................................................................................................................... 13
1.2.5 Features of Spreadsheet (MS Excel) ............................................................................. 17
1.2.6 Shortcut Keys ............................................................................................................. 18
1.3 Microsoft PowerPoint ........................................................................................................ 20
1.3.1 Filename Extensions ................................................................................................... 20
1.3.2 To open or start Microsoft PowerPoint ........................................................................ 20
1.3.3 PowerPoint Window ................................................................................................... 21
1.3.4 Ribbon ....................................................................................................................... 21
1.3.5 Features of Presentation Program (MS PowerPoint) ..................................................... 24
1.3.6 Shortcut Keys ............................................................................................................. 25
1.4 Microsoft Access................................................................................................................ 25
1.4.1 Important Terms and Basic Objects ............................................................................. 25
1.4.2 MS Access Datatypes .................................................................................................. 26
1.5 Microsoft Outlook.............................................................................................................. 27
1.5.1 Basic Functions of Outlook .......................................................................................... 27
1.5.2 Additional Benefits with Outlook ................................................................................. 28

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 1 Microsoft Office
Microsoft Office, or simply Office, is a family of client software, server software, and services
developed by Microsoft. It is a horizontal market software that is used in a wide range of
industries. It was first announced by Bill Gates on August 1, 1988, at COMDEX in Las Vegas.
Initially a marketing term for an office suite (bundled set of productivity applications), the first
version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint.

Over the years, Office applications have grown substantially closer with shared features such as
a common spell checker, OLE data integration and Visual Basic for Applications scripting
language. Microsoft also positions Office as a development platform for line-of-business
software under the Office Business Applications brand.

Office is produced in several versions targeted towards different end-users and computing
environments. The original, and most widely used version, is the desktop version, available for
PCs running the Windows and macOS operating systems. Microsoft also maintains mobile apps
for Android and iOS. Office on the Web is a version of the software that runs within a web
browser.

The current on-premises, desktop version of Office is Microsoft Office 2021.It was released on
October 5, 2021. Plus, this is compatible with Mac and Windows operating systems.

Office 2021 retains the same major version number of 16 that previous versions of Office had. It
introduces new dynamic arrays, XLOOKUP features for Excel, full dark-mode support and
performance improvements.

Now, lets study about the progammes in MS Office in detail:

1.1 Microsoft Word

✓ Microsoft Word, also referred to as simply Word, is a word processor developed by
Microsoft. It was first released on October 25, 1983 under the name Multi-Tool Word for
Xenix systems.
✓ Subsequent versions were later written for several other platforms including IBM PCs
running DOS (1983), Apple Macintosh running the Classic Mac OS (1985), AT&T Unix PC
(1985), Atari ST (1988), OS/2 (1989), Microsoft Windows (1989), SCO Unix (1994), and
macOS (formerly OS X; 2001).

1.1.1 Filename Extensions

✓ Microsoft Word's native file formats are denoted either by a .doc or .docx filename
extension.
✓ Although the .doc extension has been used in many different versions of Word (97-
2003) documents.
✓ The newer .docx extension signifies the Office Open XML international standard for
Office documents and is used by Word 2007 and later for Windows, Word 2008 and
later for macOS, as well as by a growing number of applications from other vendors,
including OpenOffice.org Writer, an open source word processing program.

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 1.1.2 To open or start Microsoft Word
✓ There are three methods to open or start Microsoft Word.
1. Double-click on Microsoft Word Icon on Desktop.
OR
1. Click on the Start  button in the bottom left-hand corner of the computer screen.
2. When the menu pops up, move our mouse up to Programs. A sub-menu will appear
showing all the software we have.
3. Now click Microsoft Office then select Microsoft Word from them. Microsoft Word
will start up.
4. Click Start >> Program >> MS Office >> MS Word
OR
1. Press  + R (Open Run Dialog box)
2. Type winword.exe and press Enter key. Microsoft Word will start up.

MS Word 2010 introduced several new features and enhancements over its predecessor. Some of
the notable ones include:

• Improved Ribbon Interface: The Ribbon interface introduced in Word 2007 was further
refined in Word 2010, providing easier access to commands and features.
• Backstage View: The Backstage View was introduced, providing a centralized location for
managing documents, including functions like saving, printing, and sharing.
• Improved Collaboration Tools: Word 2010 enhanced collaboration features, such as the
ability to co-author documents in real-time with multiple users, track changes more
effectively, and manage comments.

MS Word 2021 introduced several new features and enhancements over its predecessor. Some of
the notable ones include:

• Co-authoring: Collaborate with colleagues in real-time on the same document.

• Visual Refresh: Experience a modernized Start experience and refreshed ribbon tabs with
monoline iconography and a neutral color palette.
• Automatic Saving: Upload files to OneDrive, OneDrive for Business, or SharePoint Online to
save changes automatically.
• Line Focus: Improve comprehension by focusing on one, three, or five lines at a time while
reading a document.
• Updated Draw Tab: Access and change the color of inking tools easily, with additions such as
Point Eraser, Ruler, and Lasso.
• Accessibility Checker: Identify accessibility issues in documents and make necessary
adjustments.
• Support for OpenDocument Format (ODF) 1.3: Now includes support for the ODF 1.3
specification.
• Sketched Style Outline: Give shapes in presentations a casual, hand-drawn look with options
like Curved, Freehand, or Scribble under Format Shape > Line > Sketched style.

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 1.1.3 Word Window
Quick Access Toolbar Title Bar Ribbon Display Option

Menu Bar

Ribbon Bar
Sub-menu Bar
Dialog Box Launcher
Max, Min and Close Button

Cursor

View Toolbar
Status Bar

Scroll Bar

1.1.3.1 Title Bar

✓ The title Bar is located at the top of a windows that displays the name of the window or
document being used. It shows the name of the file on which you are working. It also
consists of three buttons, e.g.,
• Minimize button reduces the window to an icon but the word still remains active.
• Restore button again brings the word window to the maximum original size.
• Close button brings us out of the word.

1.1.3.2 Menu Bar

✓ It consists of various commands which can be accessed by clicking on the menu options
under these menus’ heads.

1.1.3.3 Quick Access Tool Bar

✓ The quick access toolbar is a small and customizable toolbar at the top of the document
window. It contains a set of commands that are independent of the tab on the ribbon
that is currently displayed. It usually contains buttons to save, undo, redo, and print. to
do’

1.1.3.4 Status Bar

✓ A Status Bar is a horizontal window at the bottom of the parent window. It displays the
various kinds of status information of the document.

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 1.1.3.5 Dialog Box Launcher
✓ A button in the corner of a group that launches a dialog box containing all the options
within that group.

1.1.3.6 View Toolbar

✓ A toolbar that enables, adjusts, and displays different views of a document. It is located
at the bottom left corner of the window.

1.1.4 Ribbon
✓ The Ribbon is a cluster of toolbars in Microsoft Office that are used for writing, designing,
formatting and reviewing different styles, adaptations, add-ins, themes etc. Every tab at the
top of a given word file window displays the Ribbon toolbar.

1.1.4.1 File tab

✓ The File tab is a colored tab, for example, a blue tab in Word, located in the upper -left
corner of Microsoft Office programs.

✓ When you click the File tab, you see many of the same basic commands that you saw
when you clicked the Microsoft Office Button or on the File menu in earlier releases
of Microsoft Office, such as Open, Save, and Print.

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 1.1.4.2 Home Tab
✓ The Home tab is the default tab in Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft
PowerPoint and other Microsoft Office products. It allows changing document settings
such as the font properties by using control groups on the tab. The control groups and
keys are

• Clipboard Group – Copy (only one item at a time), Paste, Cut, Format Painter.
• Font Group – Font Style, Colour and Size, Bold, Underline, Strikethrough etc.
• Paragraph Group – Bullets and Numbering, Alignment, Shading, Borders, Line spacing.
• Style Group – Listed Styles
• Editing Group – Find, Replace etc.

1.1.4.3 Insert Tab

✓ The Insert Tab uses different features such as tables, pictures, clip art, shapes, charts,
page numbers, word art, headers and footers etc. into a document. The availed groups
and keys under this tab are:

• Pages Group – Cover page, blank page, Page Break

• Tables Group – Tables
• Illustrations Group – Pictures, Shapes, Smart Art etc.
• Add ins Group – Get Add-ins, My Add-ins, Wikipedia
• Media Group – Online Video
• Links Group – Link, Bookmark, Cross-reference
• Comments Group – Comment
• Header and Footer Group – Header, Footer, Page Number
• Text Group – Text Group, Word Art etc.
• Symbol Group – Equation, Symbol

1.1.4.4 Design Tab

✓ Design Tab includes

• Document Formatting Group – Themes (to change colors, fonts and effects for the
document all at once), Style Set gallery (to change the styles), Colors, Fonts,
Paragraph spacing, Effects
• Page Background Group – Watermark, Page Color, Page Borders

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 1.1.4.5 Layout Tab
✓ The Layout Tab holds the buttons that are used to arrange document pages. The control
groups and keys under the layout tabs are:

• Page Setup Group – Margins, Orientation, Breaks, Line numbers, Hyphenation, Size
of the page, Columns
• Paragraph Group – Paragraph Indentation, Spacing
• Arrange Group – Position, Wrap Text, Bring Forward, Align Rotate etc.

1.1.4.6 References Tab

✓ References Tab allows to now create a table of contents, footnotes, citations, cross-
references. The availed control groups and keys in this tab are:

• Table of Contents Group – Table of Contents, Add Text, Update Table

• Footnotes Group – Insert footnotes, Insert Endnote, Next Footnote, Show Notes
• Research Group – Smart Lookup
• Citations and Bibliography Group – Insert Citation, Manage Sources, Style,
Bibliography
• Captions Group – Insert Caption, Insert Table of Figures, Update Table, Cross-
reference
• Index Group – Mark entry, Insert Index, Update Index
• Table of Authorities Group – Mark Citation, Insert Table of Authorities, Update Table

1.1.4.7 Mailings Tab

✓ Mail Merging is an ideal task in MS Word by using the Mailings Tab. Mail merge is used
to create form letters or address labels, certificates with unique names, and more. The
following group buttons are available in the Mailings Tab.

• Create Group – Envelops, Labels

• Start Mail Merge Group – Start Mail Merge, Selection of Recipients, Edit Recipient List
• Write & Insert Fields Group – Highlighting the fields, Address Block, Greeting Line etc.
• Preview Results Group – Check for errors, Find Recipient
• Finish Group – Finish & Group

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 1.1.4.8 Review Tab
✓ The tools in the Review Tab help to improve the document. It contains the following
control groups and keys.

• Proofing Group – Spelling & Grammar, Thesaurus, Word count

• Speech – Read Aloud
• Accessibility – Check Accessibility
• Comments Group – New Comment, Delete, Previous, Next, Show comment,
• Tracking Group – Track Changes, Simple mark-up, Show Markup, Review pane
• Changes Group – Accept, Reject, Previous, Next
• Compare Group – Comparing the documents
• Protect Group – Restrict editing, Block Authors
• Ink Group – Hide Ink
• OneNote Group – Linked Notes

1.1.4.9 View Tab

✓ The View tab has the functionality to change the document views. The options in the
view tab are:

• Views Group – Read mode, Print Layout, Web Layout Outline, Draft
• Immersive Group – Immersive Reader
• Page Movement Group – Vertical, Side to Side
• Show Group – Ruler, Gridline, Navigation Pane
• Zoom Group – Zoom (10% to 500%), Page width, Multiple pages
• Window Group – New Window, Arrange and Split windows, Switch windows etc.
• Macros group – Macros
• SharePoint Group - Properties

1.1.4.10 Help Tab

✓ The users can get help by using F1 function key anytime, the Help tab, and ‘Tell me what
you want to do

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 1.1.5 Features of Word Processor (MS Word)
✓ Alignment – This option is used to align the text in a document to adhere to the right
side, left, center or justified.
✓ AutoCorrect – AutoCorrect is a software feature in MS Word. It automatically corrects

misspellings and common errors.

✓ Clipboard – The clipboard saves the text temporarily. Using the Cut or Copy commands

will place the text in the clipboard.

✓ Cut, Copy, Paste – Cut is used to move a section of text from a document to clipboard.

Copy refers to duplicating a section of a document and placing it in the clipboard. Paste
allows to copy an object or text from one location and place it to another location.
✓ Editing Features – Any type of correction (insertion, deletion, modification etc.) can be

made easily as and when required.

✓ Fast – Typing text in a word processor becomes speedy as there is no mechanical carriage

movement associated.
✓ Find and Replace – You can find a particular word in the whole document and replace it

with another one.

✓ Font – It is a type of design for text, Times New Roman, Arial Calibri, Verdana etc. are

examples of font styles. The maximum size of Font is 72 in a drop-down selection of MS

Word.
✓ Formatting Features – The typed text can be made in any form or style (bold, italic,

underlined, different fonts etc.)

✓ Graphics – It provides the facility of incorporating drawings in the documents which

enhance their usefulness.

✓ Header and Footer – The header sits at the very top of every page in a document. A

Header contains page numbers, the document name, or sub-titles within the document.
The footer constantly appears on every page of a document, at the bottom of each page.
It includes the page number, or a company’s name and contact details in formal
documents.
✓ Indentation – It refers to the distance between text boundaries and page margins. There

are three types of indents – Positive Indent, Negative Indent, and Hanging Indent.
✓ Mail Merge – It is a facility that enables to printing of a large number of letters/documents

with more or less similar text. Under it, the same invitation letter has to be sent to
invitees, only the names and addresses are to be changed.
✓ Moving Cursor – You can move the cursor from word to word or from paragraph to

paragraph if needed.
✓ Naming a Document – You can name a document and recall it anytime from a hard disk

for editing, updating, correcting, and even printing.

✓ OLE (Object Linking and Embedding) – OLE is a program integration technology that is

used to share information between programs through objects. Objects are saved entities
like charts, equations, video clips, audio clips, pictures etc.

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 ✓ Page Breaks – You can set a page break at any place within the text so that while printing
it will jump to the next page.
✓ Page Orientation – It refers to whether the text is to be printed length-wise or width-

wise. Length-wise printed page is called PORTRAIT and width-wise printed page is called
LANDSCAPE.
✓ Paste Special – Paste Special is used to paste an item from the clipboard with custom

formatting.
✓ Thesaurus – It is a software tool which is in MS Word that provides synonyms for selected

words on command.
✓ Spell Check – It is a software tool for correcting spelling. It is not only capable of checking

spelling mistakes but also can suggest possible alternatives for incorrectly spelled words.
It is available in word processing programs, e-mail programs, cell phones and a variety of
other applications.
✓ Thesaurus – By using thesaurus you can change a word with any of its synonyms. In this

way you can prevent a repetition of a single word in a document and bring beauty to the
language.
✓ Undo and Redo – Undo refers to deleting the last action in the document. Redo can

restore the changes again.

1.1.6 Shortcut Keys
Keys Description Keys Description
Ctrl + A Select All Shift + F7 Thesaurus
Ctrl + B Bold F1 Help
Ctrl + C Copy F5 Refresh the page
Ctrl + V Paste F4 Repeat the action
Ctrl + N New Blank Document F7 Spell Check
Ctrl + X Cut F6 Go to the next pane
Ctrl + I Italic F8 Extend the selection
Ctrl + U Underline F9 Update the selected fields
Ctrl + Z Undo F10 Show key tips
Ctrl + Y Redo F11 Go to the next field
Ctrl + O Open F12 Save As
Ctrl + S Save Shift + F3 Change the case of letters
Ctrl + K Insert Hyperlink Shift + F4 Repeat a find
Ctrl + L Left Alignment Shift + F10 Display a shortcut menu
Ctrl + E Center Alignment Ctrl + F2 Choose Print Preview
Ctrl + R Right Alignment Ctrl + F4 Close the Window
Ctrl + J Justify the alignment Ctrl + F10 Maximize the document Window
Ctrl + F To open Find Box Ctrl + F12 Choose the open button
Ctrl + G Find and Replace Tab To move to the next object
Ctrl + W Close document Shift + Tab To move to the previous object
Ctrl + M Indent Alt + F5 Restore the program window
Ctrl + P Print Alt + F7 Find the next misspelling
Ctrl + Shift + > Increase font size Alt + F10 Maximize the program window
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 Ctrl + Shift + < Decrease font size F2 Rename the file
Alt + H Home Tab Alt + F4 Exit
Alt + N Insert Tab Alt + P Layout Tab
Alt + G Design Tab Alt + Q Tell me box
Alt + F File Page Alt + R Review Tab
Alt + M Mailings Tab Alt + W View Tab
Alt + S Reference Tab Ctrl + ] Increase font size by 1
Ctrl + [ Decrease font size by 1 Ctrl + Shift Superscript
++
Ctrl + = Subscript Ctrl + F6 Cycling through open documents

Shift + K Inserting a hyperlink

1.2 Microsoft Excel

✓ It is a spreadsheet program that is used to present and organize copious amounts of data in
a systematic manner. It also includes performing basic arithmetic operations on data and
creating graphs and charts based on the same.

1.2.1 Filename Extensions

✓ Microsoft Excel's native file formats are denoted either by a .xls or .xlsx filename
extension.
✓ Although the .xls extension has been used in many different versions of Excel (97-2003)
documents.
✓ The newer .xlsx extension signifies the Office Open XML international standard for Office
documents and is used by Excel 2007 and later for Windows, Excel 2008 and later for
macOS, as well as by a growing number of applications from other vendors, including
OpenOffice.org Writer, an open source word processing program.
1.2.2 To open or start Microsoft Excel
✓ There are three methods to open or start Microsoft Excel.
1. Double click on Microsoft Excel Icon on Desktop.
OR
1. Click on the Start button  in the bottom left hand corner of computer screen.
2. When the menu pops up, move our mouse up to Programs. A sub menu will appear
showing all the software we have.
3. Now click Microsoft Office then select Microsoft Excel from them. Microsoft Excel will
start up.
Click Start >> Program >> MS Office >> MS Excel
OR
1. Press  + R (Open Run Dialog box)
2. Type excel.exe and press Enter key. Microsoft Office will start up.

In Microsoft Excel, you typically start any formula or function with an equal sign (=). This signals to
Excel that what follows is a calculation or function to be performed, rather than simply plain text.

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 1.2.3 Excel Window

1.2.3.1 Title Bar

✓ Displays the name of the application and the file currently in use
1.2.3.2 Ribbon
✓ Displays the numerous functions and tools available to work with data
1.2.3.3 Cell
✓ Contains numeric or character values and also displays results of calculations attached
to the specific cell
• Row- Contains a row of cells
• Column- Contains a column of cells
1.2.3.4 Formula Bar
✓ Display any formulae assigned to the selected cell
1.2.3.5 File tab (Backstage View)
✓ Provides access to Backstage View where you can perform basic functions such as Open,
Save, Print, Share, Export and Close files.
1.2.3.6 Status Bar
✓ The Status Bar provides useful information about functions being used plus other useful
things such as showing you the total, average, min, max or count of a group of numbers.

1.2.4 Ribbon
✓ In MS Excel are divided into logical groups called Tabs and each tab has its own set of
unique function to perform. There are various tabs – Home, Insert, Page Layout,
Formulas, Date, Review, View and Help.

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 1.2.4.1 Home Tab
✓ The Excel Home Tab is used to perform common commands such as bold, underline,
alignment, Number, Copy and Paste. It is also used to apply formats to cells in a
worksheet. The Home Tab groups and their buttons are:

• Clipboard Group – Paste, Cut, Copy, Format Painter

• Font Group – Bold, Italic, Underline, Font Style, Colour & Size (decrease and increase),
fill Colour, Borders
• Alignment Group – Alignment (Top, Middle, Bottom, Left, Right, Center), Orientation,
Wrap Text, Merge & Center, Indent decrease & Increase
• Number Group – General, Accounting Number Format, Percent style, Comma style,
Increase and decrease decimal
• Styles Group – Conditional Formatting, Format as Table, Cell Styles
• Cells Group – Insert cells, Delete cells, Format cells
• Editing Group – AutoSum, Fill, Clear the format, Sort & Filter, Find & Select
1.2.4.2 Insert Tab
✓ Insert Tab is used to insert the picture, charts, filter, hyperlink etc. The Insert Tab groups
and keys are:

• Tables Group – Pivot Table, Recommended Pivot Tables, Table

• Illustrations Group – Pictures, Online pictures, Icons, Shapes, Smart Art Graphic, 3D
models, Screenshot
• Add-ins Group – Store, Insert Add-ins
• Charts Group – Recommended charts, Maps, Pivot Charts, Charts1
• Tours Group – 3D Maps
• Sparklines Group – Line, Column, Win/Loss
• Filters Group – Slicer, Timeline
• Links Group – Hyperlink
• Text Group – TextBox, Header & Footer, WordArt, Signature line, Object
• Symbols Group – Equation and Symbol

####### : when the results of a formula or text entry are too long to fit within the width of a cell,
Excel displays a series of pound signs in the cell. This indicates that the content is overflowing the
cell's boundaries.

1
Charts – There are eight types of charts. Column or Bar Chart, Hierarchy Chart, Line Chart or Area
Chart, Combo Chart, Statistic Chart, Bubble Chart, Pie Chart, Waterfall, Funnel, Stock, Surface or Radar
Chart.

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 1.2.4.3 Page Layout Tab
✓ The features under this tab used to change the look of a workbook. The groups under
this tab are:

• Themes Group – Themes, Colors, Fonts, Effects

• Page Setup Group – Margins, Orientation, Size, Print Area, Breaks, Background, Print
Titles
• Scale to Fit Group – Page Scale, Width and Height
• Sheet Options Group – Gridlines, Headings
• Arrange Group – Bring Forward, Send Backward, Align, Group, Rotate, Selection Pane
1.2.4.4 Formulas Tab
✓ Formulas Tab is used to make dynamic reports by using functions. In excel, 479
functions are available. Formulas Tab is divided into four groups.

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 • Formulas Library – Insert Function, AutoSum, Financial & Logical Function, Date &
Time, Maths & Trig, Lookup & Reference, Text, More Function (Statistical, Engineering,
Cube etc.)
• Defined Names Group – Name Manager, Define Name, Use in Formula, Create from
selection
• Formula Auditing - Trace Precedents & Dependents, Error Checking, Evaluate Formula,
Watch window
• Calculation Group – Calculate sheet, options
1.2.4.5 Data Tab
✓ Data Tab is used for importing a large amount of data. Importing Data can be done by
connecting with the server, automatically from the web, MS Access etc., It makes easy
to read vast data.

• Get & Transform Data Group – Get Data, From Text/CSV, Web, Table/Range, Existing
Connections
• Queries & Connection Group – Refresh All, Properties, Edit Links, Queries,
Connections
• Sort & Filter Group – Sort, Filter, Reapply, Clear, Advanced
• Data Tools Group – Text to columns, Flash Fill, Remove Duplicates, Data Validation,
Consolidate, Manage Data Mode, Relationships
• Forecast Group – What-If Analysis, Forecast Sheet
• Outline Group – Group, Ungroup, Subtotal
1.2.4.6 Review Tab
✓ It contains the editing feature, comments, track changes and workbook protection
options. It makes to share the data easily with the proper information and ensuring the
security of data.

• Proofing Group – Spell Check, Thesaurus

• Language Group – Translate
• Comments Group – Comment (New, Delete, Previous, Next, Hide/Show)
• Protect Group – Protect Sheet, Protect Notebook, Allow Edit Ranges. Unshared
workbook,
• Ink Group – Start Inking, Hide Ink

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 1.2.4.7 View Tab
✓ View Tab helps to change the view of an Excel sheet and make it easy to view this data.
This tab is useful for preparing the workbook for printing. The groups and keys under
this tab are:

• Workbook Views Group – Normal, Page Break Preview, Page Layout & Custom View
• Show Group – Ruler, Formula Bar, Gridlines, Headings
• Zoom Group – Zoom (10% - 400%), 100%, Zoom to Selection
• Window Group – New Window, Arrange All, Freeze Panes, View side by side,
Synchronous Scrolling, Reset Windows, Show/Hide, Switch Windows
• Macros Group – Macros
1.2.4.8 Help Tab
✓ The user can get help using this tab, by tapping F1 key.

• Help Group – Help, Contact Support, Feedback, Show Training

• Community Group – Community, Excel Blog, Suggest a Feature
1.2.5 Features of Spreadsheet (MS Excel)
✓ Workbook – It is an Excel file which contains worksheets of rows and columns.
✓ Worksheet – A single document or sheet in a workbook which is used to store and work
with data. It consists of rows and columns,
✓ Rows and Columns Headings – It indicates the number of rows (Left of the worksheet)
and alphabet of column (Top of the worksheet). The total number of rows is 1,048,576
and columns is 16,384 in the new version of Excel Sheet. Column width is 255 characters
and row height is 409 points.
✓ Cell – Cell is a box which is the interaction of a row and column in a worksheet. It is the
smallest block of the spreadsheet. The cell in which the user working is knows as Active
cell. The maximum number of line feeds per cell is 253 in the new version of Excel
✓ Cell Address/ References – The location of a cell is known as Cell Address, Example: C10
(Column: Row)
✓ Autofill – Autofill fills the values in the cell according to a given pattern (i.e. Months &
Days, Even Numbers, Odd Numbers, etc.) This is done through the Fill Handle.
✓ Formula – It is an expression which calculates the value of a cell. It always starts with ‘=’
✓ Pivot Table – Pivot Table is an interactive report creating system. It is used to reorganize
and summarize the data.
✓ Flash Fill – Flash Fill is used to identify the patterns in existing data. It copies only
required data from one column to another.
✓ Freeze Panes – It is used to freeze rows/columns in place and making it visible when
scrolling. Example - Header row Visible.

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 ✓ Macro – It is a sequence of instructions that replace a repetitive series of keyboard and
mouse actions to execute. It is used In MS Word and MS Excel.
✓ Ontime: the method that can make macros run automatically, once you have done
some set-up for scheduling a macro.
✓ Status Bar – It is the bar below the worksheet names that has a few buttons and
indicators.
✓ Wrap Text – When text exceeds a column width/Height, wrap text automatically adjust
the height/width of a cell to make all text visible.
✓ Sparklines – They are graphs that can fit into one cell and gives the information about
the data.
✓ Relative and Absolute References: When copying formulas, Excel adjusts cell references
by default (relative reference). You can use dollar signs ($) to create absolute
references, which do not change when you copy the formula.
✓ Functions: Excel provides a wide range of built-in functions for performing various
calculations and tasks. Common functions include SUM, AVERAGE, IF, VLOOKUP, and
CONCATENATE.
✓ Autofill: Excel's Autofill feature allows you to quickly fill cells with data or formulas
based on a pattern. Simply drag the fill handle (a small square at the bottom-right
corner of the selected cell) to copy the data or formula.
✓ Conditional Formatting: Excel enables you to apply conditional formatting to cells based
on specific criteria. This feature allows you to visually highlight data based on its value,
making it easier to identify trends and outliers.
✓ Data Analysis Tools: Excel provides built-in tools for data analysis, such as sorting,
filtering, pivot tables, and data validation. These tools help you organize, analyze, and
interpret your data efficiently.
✓ Data Import and Export: Excel supports importing data from external sources such as
databases, text files, and web queries. You can also export data to various formats for
sharing and collaboration.
✓ Macros and VBA: Excel allows you to automate tasks and create custom functionality
using macros and Visual Basic for Applications (VBA). With VBA, you can write scripts to
perform complex operations and extend Excel's capabilities.
✓ Collaboration: Excel supports collaboration features such as co-authoring, comments,
and sharing workbooks through cloud storage services like OneDrive or SharePoint.

1.2.6 Shortcut Keys

Keys Description Keys Description
F2 Edit active cell Shift + F11 Insert new worksheet
Calculate the active
F5 Go to Dialog box Shift + F9
Worksheet
F9 Create worksheets Ctrl + Shift + ; Time
F4 Create and absolute Ctrl + ; Date
Tab Right one cell F11 Create chart
Expand/Collapse formula
Shift + Tab Left one cell Ctrl + Shift + U
bar
Ctrl + Home To first cell Alt + = Insert AutoSum Function
Ctrl + End To Last cell Ctrl + Shift + @ Apply the time format
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 Shift +
Select entire row Ctrl + Shift + # Apply the date format
Spacebar
Ctrl + Apply the percentage
Select entire column Ctrl + Shift + %
Spacebar format without decimal
Apply the currency format
Ctrl + 0 Hide selected rows Ctrl + Shift + $
with two decimals
Start a new line in the same
Ctrl + 9 Hide selected columns Alt + Enter
cell
Create Pivot Chart in
Alt + F1
the same window

1.2.7 Function of MS Excel

Category Function Description
Math and SUM Adds up all the numbers in a range of cells.
Trigonometry
AVERAGE Calculates the average of a range of numbers.
MAX Returns the largest value in a set of values.
MIN Returns the smallest value in a set of values.
Logical IF Performs a logical test and returns one value if the test is true
and another value if the test is false.
AND Returns TRUE if all arguments are true, and FALSE if any of the
arguments are false.
OR Returns TRUE if any of the arguments are true, and FALSE if all
arguments are false.
Text CONCATENATE Joins two or more text strings into one string.
LEFT Returns the leftmost characters from a text string.
RIGHT Returns the rightmost characters from a text string.
Date and Time TODAY Returns the current date.
YEAR Returns the year from a given date.
MONTH Returns the month from a given date.
DAYS Calculates the number of days between two dates.
Financial PMT Calculates the payment for a loan based on constant payments
and a constant interest rate.
FV Calculates the future value of an investment based on periodic
constant payments and a constant interest rate.
Statistical COUNT Counts the number of cells that contain numbers.
COUNTIF Counts the number of cells within a range that meet the given
criteria.
AVERAGEIF Calculates the average of cells within a range that meet the
given criteria.
Information ISNUMBER Checks whether a value is a number and returns TRUE or FALSE.
ISBLANK Checks whether a reference is to an empty cell and returns
TRUE or FALSE.
ISTEXT Checks whether a value is text and returns TRUE or FALSE.
Lookup and VLOOKUP Searches for a value in the first column of a table array and
Reference returns a value in the same row from another column.
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 HLOOKUP Searches for a value in the top row of a table array and returns
a value in the same column from another row.
INDEX Returns the value of a cell in a specified row and column of a
table array.
MATCH Searches for a specified value in a range of cells and returns the
relative position of that item.
INDIRECT Returns the reference specified by a text string.

1.3 Microsoft PowerPoint

✓ MS PowerPoint is a popular presentation program and is used to create slideshows which
comprise text, graphics, sounds and other animated media. Features such as word art, auto
shapes etc. can also be added to the presentation. It is convenient for both school and
office level work. ‘.ppt’ is the file extension of MS PowerPoint.

1.3.1 Filename Extensions

✓ Microsoft PowerPoint's native file formats are denoted either by a .ppt or .pptx filename
extension.
✓ Although the .ppt extension has been used in many different versions of PowerPoint
(97-2003) documents.
✓ The newer .pptx extension signifies the Office Open XML international standard for
Office documents and is used by PowerPoint 2007 and later for Windows, PowerPoint
2008 and later for macOS, as well as by a growing number of applications from other
vendors, including OpenOffice.org Writer, an open source word processing program.

1.3.2 To open or start Microsoft PowerPoint

✓ There are three methods to open or start Microsoft PowerPoint.
1. Double click on Microsoft PowerPoint Icon on Desktop.
OR
1. Click on the Start button  in the bottom left hand corner of computer screen.
2. When the menu pops up, move our mouse up to Programs. A sub menu will appear
showing all the software we have.
3. Now click Microsoft Office then select Microsoft PowerPoint from them. Microsoft
PowerPoint will start up.
Click Start >> Program >> MS Office >> MS PowerPoint
OR
1. Press Windowkey + R (Open Run Dialog box)
✓ Type powerpnt.exe and press Enter key. Microsoft PowerPoint will start up.

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 1.3.3 PowerPoint Window

1.3.3.1 Title Bar

✓ Displays the name of the application and the file currently in use.
1.3.3.2 Ribbon
✓ Displays the numerous functions and tools available to work with your presentation.
1.3.3.3 Quick Access Toolbar
✓ Enables you to customize the toolbar to contain the commands you use most
frequently.
1.3.3.4 File tab (Backstage View)
✓ Provides access to basic commands such as New, Open, Save, Print and Share plus
access to customize the application.
1.3.3.5 Slides pane
✓ Displays a thumbnail version of each slide within the presentation.
1.3.3.6 Slide
✓ The area which will be displayed as full screen when viewed in Slide Show mode.
1.3.3.7 Status Bar
✓ Provides information relating to features such as slide number, spell check and shortcuts
to Notes, Comments, various different views and zoom functions.
1.3.3.8 Placeholder
✓ Displayed as dotted lines which allows you to identify where you can add text, and
insert elements such as images or tables.

1.3.4 Ribbon
✓ The Ribbon in MS PowerPoint is divided into following tabs.

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 1.3.4.1 Home Tab
✓ The Home Tab includes the commands for formatting presentations. The Keys and
Groups under the Home Tab are:

• Clipboard Group – Cut, Copy, Paste, Format Painter

• Slides Group – New slide, Layout, Reset, Section
• Font Group – Font Style & size (Max. size is 96 in dropdown selection), Text Shadow,
Bold, Underline, Italic, Strikethrough, Clear All Formatting, Character Spacing, Change
case
• Paragraph Group – Bulleting, Numbering, Align Text, Text direction, Convert to SmartArt
• Drawing Group – Shapes, Arrange, Quick Styles, Shape Fill, Shape Outline, Shape Effects
• Editing Group – Find, Replace, Select
1.3.4.2 Insert Tab
✓ It is used to add features such as tables, pictures, clip art, shapes, charts, word art, or
headers, and footers into a presentation. The groups and buttons in this tab are:

• Slides Group – New Slide

• Tables Group – Draw/Add Table
• Images Group – Pictures, Online Pictures, Screenshot, Photo Album
• Illustrations Group – Shapes, Icons, 3D models, Smart Art, Chart
• Add-ins Group – Store, Add-ins
• Links Group – Zoom, Link, Action
• Comments – Add comment, Edit& Delete Comment)
•Text Group – TextBox, Header & Footer, Word Art, Date & Time, Slide number, Object
•Symbols Group – Equation and Symbol
•Media Group – Video, Audio, Screen Recording
1.3.4.3 Design Tab
✓ The Design tab holds commands related to the presence of slides like page setup and
slide orientation. The group and Keys under this tab are:

• Themes Group – Listed Slide Themes

• Variants Group – Listed Variants
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 • Customize Group – Slide Size, Format Background
1.3.4.4 Transition Tab
✓ Transitions tab is used to add transitions to a slide and to customize transition effects.
The group and Keys of Transition Tab are:

• Preview – to view slides

• Transition to this slide – Listed transition, Effect options)
• Timing Group – Sound, Duration, Apply to all slides, Advance slide
1.3.4.5 Animation Tab
✓ It is used to add animation to text in a slide and to manage the animation order. The
Groups and Keys are:

• Preview Group – Slide’s Preview

• Animation Group – Listed Animation, Effect Options
• Advanced Animation – Add Animation, Animation Pane, Trigger, Animation Painter
• Timing Group – Start, Duration, Delay of slides, Reorder Animation
1.3.4.6 Slideshow Tab
✓ This tab is used to finalize the slideshow details, timings, and more. The Keys and groups
under this tab are:

• Start Slide Show Group – From Beginning, From Current Slide, Present Online, Custom
Slideshow
• Set up Group – Set up slideshow, Hide slide, Rehearse timings, Record Slide Show
• Monitors Group – Automatic, Use Presenter View
1.3.4.7 Review Tab
✓ Review tab is used to check spelling, to collaborate by adding comments, and to access
editor tools. The groups are:

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 • Proofing Group – Spelling, Thesaurus
• Language Group – Translate, Language
• Comments Group – New comment, Delete Previous/next Comment
• Compare Group – Compare, Accept, Reject, End Review, reviewing Pane
• Ink Group – Start inking, Hide ink
• OneNote Group – Linked Notes
1.3.4.8 View Tab
✓ View tab is used to access the various presentation views, to show and hide the rulerand
grid lines, and more.

• Presentation Views Group – Normal, Outline view, Slide Sorter, Notes Page, Reading
view
• Masters View Group – Slide Master, Handout Master, Notes Master
• Show Group – Ruler, Gridlines, Guides, Notes
• Zoom Group – Zoom (10% to 400%), Fit to the window
• Colour/Grayscale Group – Colour, Grayscale, Black & White
• Window Group – New window, Arrange All, Cascade, Move Split
• Macros Group – Macros
1.3.5 Features of Presentation Program (MS PowerPoint)
✓ Presentation – A Presentation is a collection of individual slides that contain information
on a topic with audio, visual features. It makes an interaction between a speaker and an
audience.
✓ Design Template – A PowerPoint template is a pattern of a slide whose format and colour
scheme is used as the basis for other presentations. It can contain layouts, theme colours,
theme fonts, theme effects, background styles, and even content.
✓ Master Slide – A slide that controls the properties such as theme, layout, background,
colour, fonts, and positioning of all other slides in a presentation.
✓ Normal View – Normal view is used for creating, editing and viewing presentation slides. It
contains all three view panes such as Slides, Outline and Notes.
✓ Greyscale – Grayscale is a variety of shades of grey (Black and white combination) without
apparent colour.
✓ Notes Pane – It is used to add notes and graphics that apply to the current slide in the
presentation. It is also used to print the notes.
✓ Slides Pane – Slide Pane displays the slides thumbnails. It allows the user to view and edit
the slides.
✓ Outline Pane – Outline Pane displays the text from the slides.

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 ✓ Slide Show View – It is used to display the presentation. It is the way to preview the
presentation.
✓ Slide Sorter View – It shows all the slides in a presentation as thumbnails. It is used to
reorganize, insert, delete and copy the presentation slides.
✓ Slide Timing – It is the time period that a slide seems on the screen.
✓ Task Pane – It allows to access commands like getting started, PowerPoint help, slide, new
presentation etc. related to a specific task.
✓ AutoContent Wizard - A wizard helps to create a presentation. It helps with a general
structure and suggested topics based on the user’s view regarding the presentation output.
✓ Exporting and Sharing- PowerPoint enables you to export presentations to various formats,
including PDF, video, and images. You can also share presentations online through email,
cloud storage, or collaboration platforms.
1.3.6 Shortcut Keys
Keys Description Keys Description
Ctrl + D Duplicate Slide Ctrl + Shift + F Change Font Style
Shift + F3 Toggle cases Ctrl + Shift + Z Normal/Plain Text
Move anticlockwise
Shift + F6 F5 Start Slideshow
among pane
Restore window to
Shift + F10 Display context menu Ctrl + F5
previous size
Esc End the slideshow Alt + Q Search

1.4 Microsoft Access

✓ MICROSOFT ACCESS is a Database Management System offered by Microsoft. It uses the
Microsoft Jet Database Engine and comes as a part of the Microsoft Office suite of
application.
✓ Microsoft Access offers the functionality of a database and the programming capabilities to
create easy to navigate screens (forms). It helps you analyze large amounts of information,
and manage data efficiently.

1.4.1 Important Terms and Basic Objects

1.4.1.1 Database File:
✓ It is a file which stores the entire database. The database file is saved to your hard drive
or other storage devices.
1.4.1.2 Datatypes:
✓ Datatypes are the properties of each field. Every field has one datatype like text,
number, date, etc.
1.4.1.3 Table
✓ A Table is an object which stores data in Row & Column format to store data.
✓ A Table is usually related to other tables in the database file.
✓ Each column must have Unique name
✓ We can also define Primary Key in a table.

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 1.4.1.4 Query
✓ Queries answer a question by selecting and sorting and filtering data based on search
criteria.
✓ Queries show a selection of data based on criteria (limitations) you provide.
✓ Queries can pull from one or more related Tables and other Queries.
✓ Types of Query can be SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE.
1.4.1.5 Form
✓ A form is a database object that you can use to create a user interface for a database
application.
✓ Forms help you to display live data from the table. It mainly used to ease the process of
data entry or editing.
1.4.1.6 Report
✓ A report is an object in desktop databases primarily used for formatting, calculating,
printing, and summarizing selected data.
✓ You can even customize the report's look and feel.
1.4.1.7 Macros
✓ Macros are mini computer programming constructs. They allow you to set up commands
and processes in your forms, like, searching, moving to another record, or running a
formula.
1.4.1.8 Modules
✓ Modules are procedures(functions) which you can write using Visual Basic for
Applications (VBA).

1.4.2 MS Access Datatypes

Type of Data Description Size

Short Text Text, including numbers which does not Up to 255 characters.
need calculation. (e.g., Mobile numbers).

Long Text This data type is used for lengthy text or Maximum 63, 999 characters.
alphanumeric data.

Number Numeric data type used for storing 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 bytes.

mathematical calculations.

Date/Time Store Date/time for the years 100 through 8 bytes.

9999.

Currency It allows you to store currency values and 8 bytes.

numeric data with one to four decimal
places.

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 Auto Number Assign a unique number or assigned by Four bytes (16 bytes if it is set as
Microsoft Access when any new record is a Replication ID).
created. Usually used as the primary key

Yes/No It only stores logical values Yes and No. 1 bit

Attachment It stores files, such as digital photos. Multiple Up to 2 GB Data can be stored.
files can be attached per record.

OLE objects OLE objects can store audio, video, other Up to 2 GB data can be stored.
Binary Large Objects.

Hyperlink Text or combinations of text and numbers Each part of a Hyperlink data
stored. That text is used as hyperlink type allows you to store a
address. maximum 2048 characters.

Calculated Helps you to create an expression that uses You can create an expression
data from one or more fields. which uses data from one or
more fields.

1.5 Microsoft Outlook

✓ Microsoft Outlook is a part of Microsoft's Office Suite family is widely used as a desktop
email client to communicate over the internet. Many organizations and business users
utilize MS Outlook in combined with Microsoft Exchange Server and SharePoint Server to
send or receive emails, coordinate meetings and calendars etc.
✓ Outlook can be easily expanded with Smartphone allowing users to access their email data
anywhere around the world. Only they have to synchronize their mailbox with the device
by providing a user ID and password. In addition, those users who are not availed of this
facility on their devices can download numerous Add-ons available in the internet market.

1.5.1 Basic Functions of Outlook

✓ Outlook has some latest features that make Outlook more favorite of plenty of users across
the globe. All below-discussed features are some basics of Outlook but they get improved
with each upgraded version of Outlook.
1.5.1.1 Unfailing Communication
✓ MS Outlook allows users to communicate in plenty of ways focusing mainly on emailing.
Outlook allows users to send or receive emails to other users with some advanced
enhancements like attachments, signatures, themes backgrounds etc. Carrying out
communication in Microsoft Outlook is a streamlined process as the interface is quite
simple.

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 1.5.1.2 Coordination and Constitution
✓ In aspects where the organization of work tasks is an issue, Outlook takes first position in
way it provides a calendar feature. Via using calendars in Outlook users can view all of
tasks and meetings as daily, weekly, and monthly with coloring important meetings.
'Contacts' is another way to stay organized in Outlook. It allows you to save vCard which
are digital cards in an electronic communication system.
1.5.1.3 Message Confirmation
✓ To keep a record of messages that are sent to other users, Outlook offers better tracking
services than any other application. When users send a message to anyone, if it's reached
or not, they can set Outlook options as 'Request a Delivery Report' from settings to ensure
that the message has been delivered. 'Request a read report' option for users to know
whether opposite party has opens message or not.
1.5.1.4 Co-operation
✓ MS Outlook also provides the option to perform teamwork tasks easily just like meetings.
The 'Meeting Invite' feature in Outlook allow users to invite all users for immediate
meetings along with tracking who accepts or who declines this invitation. Moreover,
Outlook's 'Share My Calendar' function also lets users about confirmation of both parties
for meetings, etc. Another useful function is 'Task Request' which helps to assign work to
other colleagues.
1.5.1.5 Integration with Microsoft Exchange
✓ Outlook and Exchange server when used integrated with each other works as parallel
tracks for employees. No extra efforts are required to let Outlook and Exchange work
together. In order to set Outlook with Exchange Server user has to perform few steps
using Outlook settings and that's it smooth commune is available for IT users.
1.5.1.6 Outlook's Co-ordination with Active Directory
✓ Active Directory is all credentials of Exchange Users that are registered on the Server,
when users log into their Outlook account, they don't have to fill in all login credentials
again and again to log into the Exchange Server account. In fact, MS Outlook does not
require any information it figures out the right e-mail address via AD and log into the
respective email client.

1.5.2 Additional Benefits with Outlook

✓ Outlook additionally also supports many other smart devices and applications providing a
great way of accessing mailbox data from anywhere around the world. These days lots of
Smartphones are available that provide the facility to synch your Outlook mailbox with your
phone, whereas those who don't provide this facility, can hire third-party add-ons available
on the market rendering service of synchronizing with Outlook account.
• Easy Management of Emails
In MS Outlook, sorting is allowed for email messages indicating specifications to prior
messages. Users can sort messages according to their requirements and can also send
different automatic messages to different email addresses.
• Swift Workflow Strategies
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 Outlook is not limited only to messaging instead it allows users to set workflows for
occasions like online voting. If a group of people needs to decide on the meeting place
somewhere out of the station then they can just take online permission from every
other coordinator via online voting. Moreover, the Outlook 'Form' feature allows users
to take requests from subordinators for time off, and if approved it gets returned to
the user.
• Powerful Security Mechanisms
Being a part of the Microsoft family, Outlook possesses quite strong security on its
features. Junk mail filters restrict web bugs, data from foreign sites, and downloading
images from the internet by default. This means it has embedded security features
disallowing unwanted viruses and malware entering into Outlook accounts.
• Multiple Email Account Configurations
Outlook is not only limited to a single Outlook instead users can configure several
accounts in Outlook using different protocols. More than one account can be
configured in Outlook and can be operated with one set of rules. Moreover, if required
all the set accounts can be sorted according to the different needs of users.

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CONCEPT NOTES

Database Management
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 Contents
1 Database ....................................................................................................................................4
1.1 Important Database management System.............................................................................4
1.1.1 Oracle Database ...........................................................................................................4
1.1.2 MySQL .........................................................................................................................4
1.1.3 Microsoft SQL Server ....................................................................................................4
1.2 Fundamentals of Database ...................................................................................................4
1.3 Types of Database................................................................................................................5
1.3.1 Network Database ........................................................................................................5
1.3.2 Hierarchical Database ...................................................................................................5
1.3.3 Relational Database ......................................................................................................5
1.4 Components of a Database...................................................................................................5
1.4.1 Tables ..........................................................................................................................5
1.4.2 Queries ........................................................................................................................5
1.4.3 Forms ..........................................................................................................................5
1.4.4 Reports ........................................................................................................................5
1.5 Database Management System (DBMS) ................................................................................6
1.6 Architecture of DBMS...........................................................................................................6
1.6.1 Internal Level ...............................................................................................................6
1.6.2 Conceptual Level ..........................................................................................................6
1.6.3 External Level...............................................................................................................7
2 Advantages & Disadvantages of DBMS..........................................................................................7
3 Applications of DBMS ..................................................................................................................8
4 Data Model.................................................................................................................................8
4.1 Relation...............................................................................................................................8
4.2 Domain ...............................................................................................................................8
4.3 Entities................................................................................................................................9
4.4 Attributes............................................................................................................................9
4.5 Tuples .................................................................................................................................9
4.6 Constraints..........................................................................................................................9
4.7 Normalization......................................................................................................................9
4.8 Data Integrity ......................................................................................................................9
4.9 Data Modeling Notations .....................................................................................................9

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 4.10 Keys ....................................................................................................................................9
4.10.1 Types of Keys ...............................................................................................................9
5 Relational Database................................................................................................................... 10
5.1 Database Languages .......................................................................................................... 10
5.1.1 Data Definition Language (DDL) ................................................................................... 10
5.1.2 Data Manipulation Language (DML)............................................................................. 10
5.1.3 Data Control Language (DCL) ....................................................................................... 10
6 Entity - Relationship Model (E-R Model) ..................................................................................... 11
6.1 Entity ................................................................................................................................ 11
6.2 Attributes.......................................................................................................................... 11
6.3 Entity Set........................................................................................................................... 11
6.4 Relationship ...................................................................................................................... 11
6.5 Symbol Used in ER Diagram ................................................................................................ 12

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 1 Database
A database is a collection of logically related information in an organised way so that it can be
easily accessed, managed and updated. Some other operations can also be performed on
database such as adding, updating and deleting data. A database could be simple as a single
text file with a list of names or it could be complex as a large bunch of text files i ncluding some
data.

1.1 Important Database management System

1.1.1 Oracle Database
✓ Company: Developed and marketed by Oracle Corporation.
✓ Cost: Typically, Oracle Database comes with a significant cost, especially for enterprise-
level usage. It has different licensing options based on usage and features.
✓ Scalability: It's known for its scalability and robustness, often used in large enterprises
and mission-critical applications.
✓ Features: Oracle Database offers a wide range of features including advanced security,
high availability, and comprehensive data management capabilities.
✓ Supported Languages: Supports SQL and PL/SQL (a procedural language extension to
SQL).
1.1.2 MySQL
✓ Company: Originally developed by MySQL AB, now owned by Oracle Corporation.
✓ Cost: MySQL is known for its open-source nature, which means it's free to use for most
purposes. However, there are commercial editions with additional features and support
available.
✓ Scalability: MySQL is scalable and widely used in web applications, from small projects
to large-scale systems.
✓ Features: It offers a good balance of features, performance, and ease of use. It's often
favored for web development and applications where cost is a concern.
✓ Supported Languages: Supports SQL.
1.1.3 Microsoft SQL Server
✓ Company: Developed and marketed by Microsoft Corporation.
✓ Cost: Microsoft SQL Server comes in different editions with varying costs, including a
free edition (SQL Server Express) with limited features and scalability.
✓ Scalability: SQL Server is highly scalable and widely used in various industries, from small
businesses to large enterprises.
✓ Features: It provides a wide range of features including business intelligence, data
analysis, and integration with other Microsoft products like Excel and SharePoint.
✓ Supported Languages: Supports SQL and T-SQL (Transact-SQL, Microsoft's
implementation of SQL with procedural extensions).

1.2 Fundamentals of Database

✓ Data: These are raw and unorganised facts that need to be processed such as digital
representation of text, numbers, graphical images or sound, e.g. a student’s test score is
one piece of data.
✓ Information: When data is processed, organised, structured or presented in a given
context to make it useful or meaningful, it is called information, e.g. the class’s average
score is the information that can be concluded from the given data.
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 1.3 Types of Database
✓ Databases are of three types, namely as follows:
1.3.1 Network Database
✓ In this type of database, data is represented as collection of records and relationships
among data are represented as links.
1.3.2 Hierarchical Database
✓ In this type of database, data is organised in the form of tree with nodes.
1.3.3 Relational Database
✓ This database is also known as structured database in which data is stored in the form of
tables. Where, columns define the type of data stored in the table and rows define the
information about the data.

1.4 Components of a Database

✓ A database consists of several different components. Each component listed, is called an
object. Within the file, you can divide your data into separate storage containers called
tables view, add and update table data by using online forms; find and retrieve the data
that you want by using queries and analyses or print data in a specific layout by using
reports.
1.4.1 Tables
✓ These are the building blocks or relation of any relational database model where all the
actual data is defined and entered. Different types of operation are done on the tables
such as storing, filtering, retrieving and editing of data. Tables consist of cells at the
intersection of records (rows) and fields (columns), which are describe below.
1.4.1.1 Field
✓ It is an area (within the record) reserved for a specific piece of data. e.g. customer
number, customer name, street address, city, state, phone number, current address,
etc. Field of a table is also known as column.
1.4.1.2 Record
✓ It is the collection of data items of all the fields pertaining to one entity, i.e. a person,
company, transition, etc. Record of a table is also known as row or a tuple and the
number of records in a relation is called the cardinality of that relation.

1.4.2 Queries
✓ These are basically questions based on the data available in a database. A query consists
of specifications indicating which fields, records, and summaries a user wants to fetch
from a database. Queries allow you to extract data based on the criteria that you define.
1.4.3 Forms
✓ Although you can enter and modify data in datasheet view of tables but you neither
control the user’s action very well nor you can do much to facilitate the data -entry
process. To overcome this problem, forms are introduced. Like tables, forms can be
used to view and edit your data. However, forms are typically used to view the data in
an underlying table one record at a time. e.g. a user can create a data entry form that
looks exactly like a paper form. People generally prefer to enter data into a well-
designed form, rather than a table.
1.4.4 Reports
✓ When you want to print those records, which are fetched from your database, design a
report. Access even has a wizard to help produce mailing labels.
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 1.5 Database Management System (DBMS)
✓ A DBMS is a collection of interrelated data and a set of programs to retrieve data from a
database. It is an organised collection of data viewed as a whole, instead of a group of
separate unrelated files.
✓ The primary goal of DBMS is to provide an environment that is both convenient and
efficient for user to store and retrieve database information, e.g. MySQL, Oracle, FoxPro,
dBASE, SyBase MS-Access. The purpose of database management system is to bridge the
gap between information and data.
✓ The basic processes that are supported by DBMS are as follows:
• Specification of data types, structures and constraints to be considered in an application.
• Storing the data.
• Manipulation of the database.
• Querying the database to retrieve desired information.
• Updating the content of the database.

1.6 Architecture of DBMS

✓ The architecture of DBMS is divided into three levels are as follows

1.6.1 Internal Level

✓ It is the lowest level of data abstraction that deals with the physical representation of
the database on the computer. It is also known as physical level. It defines how the data
are actually stored and organised on the storage medium.
1.6.2 Conceptual Level
✓ It is the overall view of the database and includes all the information that is going to be
represented in the database. It describes what type of data is stored in the database,
the relationship among the data without effecting to the physical level. It is also known
as logical level.

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 1.6.3 External Level
✓ This is the highest level of data abstraction which describes the interaction between the
user and the system. It permits the users to access data in a way that is customised
according to their needs, so that the same data can be seen by different users in
different ways, at the same time. It is also known as view level.

2 Advantages & Disadvantages of DBMS

There are following advantages of DBMS:

✓ Reduction in Data Redundancy – The duplication of data refers to data redundancy. DBMS
cannot make separate copies of the same data. All the data is kept at a place and different
applications refer to data from centrally controlled system.
✓ Better Interaction with Users – In DBMS, the availability of up to date information improves
the data to be access or respond as per user requests.
✓ Improvement in Data Security – DBMS can allow the means of access to the database
through the authorised channels. To ensure security, DBMS provides security tools, i.e.
username and password.
✓ Maintenance of Data Integrity – Data integrity ensures that the data of database is accurate.
In DBMS, data is centralised and used by many users at a time, it is essential to enforce
integrity controls.
✓ Ease of Application Development – The application programmer needs to develop the
application programs according to the user’s need. The other issues like concurrent access,
security, data integrity, etc. are handled by database itself. This makes the application
development an easier task.
✓ Backup and Recovery – The DBMS provides backup and recovery subsystem that is
responsible to recover data from hardware and software failures.

As there are many advantages, DBMS also have some minor disadvantages. These
disadvantages are listed here:

✓ Cost of Hardware and Software – A processor with high speed of data processing and
memory of large size is required to run the DBMS software. It means that you have to
upgrade the hardware used for file-based system. Similarly, database software is also very
costly.
✓ Complexity – The provision of the functionality that is expected from a good DBMS makes
the DBMS an extremely complex piece of software. Failure to understand the system can
lead to bad design decisions, which can have serious consequences for an organisation.
✓ Cost of Staff Training – Mostly DBMS are often complex systems so the training for user to
use the database is required. The organisation has to pay a lot of amount for the training of
staff to run the DBMS.

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 ✓ Appointing Technical Staff – The trained technical persons such as database administrator,
application programmers, etc. are required to handle the database. You have to pay a lot of
amount to these persons. Therefore, the system cost increases.
✓ Database Failure – In most of the organisations, all data is integrated into a single database.
If database is corrupted due to power failure or it is corrupted on the storage media, then
our valuable data may be lost or whole system stops.

3 Applications of DBMS
Some applications of DBMS are as follows

✓ Banking – For customer information, accounts, loans and other banking transactions.
✓ Reservation – For reservation and schedule information.
✓ Universities – For student information, course registration, grades, etc.
✓ Credit Card Transaction – For purchase of credit cards and generation of monthly
statements.
✓ Telecommunication – For keeping records of calls made, generating monthly bill, etc.
✓ Finance – For storing information about holdings, sales and purchase of financial statements.
✓ Sales – For customer, product and purchase information.

4 Data Model
A data model is a conceptual representation of the structure of data, describing how data is
organized, stored, and manipulated within a system or application. It serves as a blueprint for
designing databases, software applications, and information systems. Data models help ensure
that data is accurately and efficiently managed, retrieved, and analyzed.

Here are the key components and aspects of a data model:

4.1 Relation
✓ It is a table with columns and rows which represent is the data items and relationships
among them. Relation have three important properties a name, cardinality and a degree.
These properties help us to further define and describe relations.
• Name – The first property of a relation is its name, which is represented by the tide or
the entity identifier.
• Cardinality – The second property of a relation is its cardinality, which refers to the
number of tuples (rows) in a relation.
• Degree – The third property of a relation is its degree, which refers to the number of
attributes (columns) in each tuple.

4.2 Domain
✓ It is a collection of all possible values from which the values for a given column or an
attribute is drawn. A domain is said to be atomic if elements are considered to be
indivisible units.
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 4.3 Entities
✓ Entities represent real-world objects, concepts, or events that are relevant to the system
being modeled. Each entity typically corresponds to a table in a relational database and is
defined by its attributes.

4.4 Attributes
✓ Attributes are the properties or characteristics of entities. Each attribute of a table has a
distinct name.

4.5 Tuples
✓ The rows in a relation are also known as tuples. Each row or tuple has a set of permitted
values for each attribute.

4.6 Constraints
✓ Constraints define rules or conditions that must be satisfied by the data in a database to
maintain integrity and consistency. Common constraints include primary key constraints,
foreign key constraints, uniqueness constraints, and check constraints.

4.7 Normalization
✓ Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to minimize redundancy and
dependency, thereby improving data integrity and reducing anomalies. It involves breaking
down large tables into smaller, related tables and eliminating repeating groups of
attributes.

4.8 Data Integrity

✓ Data integrity ensures that data is accurate, consistent, and valid throughout its lifecycle
within a system. It encompasses aspects such as entity integrity, referential integrity, and
domain integrity, enforced through constraints, validations, and data validation rules.

4.9 Data Modeling Notations

✓ Data models are often represented graphically using standardized notations such as Entity-
Relationship Diagrams (ERD), Unified Modeling Language (UML) diagrams, or specific
notation systems like Crow's Foot notation or IDEF1X.

4.10 Keys
✓ Key is one of the important concepts of database. A key is defined as the column or Set of
columns in a table that is used to identify either row of data in a table or establish
relationship with another table.
✓ It is also referred as super key, arranging the records either in ascending or descending
order.
✓ If a table has id, name and address as the column names then each one is known as the key
for that table. The keys are also used to uniquely identify each record in the database table.
4.10.1 Types of Keys
✓ There are mainly four types of keys which are described below:
4.10.1.1 Primary Key
✓ It is a set of one or more attributes that can uniquely identify tuples within the
relation. It identifies unique records within a table. The primary key should be chosen
in such a way, i.e. its value must not be changed. There should not be duplicacy in the
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 record of primary key. Primary key can be atomic or composite. The field chosen as
primary key, cannot accept null value.
4.10.1.2 Candidate Key
✓ The set of all attributes which can uniquely identify each tuple of a relation, are known
as candidate keys. Each table may have one or more candidate keys and one of them
will become the primary key. The candidate key of a relation is always a minimal key.
4.10.1.3 Alternate Key
✓ From the set of candidate keys after selecting one of the keys as primary key, all other
remaining keys are known as alternate keys.
4.10.1.4 Foreign Key
✓ It is a non-key attribute whose value is derived from the primary key of the same or
some another table. The relationship between two tables is established with the help
of foreign key. A table may have multiple foreign keys and each foreign key can have a
different referenced table. Foreign keys play an essential role in database design, when
tables are broken apart then foreign keys make it possible for them to be
reconstructed.

Let’s Discuss Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) and Entity - Relationship Model
(E-R Model)in detail.

5 Relational Database
In a relational database, data is stored in different tables with relationships to each other.
These tables communicate and share information, which facilitates data search ability,
organisation and reporting. In the case of relational database, a Relational Database
Management System (RDBMS) performs these tasks.

An important feature of this database system is that a single database can be spread across
several tables, e.g. Base, Oracle, DB2, SAP SyBase, Informix, etc.

5.1 Database Languages

There are various types of database languages:

5.1.1 Data Definition Language (DDL)

✓ DDL is used to dene structure of your tables and other objects in database. In DBMS, it is
used to specify a database schema as a set of definitions.
5.1.2 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
✓ DML provides various commands used to access and manipulate data in existing database.
This manipulation involves inserting data into data base tables, retrieving existing data,
deleting data from existing tables and modifying existing data.
5.1.3 Data Control Language (DCL)
✓ DCL commands are used to assign security levels in database which involves multiple user
setups. They are used to grant defined role and access privileges to the users.

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 6 Entity - Relationship Model (E-R Model)
It represents the entities contained in the database. It is a diagrammatically representation of
entities and relationship between them. It is also known as E-R diagram.

6.1 Entity
✓ It is an object that has its existence in the real world. It includes all those things about
which the data are collected. “Entities are represented in rectangles.” e.g. customer buys
goods, it means customer and goods are entities. ‘

6.2 Attributes
✓ It describes the characteristics or properties of entity. In tables, attributes are represented
by columns. Attributes are drawn in elliptical shapes (ovals), e.g. ITEM entity may contain
code and price.

6.3 Entity Set

✓ It is a set of entities of the same type that share that same properties or attributes, e.g.
Students is an entity set of all student entities in the database.
Entity set is of two types as follow
• Strong entity set – It has a primary key or can be easily distinguishable each attribute.
• Weak entity set – It does not possess sufficient attributes to form a primary key.

6.4 Relationship
✓ It is an association among several entities. A relationship describes how two or more
entities are related to each other. It is represented by diamond shape.
✓ Relationship can be divided into three parts
• One to one
• Many to one
• One to many

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 6.5 Symbol Used in ER Diagram

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CONCEPT NOTES

Computer and Network Security

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 Contents
1 Computer security.......................................................................................................................4
1.1 Methods of Protection .........................................................................................................4
1.1.1 System Access Control ..................................................................................................4
1.1.2 Data Access control ......................................................................................................4
1.1.3 System and Security Administration...............................................................................4
1.1.4 System Design ..............................................................................................................4
2 Components of Computer Security ...............................................................................................4
3 Threats and Prevention................................................................................................................5
3.1 Malware..............................................................................................................................5
3.1.1 Modes of Malware distribution .....................................................................................5
3.2 Virus ...................................................................................................................................5
3.2.1 Types of Virus...............................................................................................................5
3.2.2 Antivirus ......................................................................................................................7
3.2.3 Methods of Malware Identification used by Antivirus .....................................................7
3.2.4 Signature-based detection ............................................................................................7
3.2.5 Sandbox detection........................................................................................................7
3.2.6 Data mining techniques ................................................................................................8
3.2.7 Heuristics .....................................................................................................................8
3.2.8 Real-time protection.....................................................................................................8
3.3 Worms ................................................................................................................................8
3.4 Ransomware .......................................................................................................................8
3.5 Trojan .................................................................................................................................8
3.6 Spyware ..............................................................................................................................8
3.7 Adware ...............................................................................................................................9
3.8 Keyloggers...........................................................................................................................9
4 Spam ..........................................................................................................................................9
5 HTTP vs HTTPS ............................................................................................................................9
6 Firewall.......................................................................................................................................9
6.1 Types of Firewall ................................................................................................................ 10
7 Cookies..................................................................................................................................... 10
7.1 Threats due to Cookies....................................................................................................... 10
8 Hackers and Crackers................................................................................................................. 10

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 8.1 White Hats: Ethical Hacker ................................................................................................. 11
8.2 Black Hats: Crackers ........................................................................................................... 11
8.3 Grey Hats .......................................................................................................................... 11
9 Internet Security Threats ........................................................................................................... 11
9.1 Pharming........................................................................................................................... 11
9.2 Mail Bomb......................................................................................................................... 12
9.3 Scareware ......................................................................................................................... 12
9.4 Sniffers.............................................................................................................................. 12
9.5 Rootkit .............................................................................................................................. 12
9.6 Phishing ............................................................................................................................ 12
9.7 Denial of Service ................................................................................................................ 12
9.8 Network Intrusion.............................................................................................................. 12
9.8.1 Asymmetric Routing ................................................................................................... 12
9.8.2 Buffer Overflow Attack ............................................................................................... 12
9.8.3 Traffic Flooding:.......................................................................................................... 12
9.8.4 Snooping.................................................................................................................... 13
9.8.5 Eavesdropping............................................................................................................ 13
10 Internet Safety ...................................................................................................................... 13
10.1 Protecting Children Online ................................................................................................. 14
11 Incognito mode ..................................................................................................................... 15
11.1 Difference from Regular Browsing ...................................................................................... 15
11.2 Uses.................................................................................................................................. 15
11.3 Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 15

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 1 Computer security
Every computer needs to secure the data form virus unauthorized users and attackers. There
are many types of security software including antivirus software, encryption software, firewall
software and spyware removal software. Computer security is also known as cyber security or
IT security. It is the protection of computer systems.

1.1 Methods of Protection

✓ There are four methods of protection.
1.1.1 System Access Control
✓ It doesn’t allow unauthorized users into the system and support the authorized users to
protect the system. It inspires the users to change passwords frequently.
1.1.2 Data Access control
✓ It observes who can get the information and for which purpose data can be used. Based on
the security levels of the users, access rules can be determined by the system.
1.1.3 System and Security Administration
✓ Offline methodology is used to make or break the protected system. System and security
administration can perform offline procedures.
1.1.4 System Design
✓ The hardware and software security characteristics are used for system design.

2 Components of Computer Security

Confidentiality: In this, the

system cannot be accessed
by unauthorized users

Cryptography: It is a
Integrity: This term
process of protecting the
certifies that the
information by storing on
information cannot be
disk. It is an art of writing
changed by unauthorized
data in hidden or secrete
users.
format.

Availability: It ensures that

unauthorized user cannot Access control: In this,
access the system and users can get only
make sure only authorized permitted resources.
can access it.

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 Encryption- Decryption
The plain text can be converted into cipher text by using an algorithm, this process is known as
encryption. Converting cipher text into plain text is called as decryption.

3 Threats and Prevention

Network security is concerned with protection of our device as well as data from illegitimate
access or misuse. Threats include all the ways in which one can exploit any vulnerability or
weakness in a network or communication system in order to cause harm or damage one’s
reputation.

3.1 Malware
✓ Malware is a short term used for MALicious softWARE. It is any software developed with an
intention to damage hardware devices, steal data, or cause any other trouble to the user.
Viruses, Worms, Ransomware, Trojans, and Spyware are some of the kinds of malware.
3.1.1 Modes of Malware distribution
✓ A malware once designed, can take many routes to reach your computer. Some of the
common distribution channels for malware are:
• Downloaded from the Internet: Most of the time, malware is unintentionally
downloaded into the hard drive of a computer by the user. Of course, the malware
designers are smart enough to disguise their malware, but we should be very careful
while downloading files from the Internet (especially those highlighted as free stuff).
• Spam Email: We often receive an unsolicited email with embedded hyperlinks or
attachment files. These links or attached files can be malware.
• Removable Storage Devices: Often, the replicating malware targets the removable
storage media like pen drives, SSD cards, music players, mobile phones, etc. and
infect them with malware that gets transferred to other systems that they are
plugged into.
• Network Propagation: Some malware like Worms have the ability to propagate from
one computer to another through a network connection.

3.2 Virus
✓ A virus is a piece of software code created to perform malicious activities and hamper resources of
a computer system like CPU time, memory, personal files, or sensitive information.
✓ Some well-known viruses include CryptoLocker, ILOVEYOU, MyDoom, Sasser and Netsky, Slammer,
Stuxnet, etc.
✓ It is a software program that affects the system to corrupt the files in the form of executable files.
The first computer virus is creepers and is developed in 1986.
✓ The virus is used for destruction purpose. It can copy itself and gets attached by itself to other files.
The virus can attack over a network such as the Internet or removable disk like floppy disk, DVD,
CD, and Pen drive. Virus can infect the computer and spread the infection.
3.2.1 Types of Virus
✓ Append Virus: As the name suggests, this virus appends its malicious code to the end of
the host program's file. After that, it alters the file's header in a way that the file's
header is redirected to the start of the malicious code of the append virus. Thus, this

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 code is executed each time the program runs. However, it does not destroy the host
program; rather, it modifies it in a way that it holds the virus code and enables the code
to run itself.
✓ Boot Sector Virus: It is also called as a Master Boot sector virus or Master Boot Record
Virus. It mainly infects the boot sector of a hard disk.
✓ Cavity Virus: It is also known as a space filler virus. As the name suggests, this virus tends
to install itself by occupying the empty sections of a file. It is not easy to detect this virus
as it fills the empty spaces without changing the size of the file.
✓ CMOS Virus: It infects the CMOS, which stands for Complementary Metal-Oxide
Semiconductor and is a memory chip that contains the system configuration. This virus
can erase or reset the system configuration.
✓ Companion Virus: It resides itself in a file whose name is similar to another program file,
which is executed normally. When the program file is executed, the virus gets activated
and performs malicious steps such as deleting the files on your computer hard drive.
Globe virus is a first known companion virus, which was found in 1992.
✓ Computer Worm: Computer worm is similar to a virus but is technically different from the
virus. It can replicate and spread like a virus, but unlike viruses, it does not need a host
program to spread. Being able to self-replicate it can produce multiple copies of itself. It
spreads through networks such as an email sent to an infected email id can infect your
system with a computer worm.
✓ Direct Action Virus: If the file that consist the virus is executed, then this type of virus
comes into action. This virus infects the files that are mentioned in the AUTOEXEC.BAT
file path. e.g.: Vienna virus
✓ Encrypted Virus: It encrypts its payload to make its detection more difficult. It comprises
two parts: an encrypted virus body and a decryptor, which decrypts the virus when it is
executed. After decryption, the virus can execute itself in order to replicate and become
a resident. Furthermore, it is different from cryptolocker, which is a computer virus that
encrypts the hard drive data and holds it for ransom.
✓ Executable Virus: It is a non-resident computer virus, which resides in an executable file.
Whenever the infected file is executed, it infects the other files.
✓ FAT Virus: Usually, it stores the information about the location of files. e.g. Link virus.
✓ File Infector Virus: It is one of the commonly found computer viruses. It mainly infects the
executable files; the files with .com or .exe extensions. The virus becomes active when
the infected file is executed. The active virus overwrites the file partially or completely.
Thus, it may destroy the original file partially or completely.
✓ File System Virus: Also known as Cluster Virus or Directory Virus, it affects the directory of
the system and changes the path that is the location of a file. e.g. Dir-2 virus, etc.
✓ Macros Virus: This type of virus affects the files that are created by using certain
applications and contains macros. e.g.: Melissa.A.
✓ Multipartite Virus: This virus can affect and expand in multiple ways. e.g.: Flip.
✓ Non-resident Virus: Unlike the resident virus, the non-resident virus does not reside in
the memory of a computer. So, it is not executed from the computer's memory. For
example, executable viruses.
✓ Overwrite Virus: It is a type of virus that deletes the original file and replaces it with the
new harmful file. Once it has been infected, it is not possible to clean the file. e.g. Way,
Trj.Reboor, and Trivial.88-D.

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 ✓ Polymorphic Virus: This type of virus affects system every time and encodes itself. This
virus is used to make a large number of copies. e.g. Elkern, and Tuareg.
✓ Rabbit Virus: It is also known as wabbit, a fork bomb. It is capable of creating new
processes, and each of the new process further creates new processes. This process
continues until this virus utilizes all the available resources in the system and system
falls short of resources. It may cause the target system to slow down and crash. For
example, it is like an Infinite loop that repeatedly creates processes that consume lots of
CPU cycles and operating system resources.
✓ Resident Virus: It is a type of virus that affects the system at run time. Usually, this type
of virus is stored permanently in the computer memory and gets active to infect the files
even after the harmful code is executed. e.g. Randex, and Meve.
✓ Stealth Virus: It is a hidden computer virus, which specifically attacks operating system
processes. It usually hides itself in partitions, files or boot sectors and is capable of going
unnoticed during antivirus or anti-malware scans, i.e., it can avoid detection
intentionally.
✓ Web Scripting Virus: This type of virus will occur in many websites at the time of
execution code. This virus affects the computer via websites and these websites are
created by infected code. e.g. J.S.Fortnight.

3.2.2 Antivirus
✓ Antivirus is a software, also known as anti-malware. Initially, antivirus software was
developed to detect and remove viruses only and hence the name anti-virus. However,
with time it has evolved and now comes bundled with the prevention, detection, and
removal of a wide range of malware.

3.2.2.1 Methods of Malware Identification used by Antivirus

• Signature-based detection
✓ Signature-based detection relies on an antivirus utilizing a continuously
updated signature database, known as the Virus Definition File (VDF). This
database contains virus signatures, requiring regular updates to effectively
detect new malware. Outdated VDFs render antivirus software ineffective,
specially against polymorphic malware or encrypted code.

• Sandbox detection
✓ Sandbox detection involves executing new applications or files within a virtual
environment (sandbox) to observe their behavioral patterns for potential
malware indicators.
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 • Data mining techniques
✓ Data mining techniques utilize various data mining and machine learning
methods to classify file behavior as either benign or malicious.

• Heuristics
✓ Heuristics involve comparing suspected program source code to known viruses
in a heuristic database. If a significant match is found, the code is flagged as a
potential threat based on patterns typically seen in malware infections.

• Real-time protection
✓ Real-time protection monitors the behavior of applications or files in active
memory, ensuring timely detection of dormant or activated malware. This
involves continuous observation for any suspicious activity while the file is
being executed.

3.3 Worms
✓ The Worm is also a malware that incurs unexpected or damaging behaviour on an infected
computer system. The major difference between a worm and a virus is that unlike a virus,
a worm does not need a host program or software to insert its code into.
✓ Worms are standalone programs that are capable of working on its own. Also, a virus needs
human triggering for replication (i.e. when a user opens/executes the infected file), while a
worm replicates on its own and can spread to other computers through the network.
✓ Some prominent examples of worms include Storm Worm, Sobig, MSBlast, Code Red,
Nimda, Morris Worm, etc.

3.4 Ransomware
✓ It is a type of malware that targets user data. It either blocks the user from accessing their
own data or threatens to publish the personal data online and demands ransom payment
against the same.

3.5 Trojan
✓ It is malware, that looks like a legitimate software and once it tricks a user into installing it,
it acts pretty much like a virus or worm. However, a Trojan does not self-replicate or infect
other files, it spreads through user interaction such as opening an email attachment or
downloading and executing a file from the Internet. Some Trojans create backdoors to give
malicious users access to the system.

3.6 Spyware
✓ It is a type of malware that spies on a person or an organisation by gathering information
about them, without the knowledge of the user. It records and sends the collected
information to an external entity without consent or knowledge of the user.
✓ Spyware usually tracks internet usage data and sells them to advertisers. They can also be
used to track and capture credit card or bank account information, login and password
information or user’s identity.

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 3.7 Adware
✓ An Adware is a malware that is created to generate revenue for its developer. An adware
displays online advertisements using pop-ups, web pages, or installation screens. Once an
adware has infected a substantial number of computer systems, it generates revenue
either by displaying advertisements or using “pay per click” mechanism to charge its clients
against the number of clicks on their displayed ads.

3.8 Keyloggers
✓ A keylogger can either be malware or hardware. The main purpose of this malware is to
record the keys pressed by a user on the keyboard. A keylogger makes logs of daily
keyboard usage and may send it to an external entity as well. In this way, very sensitive and
personal information like passwords, emails, private conversations, etc. can be revealed to
an external entity without the knowledge of the user.

4 Spam
Spam encompasses a range of activities across digital platforms such as messaging, forums,
chats, emails, and advertisements. However, email spam is perhaps the most commonly
recognized form.

It involves sending unsolicited advertisements or invitations to a large number of recipients,

cluttering inboxes and potentially leading users to unknowingly engage with harmful content
such as malware or deceptive offers.

5 HTTP vs HTTPS
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) and its secure variant HTTPS (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
Secure) are both sets of protocols governing data transmission over the World Wide Web
(WWW).

HTTP transmits data over the network without encryption, making it susceptible to attacks by
hackers. Therefore, it's suitable for websites sharing public information like news portals and
blogs.

In contrast, HTTPS encrypts data before transmission and requires an SSL Digital Certificate for
decryption at the receiver's end. This ensures enhanced security for websites handling sensitive
information.

6 Firewall
A computer firewall serves as a network security mechanism crafted to safeguard a trusted
private network from unauthorized access or traffic stemming from an untrusted external
network, such as the Internet or distinct sections within the same network.

Firewalls can be deployed through software, hardware, or a combination of both. They function
as the primary line of defense against malware infiltration.
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 A firewall acts as a network filter and based on the predefined security rules, it continuously
monitors and controls the incoming and outgoing traffic.

6.1 Types of Firewall

✓ Network Firewall: If the firewall is placed between two or more networks and monitors the
network traffic between different networks, it is termed as Network Firewall.
✓ Host-based Firewall: If the firewall is placed on a computer and monitors the network
traffic to and from that computer, it is called a host-based firewall.

7 Cookies
A computer cookie, a small file or data packet, is stored by a website on the client's computer
and can only be modified by the originating website. The client's computer serves as a host for
storing the cookie, which is utilized by websites to retain browsing information.

There are various types of cookies depending on their functions. Session cookies, for instance,
monitor the ongoing session and automatically end it upon timeout, as seen in banking
websites where leaving an e-banking page open results in automatic closure after a period of
inactivity.

Similarly, authentication cookies are employed by websites to verify whether the user is already
logged in (authenticated) or not. This eliminates the need for repeated logins when navigating
different pages or links within the same website.

7.1 Threats due to Cookies

✓ Usually, cookies are used for enhancing the user’s browsing experience and do not infect
your computer with malware. However, some malware might disguise as cookies e.g.
“supercookies”.
✓ There is another type of cookie known as “Zombie cookie” that gets recreated after being
deleted.
✓ Some third-party cookies might share user data without the consent of the user for
advertising or tracking purposes.

Identity theft

Identity theft occurs when someone wrongfully obtains and uses another person's personal data, such as
their name, Social Security number, credit card number, or other identifying information, usually for
financial gain.
rd
Phishing, Hacking, 3 Party Cookies, Spyware, Dumpster Diving, Malware can also lead to identity theft

8 Hackers and Crackers

Hackers and crackers are people having a thorough knowledge of the computer systems,
system software (operating system), computer networks, and programming. They use this

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 knowledge to find loopholes and vulnerabilities in computer systems or computer networks
and gain access to unauthorised information (Hacking).

In simple terms, a hacker is a person that is skilled enough to hack or take control of a
computer system. Depending on the intent, there are different types of hackers.

However, there are different types of Hackers:

8.1 White Hats: Ethical Hacker

✓ If a hacker uses its knowledge to find and help in fixing the security flaws in the system, its
termed as White Hat hacker. These are the hackers with good intentions. They are actually
security experts.
✓ Organizations hire ethical or white hat hackers to check and fix their systems for potential
security threats and loopholes. Technically, white hats work against black hats.

8.2 Black Hats: Crackers

✓ If hackers use their knowledge unethically to break the law and disrupt security by
exploiting the flaws and loopholes in a system, then they are called black hat hackers.

8.3 Grey Hats

✓ The distinction between different hackers is not always clear. There exists a grey area in
between, which represents the class of hackers that are neutral, they hack systems by
exploiting its vulnerabilities, but they don’t do so for monetary or political gains.
✓ The grey hats take system security as a challenge and just hack systems for the fun of it.

9 Internet Security Threats

9.1 Pharming
✓ More advance method of Phishing in which the attackers create duplicate or similar
looking website of other companies, to attract the customers and steal the data.

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 9.2 Mail Bomb
✓ An excessively large email (typically many thousands of messages) or one large message
sent to a user’s email account. This is done to crash the system and prevent genuine
messages from being received.

9.3 Scareware
✓ A common trick cybercriminal uses to make users think that their computer has become
infected with malware to get them to purchase a fake application.

9.4 Sniffers
✓ A software program used to monitor the traffic in a network. The hackers may use the
sniffed data to access important confidential data.

9.5 Rootkit
✓ A program designed to hide objects such as processes, files or Windows registry entries
(often including its own).

9.6 Phishing
✓ This is acquiring the personal and sensitive information of a person through official
looking emails. Users of online banking and e-commerce websites are more prone to
this attack.

9.7 Denial of Service

✓ Denial of Service (DoS) attacks involve overwhelming a target resource with illegitimate
requests, hindering authorized users from accessing it. This can disrupt services such as
websites, email servers, and network connections. If a server crashes, it can be
restarted, but recovery from flooding attacks is difficult due to mixed legitimate and
malicious requests. Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks expand upon this by
coordinating flooded requests from compromised computers across the globe, making
them even harder to counteract.

9.8 Network Intrusion

✓ Network intrusion refers to any unauthorized activity occurring on a computer network,
which could involve the misuse of network resources (such as in DoS attacks) or pose a
threat to network security and data integrity. It's a significant challenge, requiring
network administrators to devise strategies and implement various security measures
for protection. In addition to previously discussed intrusion techniques like DoS, Trojans,
and Worms, other notable attacks include:
9.8.1 Asymmetric Routing
✓ Attackers seek to avoid detection by sending intrusion packets through multiple paths,
effectively bypassing network intrusion sensors.
9.8.2 Buffer Overflow Attack
✓ In this scenario, attackers exploit programming errors to overwrite specific memory areas
on network computers with code. When a buffer overflow occurs, this code is executed,
allowing attackers to initiate DoS attacks or gain unauthorized network access.
9.8.3 Traffic Flooding
✓ This method involves inundating the network intrusion detection system with a high
volume of message packets. This flood of packets overwhelms the detection system,
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 creating a chaotic network environment that enables hackers to infiltrate the system
without being detected.
9.8.4 Snooping
✓ Snooping, both in general and within networking, involves covertly listening in on
conversations or capturing and analyzing network traffic. It's typically carried out using
specialized software or devices that monitor communication channels.
✓ While snooping is often associated with malicious intent, it can also be used by network
administrators for troubleshooting purposes. Various software tools exist for snooping,
and some network equipment offers features like SPAN ports for this purpose.
9.8.5 Eavesdropping
✓ It involves the unauthorized, real-time interception or monitoring of private
communications between two entities over a network. Unlike snooping, where network
traffic can be stored for later analysis, eavesdropping occurs instantaneously.
✓ Typically, eavesdropping targets private communication channels such as phone calls
(VoIP), instant messages, video conferences, and fax transmissions. To illustrate the
difference further, consider snooping as someone making a copy of a letter addressed to
your friend, keeping the copy for themselves, and sending the original letter to its
intended recipient.

10 Internet Safety
✓ Strong Passwords: Use strong, unique passwords for each online account. Avoid using easily
guessable information like birthdates or pet names. Consider using a password manager to
generate and store complex passwords securely.
✓ Two-Factor Authentication (2FA): Enable two-factor authentication wherever possible. This
adds an extra layer of security by requiring a second form of verification, such as a code sent
to your phone, in addition to your password.
✓ Update Software Regularly: Keep your operating system, antivirus software, web browsers,
and other applications up to date with the latest security patches and updates to protect
against vulnerabilities.
✓ Secure Wi-Fi Connections: Use encrypted Wi-Fi connections at home and in public places.
Avoid connecting to public Wi-Fi networks without using a VPN (Virtual Private Network) for
added security.
✓ Be Cautious of Phishing: Be wary of unsolicited emails, messages, or calls asking for personal
information or urging urgent action. Avoid clicking on suspicious links or downloading
attachments from unknown sources.
✓ Privacy Settings: Review and adjust privacy settings on social media platforms and other
online services to control who can see your information and posts. Limit the amount of
personal information you share publicly.
✓ Safe Browsing Habits: Exercise caution when visiting websites, downloading files, or clicking
on links. Stick to reputable websites and avoid downloading software from unknown sources
to minimize the risk of malware infections.
✓ Use Secure Websites (HTTPS): Look for the padlock icon and "https://" in the URL when
accessing websites, especially when entering sensitive information like passwords or credit
card details. This indicates a secure connection.

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 ✓ Data Backup: Regularly back up important files and data to an external hard drive, cloud
storage service, or another secure location to protect against data loss due to malware,
hardware failure, or other incidents.
✓ Educate Yourself: Stay informed about common online threats and scams. Educate yourself
and your family members about internet safety practices and encourage open
communication about online experiences and concerns.

10.1 Protecting Children Online

Protecting children online requires special attention and measures due to their vulnerability.
Here are some specific strategies to help keep children safe on the internet:

✓ Parental Controls: Use parental control features available on devices, routers, and
internet browsers to restrict access to inappropriate content. These controls can limit the
websites children can visit, set time limits for internet usage, and block or filter explicit
content.
✓ Safe Search Settings: Enable safe search settings on search engines to filter out explicit
content from search results. This helps prevent children from accidentally accessing
inappropriate material while browsing the web.
✓ Education and Communication: Educate children about online safety, including the risks
of sharing personal information, interacting with strangers, and engaging in cyberbullying.
Encourage open communication and teach them to report any suspicious or
uncomfortable online encounters.
✓ Supervised Internet Use: Monitor children's online activities and supervise their internet
usage, especially for younger children. Co-browsing with them can help you guide their
online experience and address any concerns or questions they may have.
✓ Set Ground Rules: Establish clear rules and guidelines for internet use, such as which
websites are allowed, time limits for screen time, and appropriate online behavior. Make
sure children understand the consequences of breaking these rules.
✓ Privacy Settings: Review and adjust privacy settings on social media accounts and other
online platforms to restrict who can view and interact with your child's profile or posts.
Teach children to be cautious about sharing personal information online.
✓ Cyberbullying Awareness: Educate children about cyberbullying and encourage them to
speak up if they experience or witness bullying online. Teach them how to block or report
abusive behavior and seek help from a trusted adult.
✓ Safe Messaging Apps: Choose messaging apps and online platforms with built-in safety
features designed for children, such as age-appropriate content filters, moderation tools,
and options for parental supervision.
✓ Regular Check-Ins: Have regular conversations with children about their online
experiences and any challenges they may be facing. Create a supportive environment
where they feel comfortable sharing their concerns or seeking help if needed.
✓ Lead by Example: Be a positive role model for responsible internet use. Practice good
online habits yourself and demonstrate respectful and safe behavior in your interactions
online.

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 11 Incognito mode
It also known as private browsing or privacy mode, is a feature available in most web browsers
that allows users to browse the internet without storing local data such as browsing history,
cookies, or cached files. When you use incognito mode, the browser typically doesn't save your
browsing history, cookies, site data, or information entered in forms. However, it's important to
note that incognito mode does not make you completely anonymous online.

11.1 Difference from Regular Browsing

✓ The primary difference between Incognito Mode and regular browsing is that in Incognito
Mode, the browser does not retain any information about the user's browsing session after
it is closed. This means that once the Incognito window is closed, all data associated with
that session is deleted, providing users with a level of privacy and anonymity not present in
regular browsing.
✓ In Incognito Mode, downloaded files are not saved directly to the device's local storage.
However, it's essential to note that while the downloaded files themselves aren't stored
locally after the Incognito session ends, users should still exercise caution.
✓ Once a file is downloaded in Incognito Mode, it typically resides temporarily in the device's
RAM or cache. While this may provide a level of privacy during the browsing session, the
file could still potentially leave traces on the device. For instance, if the user accesses the
downloaded file directly from the browser before the Incognito session ends, it might leave
a temporary cache or history entry.

11.2 Uses
✓ Privacy: It prevents others who may have access to your device from seeing your browsing
history.
✓ Testing: Web developers often use incognito mode to test websites without interference
from their browsing history or cached data.
✓ Logging into Multiple Accounts: It allows users to log into multiple accounts on the same
website simultaneously.
✓ Avoiding Cookies: Incognito mode can help users avoid being tracked by cookies, which are
often used for advertising purposes.

11.3 Limitations
✓ While Incognito Mode provides a level of privacy by not storing data locally, it does not
make users completely anonymous online. Internet service providers, websites visited, and
network administrators may still be able to track users' online activities.
✓ Additionally, activities such as downloading files or bookmarking pages while in Incognito
Mode may still leave traces on the device or network.

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CONCEPT NOTES

Emerging Trend
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 Contents
1 Artificial Intelligence ....................................................................................................................3
1.1 Machine Learning ................................................................................................................3
1.2 Natural Language Processing (NLP) .......................................................................................3
1.3 Immersive experiences.........................................................................................................3
1.3.1 Virtual Reality (VR)........................................................................................................4
1.3.2 Augmented Reality (AR) ................................................................................................4
1.4 Robotics ..............................................................................................................................4
2 Big Data ......................................................................................................................................4
2.1 Characteristics of Big Data ....................................................................................................5
2.2 Data analytics ......................................................................................................................5
2.3 Internet of Things (IoT).........................................................................................................6
2.4 Web of Things (WoT) ...........................................................................................................6
2.5 Smart Cities .........................................................................................................................6
3 Grid Computing...........................................................................................................................7
4 Blockchain technology .................................................................................................................8
4.1 Largest cryptocurrencies by market cap ................................................................................8

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 1 Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence aims to replicate human-like intelligence in machines, enabling them to
exhibit intelligent behavior. Intelligent machines are designed to mimic various cognitive
functions of humans, including learning, decision-making, and problem-solving. By
programming machines to establish a knowledge base and autonomously perform tasks with
minimal human intervention, AI seeks to enhance efficiency and productivity in various
domains.

1.1 Machine Learning

✓ It is a subset of Artificial Intelligence, empowers computers to learn from data using
statistical techniques, without explicit programming by humans. It entails the utilization of
algorithms that autonomously learn and make predictions based on data. These
algorithms, known as models, are initially trained and tested using separate sets of training
and testing data. Once adequately trained, these models can provide predictions with an
acceptable level of accuracy for new and unseen data.

Large Language Models

Large Language Models (LLMs) are advanced computer programs trained to understand and generate
human-like text. They use machine learning techniques to analyze vast amounts of written content and
learn the patterns of human language. LLMs can perform various language tasks such as text generation,
summarization, translation, and question answering. Notable examples include GPT-3, BERT (Bidirectional
Encoder Representations from Transformers).

LLMs are valuable for applications in health care, software development and language translation, content
generation, customer service chatbots, language translation, text summarization, personal assistants,
educational tools, creative writing, research, legal assistance, and accessibility support.into machine
language know as Object code.

1.2 Natural Language Processing (NLP)

✓ It involves the interaction between humans and computers using human languages, such as
Hindi or English. Examples include predictive typing features in search engines and spell -
checking functionalities. NLP enables various applications, such as web searching and
device control through voice commands. NLP systems can also convert text to speech and
vice versa.
✓ Machine translation is a burgeoning field wherein machines can translate texts from one
language to another with considerable accuracy. Another emerging application area is
automated customer service, where computer software interacts with customers to
address their inquiries or complaints.

1.3 Immersive experiences

✓ Immersive experiences have been revolutionized by three-dimensional (3D) videography,
enhancing the joy of watching movies in theaters and elevating video game experiences.
These experiences enable us to visualize, feel, and react by engaging our senses, resulting
in heightened interaction and engagement. Immersive technologies like virtual reality and
augmented reality are utilized to create realistic and engaging environments. They have

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 found applications in training, such as driving and flight simulators, providing hands-on
experience in a simulated setting.
1.3.1 Virtual Reality (VR)
✓ It is a computer-generated, three-dimensional simulation of the real world that allows
users to interact with and explore environments while feeling immersed in them. This
immersion is typically achieved through VR headsets, which present sensory information
such as sound, smell, motion, and temperature to enhance realism. VR has diverse
applications including gaming, military training, medical procedures, entertainment,
social science, psychology, engineering, and other fields requiring simulation for lear ning
and understanding.

1.3.2 Augmented Reality (AR)

✓ It involves overlaying computer-generated perceptual information onto the existing
physical surroundings. It integrates digital elements into the real world, creating an
interactive and manipulable environment. AR provides users with additional information
about their surroundings, such as nearby places and user reviews, enhancing their
interaction with the physical world. Location-based AR apps, in particular, allow users to
access real-time information about historical sites simply by pointing their camera
viewfinder at subjects.

1.4 Robotics
✓ A robot is a machine capable of performing tasks automatically with accuracy and
precision, programmable by a computer to follow instructions through computer
programs. Initially designed for repetitive and labor-intensive industrial tasks, robots have
various types such as wheeled robots, legged robots, manipulators, and humanoids.
Humanoids are robots resembling humans. They find applications in industries, medical
science, bionics, scientific research, and the military.
✓ Examples of robots include
• NASA's Mars Exploration Rover (MER) for studying Mars
• Sophia the humanoid utilizing artificial intelligence and facial recognition
• Drones - unmanned aircraft controlled remotely or autonomously through software-
controlled flight plans. Drones are used in journalism, filming, aerial photography,
shipping, disaster management, search and rescue operations, healthcare, geographic
mapping, structural safety inspections, agriculture, and wildlife monitoring.

2 Big Data
With technology permeating nearly every aspect of our lives, data production has skyrocketed.
With over a billion Internet users and the majority of web traffic stemming from smartphones,
an astonishing amount of data is generated daily - approximately 2.5 quintillion bytes. This pace
is accelerating with the continuous evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT)

This results in the generation of data sets of enormous volume and complexity called Big Data.

Traditional data processing tools struggle to handle Big Data due to its voluminous and
unstructured nature, including posts, instant messages, photographs, tweets, blog articles,
news items, opinion polls, and more.

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 Big Data presents numerous challenges, including integration, storage, analysis, searching,
processing, transfer, querying, and visualization. Despite these challenges, Big Data holds
valuable insights and knowledge, driving efforts to develop software and methods for its
processing and analysis, reflecting its high business value.

2.1 Characteristics of Big Data

✓ Big data is characterized by five key attributes:
• Volume: Big data is defined by its massive size, often too large to be processed
efficiently with traditional database management tools.
• Velocity: It refers to the speed at which data is generated and stored. Big data is
generated at an exponentially higher rate compared to traditional datasets.
• Variety: Big data encompasses diverse types of data, including structured, semi-
structured, and unstructured data such as text, images, videos, and web pages.
• Veracity: Big data can be inconsistent, biased, noisy, or contain abnormalities due to
issues with data collection methods. Veracity refers to the trustworthiness of the data
and the potential for incorrect results if processed without scrutiny.
• Value: Beyond its sheer size, big data holds hidden patterns and valuable insights that
can have significant business value. However, the investment of resources in processing
big data should be carefully evaluated to ensure its potential is realized.

2.2 Data analytics

✓ It is the method of scrutinizing datasets to extract insights and conclusions, facilitated by
specialized systems and software. These technologies are increasingly utilized across
various industries to support informed decision-making. In scientific research, data
analytics aids in validating or refuting scientific models, theories, and hypotheses.
✓ Pandas, a library in the Python programming language, serves as a powerful tool for
simplifying data analysis processes.

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 2.3 Internet of Things (IoT)
✓ The term 'Internet of Things' (IoT) describes a
network of devices fitted with embedded
hardware and software, allowing them to
communicate within the same network.
✓ Presently, various household devices operate
in isolation, typically requiring human
intervention for operation and data input. IoT
aims to unite these devices, facilitating
collaboration to establish an intelligent
network of interconnected entities. For
instance, appliances like microwave ovens, air
conditioners, door locks, CCTV cameras, and
others can connect to the Internet, enabling
remote access and control via smartphones from any location.

2.4 Web of Things (WoT)

✓ The concept of Web of Things (WoT) allows for leveraging web services to connect
anything in the physical world, alongside human identities on the web. This approach
opens up possibilities for creating smart homes, smart offices, smart cities, and beyond.

2.5 Smart Cities

✓ Smart Cities leverage computer, communication technology, and IoT to efficiently manage
resources and address urban challenges like traffic congestion and infrastructure
maintenance. Sensors in buildings, bridges, and tunnels detect issues such as earthquakes,
structural abnormalities, and congestion, enabling timely alerts and responses. Through
integrated systems, smart cities optimize operations across transportation, utilities, waste
management, and community services, aiming for resilience and sustainability.

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 3 Grid Computing
Grid computing is a network of geographically dispersed and heterogeneous computational
resources, forming a virtual supercomputer with significant processing power and storage. It
brings together various nodes, ranging from handheld devices to workstations, to collectively
solve complex tasks. Grids offer an economical solution for computationally intensive scientific
and research problems by utilizing existing resources without costly hardware procurement.

To establish a grid, middleware such as the open-source Globus toolkit is used to implement
distributed processor architecture. This toolkit provides software for security, resource
management, data management, communication, and fault detection, facilitating the creation
and management of grid networks.

There are two types of grids:

(i) Data Grid: This type of grid is utilized for managing large and distributed datasets, providing
multi-user access. Data grids facilitate efficient storage, retrieval, and sharing of data across
geographically dispersed locations.

(ii) CPU or Processor Grid: In a CPU grid, processing tasks are distributed among multiple
computing nodes. This approach allows for workload balancing and parallel processing, where a
large task is divided into smaller subtasks and assigned to different nodes for simultaneous
execution. This maximizes computational efficiency and speeds up the overall processing time.

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 4 Blockchain technology
Blockchain technology revolutionizes digital transactions by introducing decentralization and
shared databases. In traditional systems, data is stored in a centralized database, posing risks of
hacking or data loss. However, blockchain operates on a decentralized network where each
computer maintains a copy of the database, ensuring security and transparency.

A blockchain consists of blocks, which are secured chunks of data or transactions, linked
together to form a chain. Each block contains visible header data accessible to every node,
while private data remains encrypted. Transactions are authenticated by all nodes in the
network before being added to the append-only ledger, ensuring data integrity.

While blockchain is widely known for its application in digital currency, its decentralized nature
and security features make it ideal for enhancing transparency, accountability, and efficiency
across various sectors. In healthcare, blockchain facilitates better data sharing among
providers, leading to accurate diagnoses and cost-effective care delivery. It also finds use in
land registration to prevent disputes and in voting systems to ensure transparency and
authenticity.

Overall, blockchain technology holds promise for transforming industries like banking, media,
telecom, travel, and hospitality by fostering trust and streamlining processes through
decentralized and secure transactions.

4.1 Largest cryptocurrencies by market cap

Year of Introduction Cryptocurrency Founder(s)

2009 Bitcoin Satoshi Nakamoto
2015 Ethereum Vitalik Buterin
2015 Tether Jan Ludovicus van der Velde
2017 Binance Coin Changpeng Zhao
2020 Solana Anatoly Yakovenko
2018 USD Coin CENTRE Consortium
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 2013 XRP Chris Larsen & Jed McCaleb
2013 Dogecoin Jackson Palmer & Billy Markus
Toncoin
2017 Cardano Charles Hoskinson
2020 Shiba Inu Ryoshi
2020 Avalanche Emin Gün Sirer, Kevin Sekniqi, Maofan "Ted" Yin

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CONCEPT NOTES

Abbreviation and Glossary

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 Contents
1 COMPUTER ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................................................3
2 COMPUTER TERMINOLOGIES ..................................................................................................... 10

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 1 COMPUTER ABBREVIATIONS
3GP 3rd Generation Project
#
3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project
AAC Advanced Audio Config
ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
AI Artificial Intelligence
ALGOL Algorithmic Language
ALU Arithmetic and Logical Unit
AMR Adaptive Multi-Rate Codec
A ANSI American National Standard Institute
API Application Program Interface
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
ARPANET Advanced Standard Code for Information Interchange
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
AVI Audio Video Interleave
BASIC Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
BCC Blind Carbon Copy
BCD Binary Coded Decimal
BHTML Broadcast Hyper Text Markup Language

B BIOS Basic Input Output System

BIS Business Information System
BIU Bus Interface Unit
BMP Bitmap
BPS Bits Per Second
CAD Computer Aided Design
CADD Computer Aided Design and Drafting
CAI Computer Aided Instruction
C
CAM Computer Aided Manufacturing
CASE Computer Aided Software Engineering
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
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 CD-R Compact Disc-Recordable
CD-ROM Compact Disc – Read Only Memory
CD-RW Compact Disc-Rewritable
CISC Complex Instructions Set Computers
COBOL Common Business Oriented Language
Commonly Oriented Machine Particularly Used for Technology,
COMPUTER
Education and Research
CPS Character Per Second
CPU Central Processing Unit
CRT Cathode Ray Tube
CU Control Unit
CUI Character/Command User Interface
DAT Digital Audio Tape
DBMS Data Base Management System
DNS Domain Name System
DOC Document
DOS Disk Operating System
DPI Dots Per Inch

D DRAM Dynamic Random-Access Memory

DVD Digital Versatile Disk
DVD-RAM Digital Video Disc - Random Access Memory
DVD-ROM Digital Video Disc - Read Only Memory
DVD-RW Digital Video Disc – Read/Write
DVI Digital Video Interface
DVR Digital Video Recorder
ebcdic Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
Enhanced Data Rate for GSM (Global System for Mobile
EDGE
Communication) Evolution
EDSAC Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Calculator
E
edp Electronic Data Processing
EDVAC Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Calculator
eeprom Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

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 eprom Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
E-mail Electronic Mail
ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator
FAT File Allocation Table
fifo First In First Out
FM Frequency Modulation
F
fortran FORmula TRANslation
FPS Frames Per Second
FTP File Transfer Protocol
GB Gigabyte
GDI Graphical Device Interface
GIF Graphical Interchangeable Format

G GIGO Garbage In, Garbage Out

GPRS Global Packet Radio Service
GSM Global System for Mobile Communication
GUI Graphical User Interface
hdd Hard Disk Drive
hdmi High Definition Multimedia Interface
HSDPA High Speed Downlink Packet Access
H
HTML Hyper Text Markup Language
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
HTTPS Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure
IBM International Business Machines
icann Internet Corporation of Assign Names and Numbers
imap Internet Message Access Protocol
INTEL Integrated Electronics
I
IP Internet Protocol
isdn Integrated Services Digital Network
ISP Internet Service Provider
ivr Interactive Voice Response

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 JAD Java Application Descriptor
J
JPEG Joint Photographic Expert Group

K KBPS Kilobits/Kilobytes Per Second

LAN Local Area Network
LCD Liquid Crystal Display
L
LED Light Emitting Diode
lifo Last In First Out
M3G Mobile 3D Graphics
M4A MPEG-4 Audio File
mac Media Access Control
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
MBPS Megabits/Megabytes Per Second
M MICR Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
midi Musical Instrument Digital Interface
MIME Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension
MIPS Million Instructions Per Second
MPEG Motion Picture Experts Group
modem Modulator Demodulator
NAT Network Address Translation
N nic Network Interface Card
NTFS New Technology File System
OCR Optical Character Recognition
O OMR Optical Mark Reader/ Recognition
os Operating System
P2P Peer-to-Peer
PAN Personal Area Network
PCB Printed Circuit Board
P
PDA Personal Digital Assistant
PDF Portable Document Format
PIN Personal Identification Number

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 ping Packet Internet Gopher
PNG Portable Network Graphics
pop Post Office Protocol
pop3 Post Office Protocol Verson3
pos Point of Sale
POST Power on Self-Test
ppp Point to Point Protocol
PROM Programmable Read Only Memory
pstn Public Switched Telephone Network
RAM Random Access Memory
R ROM Read Only Memory
RPM Revolutions Per Minute
SCSI Small Computer System Interface
sdd Solid State Drive
SDRAM Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory
SFTP Secure File Transfer Protocol
SIM Subscriber Identity Module
SMPS Switch Mode Power Supply
S
SMS Short Message Service
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
sram Static Random-Access Memory
SQL Structured Query Language
ssl Secure Sockets Layer
SWF Shock Wave Flash
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
Telnet Telecommunication Networking

T TFT Thin Film Transistor

TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol
TIFF Tagged Image File Format

U udp User Datagram Protocol

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 UHF Ultra-High Frequency
ulsi Ultra Large-Scale Integration
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
Universal Automatic Computer/ Universal Non-Integrated
UNIVAC
Vacuum Actuated Computer
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
URL Uniform Resource Locator
USB Universal Serial Bus
VAN Value Added Network
VDU Visual Display Unit
VFX Visual Effects
VGA Video Graphics Array
V
VHF Very High Frequency
VIRUS Vital Information Resource Under Seize
vlsi Very Large Scale Integration
VOIP Voice Over Internet Protocol
WAIS Wide-Area Information Server
WAN Wide Area Network
WAP Wireless Application Protocol
WAV Waveform Audio
WBMP Wireless Bitmap Image
WI-FI Wireless Fidelity
wimax Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
W WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
wll Wireless Local Loop
WMA Windows Media Audio
WML Wireless Markup Language
WMV Windows Media Video
WORM Write Once Read Many
WWW World Wide Web
WYSIWYG What You See Is What You Get

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 XMF Extensible Music File
X
xml Extensible Markup Language

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 2 COMPUTER TERMINOLOGIES
A
• Access – To call up information out of storage.
• Access time – The amount of time it takes for requested information to be delivered from
disks and memory.
• Accumulator – A local storage area called a register, in which the result of an arithmetic
or logic operation is formed. It contains a single data register.
• Active Directory – It is a Microsoft product that consists of several services that run on
Windows Server to manage permissions and access to networked resources. Active
Directory stores data as objects. An object is a single element, such as a user, group,
application or device, such as a printer.
• Adapter – A circuit board that plugs into a computer and gives it additional capabilities.
• Adware – It is a software package which automatically renders advertisements in order
to generate revenue for its author.
• ALGOL – It was the first language with a formal grammar. ALGOL was created by a
committee for scientific use in 1958. Its major contribution is being the root of the tree
that has led to such languages as Pascal, C, C++ and Java.
• Algorithm – A step-by-step procedure designed to solve a problem or achieve an
objective.
• Alphanumeric – A character set that contains letters, digits and other special characters
such as @, $, +, * % etc.
• Amplifier – A device that takes in a week electric signal and sends out a strong one. It is
used to boost electrical Signals in many electronic devices such as radios, televisions and
telephones.
• Analog Computer – A computer that operated on data which is in the form of continuous
variable physical quantities.
• Android – It is a Linux based operating system designed primarily for touchscreen mobile
devices such a smartphones and tablets computer
• Antivirus Software – Antivirus software consists of 3omputer programs that attempt to
identify threat and eliminate computer virus and other malicious software (Malware)
• Applet – A small java application that is downloaded from java-based web browser.
• Application Software – It is a subclass of computer software that employs the capabilities
of a computer directly to a task that the user wishes to perform. e.g., word document,
spreadsheet, etc.
• Archieve – It provides backup storage.
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – The arithmetic logic unit is a part of the execution unit, a
core component of all CPUs. ALUs are capable of calculating the results of a wide variety
of basic arithmetical and logical computations

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 • Artificial Intelligence – Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial
intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice
recognition, that are being used today.
• ASCII – ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is a character set and
a character encoding based on the Roman alphabet as used in Modern English and other
Western European languages.
• Assembler – A program that translates mnemonic statement into executable instruction.
• Attribute – The characteristics of an entity are called its attributes.
B
• Backspace – This key is used on the keyboard to delete the text. It will delete the text to
the left of cursor.
• Backup – Storage of duplicate files on disks, diskettes, or some other form of magnetic
medium (such as taped) as a safety measure in case the original medium is damaged or
lost.
• Bandwidth – The maximum amount of data that can travel in a communication path in a
given time, measured in bits per second (bps).
• Bar Code – It is a machine-readable representation of information in a visual format on a
surface. The first bar code system was developed by Norman Joseph Woodland and
Bernard Silver in 1952.
• Basic Input Output System (BIOS) – Also known as ROM BIOS. It provides an abstraction
layer for the hardware, i.e., a consistent way for application programs and operating
system to interact with input/output devices
• Binary Code – The language used by computers in which data and instructions are
represented by a series of 1s and 0s.
• Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) – A coding system in which a 4-digit binary number
represents each decimal digit from 0 to 9
• Binary numbering system – A numbering system in which all numbers are represented
by various combinations of the digits of 0 and 1
• Bit – A bit sometimes abbreviated as (binary digit) is the most basic information unit used
in computing and information theory. A single bit is a one or a zero, a true or a false, a
'flag' which is 'on' or 'off' or in general, the quantity of information required to distinguish
two mutually exclusive states from each other.
• Bitmap – A method of storing a graphic image as a set of bits in a computer memory. To
display the image on the screen, the computer converts the bits into pixels.
• Blog – It is a discussion or informational site published on the world wide web.
• Bomb – A type of virus designed to activate at a specific date and time on your computer.
• Bluetooth – A protocol that permits a wireless exchange of information between
computers. cell phone and other electronic devices within a radius about 30 feet,
• Booting – It is a bootstrapping process which starts the operating system when a
computer is switched on
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 • Botnet – It is a collection of internets connected programs communicating with other
similar programs in order to perform tasks.
• Boot Sequence – A boot sequence is the set of operations the computer performs when
it is switched on which loads an operating system.
• Browser – A special software that enables users to read/view web pages and jump from
one web page to another.
• Buffering – The process of storing data in a memory device, allowing the devices to
change the data rates, perform error checking and error retransmission.
• Bug – A software bug is an error, flaw, failure, or fault in a computer program or system
produces an incorrect or unexpected result.
• Bulletin Board System (BBS) – An online information system, usually, set-up by an
individual on a non-profit basis for the enjoyment of other individual with similar interest
• Bus – A pathway along which electronic signals travel between the components of a
computer system.
• Byte – A byte is commonly used as a unit of storage measurement in computers,
regardless of the type of data being stored.
C
• Cache Memory – The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main
memory Therefore, the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory.
To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU and
main memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU It is called the Cache
Memory.
• Central Processing Unit (CPU) – The Central Processing Unit (CPU) performs the actual processing
of data. It is the part of a computer system that interprets and carries out the instructions
contained in the software. The CPU is generally called by its generic name 'Processor'. It is also
known as the brain of computer.
• Chart Wizard – The chart wizard brings you through the process of creating a chart by displaying
a series of dialog boxes.
• Channel – A medium for transferring information which is also called a line or circuit. A
communication channel can be a physical link, such as a cable that connects two stations in a
network or it can consist of some electromagnetic transmission.
• Chat – A method of communication in which people type text messages to each other, thereby
holding a conversation over a network such as the Internet.
• Chip – A tiny wafer of silicon containing miniature electric circuits that can store millions of bits
of information.
• Client-Server – It is a network architecture which separates the client from the server. Each
instance of the client software can send requests to a server or application server.
• Clipboard – A holding area in memory where information that has been copied or cut (text,
graphics, sound or video) can be stored until the information is inserted elsewhere.
• Clock Rate – The clock rate is the fundamental rate in cycles per second, measured in hertz, at
which a computer performs its most basic operations such as adding two numbers or transferring
a value from one processor register to another.
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 • CMOS – A type of computer chip which is able to operate with a very small amount of electricity
from a battery. CMOS refers as complementary metal oxide semiconductor.
• Cold Boot – When a computer restarts after the power cut is called cold boot
• Command – An instruction that causes a program or computer to perform a function.
• Command Line Interface - A Command Line Interface (CLI) is a method of interacting with a
computer by giving it lines of textual commands (that is, a sequence of characters) from the
keyboard.
• Command.com – It is the name for the default operating system shell (or command line
interpreter) for DOS and some versions of Windows.
• Communication – The transmission of data from one computer to another or from one device to
another is called communication
• Compact Disk (CDR) – CD-ROM disks are made of plastic and are coated with reflective metals.
Their storage density is very high, storage cost is very low and access time is relatively fast. Each
disk is approximately 4.5 inches in diameter and can hold about 700 MB of data
• Compiler – A compiler is a computer program that translates a series of instructions written in
one computer language (called the source language) into another computer language (also called
the object or target language).
• Computer Graphics – Computer Graphics are visual presentations on a computer screen.
Examples are photographs, drawings, line arts, graphs, diagrams, typography numbers, symbols,
geometric designs, maps, engineering drawings or other images.
• Computer Networks – A computer network is a system or communication among two or more
computers. The computer networks can be broadly classified as Homogenous' and
'Heterogeneous'.
• Computer Output Microfilm (COM) – An extremely high speed, low cost process that records
computer generated information directly from the computer tape or cartridge to a mini microfilm
media.
• Computer Worm – A computer worm is a self - replicating computer program, similar to a
computer virus.
• Control Panel – Control Panel is the part of Windows menu, accessible from the start menu, which
allows users to view and manipulate basic system settings and controls, such as adding hardware,
adding/removing software, controlling user accounts, changing accessibility options, etc.
• Control Unit – A control unit is the part of a CPU that directs its operation. The output of this unit
controls the activity of the rest of the device.
• Cookie – A packet of information that travels between a browser and the web server.
• Cracker – The preferred term used to refer to a computer criminal who penetrates a computer to
steal information or damage the program in some way.
• Crash – A malfunction in hardware or software that keeps a computer from functioning.
• CRT Monitor – A CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) monitor contains millions of tiny red, green and blue
phosphorous dots that glow when struck by an electron beam that travels across the screen to
create a visible image.
• Crawler – A web crawler is an internet bot that systematically browses the world wide web,
typically for the purpose of web indexing. It is also called a web spider.

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 D
• Data – Information consisting of letters, numbers, symbols, sound or images – in a form that can
be processed by a computer.
• Database – A database is a collection of information that is organized so that it can easily be
accessed, managed and updated.
• Data abstraction – It is the reduction of a particular body of data to a simplified representation of
the whole.
• Data Dictionary – The document that contains clear definitions of the data that will be used in
setting up database management systems.
• Data processing – It refers to the process of collection and manipulating raw data to yield useful
information.
• Data Flow Diagrams – A data flow diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation of the flow of data
through an information system. A data flow diagram can also be used for the visualization of data
processing (structured design).
• Data Type – A data type is a defined kind of data, i.e, a set of possible values and basic operations
on those values.
• Debugging – Locating and eliminating defects in a program.
• Degree – The number of fields associated with the database table or relation.
• Delete – A command to erase information in storage.
• Desktop Publishing – Desktop Publishing (also known as DTP) combines a personal computer,
Page Layout software and a printer to create publications on small economic scale.
• Device Driver – A device driver, often called a driver for short, is a computer program that enables
another program, typically, an operating system to interact with a hardware device.
• Difference Engine – A difference engine is a historical (now obsolete) mechanical special-purpose
computer designed to tabulate polynomial functions. Difference engine was created in 1822 by
Charles Babbage. The machine used for the decimal numbers system and was powered by
cranking a handle.
• Direct Access – Direct access is the capability of the computer equipment to obtain data from a
storage device. or to enter data into a storage device, in a sequence independent of their relative
positions by means of address that indicate the physical location of the data.
• Directory – A list of the files stored on a disk.
• Disk Operating System (DOS) – A disk operating system (abbreviated DOS) is a computer
operating system that can used a disk storage device, such as floppy disk, hard disk drive, or
optical disc.
• Domain Name – A unique name that identifies a particular website and represents the name of
the server where the web pages reside.
• Dot Matrix Printer – A Dot Matrix Printer refers to a type of computer printer with a print head
that runs back and forth on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon
against the paper, much like a typewriter.
• Dots Per Inch (DPI) – It is defined as the measure of the resolution of a printer, scanner or monitor.
• Download – A copy (data) from one computer system to another, typically over the Internet.
• Drag-and-Drop – In computer graphical user interfaces, drag and drop is the action of clicking on
a virtual object and dragging it to a different location or onto another virtual object.
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 • Dual Core – The Pentium dual core brand was used for mainstream X-86 architecture
microprocessor from Intel.
• Dumb Terminal – A computer terminal with no processing or programming capabilities, generally
used for simple data entry or retrieval tasks.
• DVD – It is an optical disk storage media format that can be used for data storage including movies
with high quality video and sound.
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) – Dynamic Random-Access Memory is a type of random-access memory
which stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor.
E
• EBCDIC – EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) is an 8-bit character
encoding used on IBM mainframe operating systems, like Z/OS, S/390, AS/400 and i5/OS.
• E-Commerce – Electronic commerce is a type of industry where buying and selling of product or
services is conducted over electronic systems such as the Intranet and other computer network.
• Editing – The process of changing information by inserting, deleting, replacing, rearranging and
reformation.
• EDO (Extended Data Output) RAM – This form of dynamic RAM speeds access to memory
locations by working on a simple assumption—the next time memory is accessed. it will be at a
contiguous address in a contiguous chunk of hardware.
• Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) – A special type of
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical
charge. It retains its contents even when the power is turned off.
• Electronic Data Processing (EDP) – A data processing through equipment that is predominantly
electronic such as digital computer.
• E-mail – Electronic mail, abbreviated e-mail is a method of composing, sending, storing and
receiving messages over electronic communication systems.
• Encapsulation – It is a mechanism that associates the code and the data it manipulates into a
single unit and keeps them safe from external interference.
• Encryption – In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding messages (or information) in
such a way that hackers cannot read it, but the authorised users can access it.
• End User – Any individual who uses the information generated by a computer based system.
• Entity – An entity is something that has certain attributes or properties which may be assigned
values.
• EPROM – An EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only memory) is a type of computer memory
chip that retains its data when its power supply is switched off.
• Escape Key – A key that permits the user to leave one segment of a program and move to another.
• Ethernet Card – A network adapter that enables a computer to connect to an ethernet.
• Excel – Excel allows you to create spreadsheets much like paper ledgers that can perform
automatic calculations.
• Exe (.exe) – It is a common filename extension denoting an executable file (a program) in the DOS,
MS - Windows.
• Execution Time – The total time required to execute a program on a particular system.
• Extended Data Output (EDO) RAM – It is a type of RAM chip that improves the time to read from
memory on faster microprocessors such as the Intel Pentium.
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 • Extranet – A technology that permits the users of one organisation's intranet to enter portions of
another organisation's intranet in order to conduct business transactions or collaborate on joint
projects.
• Export – To save information from one computer or program to another.
F
• Fax – It stands for ‘Facsimile machine’. It is used to transmit a copy of a document electronically.
• Fax Modem – A device built into or attached to a computer that serves as a facsimile machine
and a modem.
• Field – The attributes of an entity are written as fields in the table representation.
• File – A collection of information stored electronically and treated
• File Allocation Table (FAT) – It is the name of a computer file system architecture. The FAT file
system is a legacy file system which is simple and robust.
• File Manager – The file manager is an operating system utility that provides a user interface to
work with file systems
• File Server – In the client/server model, a file server is a computer responsible for the central
storage and management of data files so that other computers on the same network can access
the files.
• Firewall – A security system usually consisting of hardware and software that prevents
unauthorised persons from accessing certain parts of a programme database or network.
• Firmware – Firmware is a technology which has the combination of both hardware and software.
It provides necessary instructions for how the device communicates with others computer
hardware.
• Flash Memory – It is a type of non-volatile computer storage chip that can be electrically erased
and reprogrammed. It was developed using EEPROM.
• Floppy disk – A floppy disk is a data storage device that is composed of a circular piece of thin,
flexible (i.e., floppy) magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic walled.
• Flowcharts – Flowcharts are the means of visually representing the flow of data through an
information processing system, the operations an performed within the system and the sequence
in which they are performed.
• Foreign Key – A field in a database table, which links it to another related table.
• FORTRAN - It stands for FORmula TRANslation. The language was designed at IBM for scientific
computing. The components were very simple and provided the programmer with low -level
access to the computer's innards.
• Format – To set margins, tabs, font or line spacing in layout of a document.
• Frame – The basic packages of information on a network channel.
• Frequency – The number of oscillations of a signal per unit of time. It is usually expressed in cycles
per second (cps or hertz Hz).
• Freeware – A form of software distribution where the author retains copyright of the software
but makes the program available to others at no cost.
• Function Key – A special key on a computer keyboard or a terminal devices keyboard that is used
to perform specific functions. These keys are programmable so that a software product can put
the function keys to specific uses. Many keyboards have function keys labelled from F1 to F12.

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 G
• Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO) – It pertains to the fact that most computer errors are not errors,
they are data errors caused by incorrect input data.
• Gateway – A device that is used to joint together two networks having different base protocols.
• Gigabyte – A gigabyte is a unit of information or computer storage equal to approximately one
billion bytes
• Gigahertz (GHz) – A measurement used to identify the speed of the central processing unit. One
gigahertz is equal to 1 billion cycles per second.
• Glitch – A hardware problem that causes a computer to malfunction or crash.
• Gopher – A protocol used for locating and transferring information on the internet. It is an internet
search tool that allows users to access textual information.
• Graphic Interchange Format (GIF) – A simple file format for pictures and photographs, that are
compressed so they can be sent quickly.
• Graphical User Interface – A Graphical User Interface (or GUI) is a method of interacting with a
computer through a metaphor of direct manipulating of graphical images and widgets in addition
to text.
• Groupware – It is a software that allows networked individual to form groups and collaborate on
documents, programs or database.
H
• Hacker – A computer criminal who penetrates and tempers with computer programs or systems.
• Hard Copy – Text or graphics printed on paper: also called a printout.
• Hard Disk – A hard disk is a non-volatile data storage device that stores data on a magnetic surface
layered onto disk platters.
• Hardware – The mechanical, magnetic, electronic and electrical components that comprises a
computer system such as CPU, monitor, keyboard and mouse, etc.
• Header – Repetitive Information that appears at the top (the head) of every page of a document.
• High-Level Programming Languages – A high-level programming language is a programming
language that is more user-friendly to some extent, platform-independent and abstract from low-
level computer processor operations such as memory accesses.
• Hit - A single request for information made by a client computer from a web server.
• Home Page – A starting point or a doorway to the website. It refers to the web page that identifies
a website and contains the hyperlink to another web page in the website.
• Host Computer – A computer that provides information or a service to other computers on the
internet. Every host computer has its own unique host name.
• Hub – A network device that connects multiple computers on a LAN, so that they can
communicate with one another.
• Hyperlink – An image or portion of text on a web page that is linked to another web page.
• Hybrid Computer – Hybrid computers are made by taking the best features of the analog
computer and digital computer. A simple example of this type is the computer used in hospitals.
• Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) – It is an important protocol used on the world wide web for
moving hypertext files across the internet. It requires an HTTP client program on one end and
HTTP server program on another end.

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 I
• Icon – A symbol (such as picture or a folder) that represents a certain function on your computer.
When the user clicks on the icon, the appropriate function is executed.
• Impact Printers – Impact printers transfer the image onto paper through a printing mechanism
that strikes the paper called ribbon. Examples of impact printers are dot matrix printers and daisy
wheel printers.
• Information – Information is the summarization of data according to a certain pre -defined
purpose.
• Ink-Jet Printer – In an ink-jet printer. characters are formed as a result of electrically charged or
heated ink being sprayed in fine jets onto the paper. Individual nozzles in the printing head
produce high resolution characters.
• Input – In order to give instructions to a computer, the information has to be supplied to it. This
information is given to the computers through an input device such as keyboard, mouse, scanner
etc.
• Instant Messaging (IM) – A chat program that lets people communicate over the internet in real
time.
• Instruction – A command or order given to a computer to perform a task.
• Instruction Cycle – Fetching and decoding operations of the machine cycle.
• Integrated Circuits – Multiple electronic components combined on a silicon chip.
• Intelligent Terminal – Intelligent terminals are those which necessarily have processing power
and non-volatile data storage space.
• Interface – A device or program that helps a user to communicate with a computer.
• Internet – The Internet (also known simply as the net is the worldwide, publicly accessible system
of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard
Internet protocol.
• Internet Protocol (IP) Address – IP addresses are assigned to each and every computer on a
TCP/IP network. It ensures that data on a network goes where it is supported to go e.g.,
192.168.2.250.
• Internet Protocol Suite – The Internet protocol suite is the set of communications protocols that
implement the protocol stack on which the Internet and most commercial networks run.
• Internet Service Provider – An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a business organization that offers
users access to the Internet and related services.
• Interpreter – A program that converts and executes the source code into machine code line by
line.
• Intranet – A private network established by an organization for the exclusive use of its employees.
J
• Java – A programming language designed for programs or applets used over the Internet.
• JavaScript – It is an object-oriented programming language used to create interactive effects in a
web browser.
• JPEG – It is a commonly used method of lossy compression for digital photography. The term
'JPEG' is an acronym for the Joint Photographic Experts Groups.
• Joystick – A joystick is a computer peripheral or general control device consisting of a handheld
stick that pivots about one end and transmits its angle in two or three dimensions to a computer.
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 • Justification – Aligning lines of text at the left margin, the right margin, both margins, or the
centre.
K
• Kernel – It is the fundamental part of a program, such as an operating system, that resides in
memory at all times.
• Keyboard – This is the standard input device attached to all computers. The layout of keyboard is
just like the traditional typewriter of the type QWERTY. It also contains some extra command keys
and function keys.
• Key Field – A unique field in a record used to distinguish one record from another.
• Kilobyte – A kilobyte is a unit of information or computer storage equal to 1024 bytes. It is
commonly abbreviated KB, kB, k byte or K byte.
L
• Label – One or more characters used to Identify a statement and instruction or a data field in a
computer program.
• LAN – LAN stands for Local Area Network. In a LAN, the connected computers are geographically
close together. They are either in the same building or within a smaller area.
• Landscape – A printer feature, generally controlled by software, which rotates the output image
by 90- to print across the length rather than the width of the paper.
• Laptop – Laptop is a small, lightweight and portable battery-powered computers that can fit onto
your lap. They each have a thin, flat and liquid crystal display screen.
• LASER Printer A computer-driven photocopier that creates an original image of the text or
graphics from the output of the computer onto a paper.
• LIGHT Pen – A light sensitive style for forming graphics by touching coordinates on a display
screen. thereby seeming to draw directly on the screen.
• Link – A communication path between two nodes or channel.
• LINUX – Linux is an open source operating system, meaning that the source code of the operating
system is freely available to the public.
• List Processing (LISP) – A high level programming language suitable for handling logical operations
and non-numeric applications.
• Loop – A sequence of instructions that is executed repeatedly until a terminal condition occurs.
M
• Machine Language – The language of computer is called binary language. Instructions in this
language are written as a sequence of 0's and 1's.
• Macro – A script that operates a series of commands to perform a function. It is set up to
automate repetitive tasks.
• Mainframe - Sometimes it's called a server or CPU mostly. A mainframe is only a mainframe when
compared to a desktop computer. It is bigger and much more powerful.
• Malware – It a software that disrupts normal computer functions or sends a user’s personal data
without the user’s authorisation.
• Mass Storage – It is referred to storage where large volume of backup/data is stored.
• Megabyte (MB) – 1 Megabyte is equal to 1048576 bytes usually rounded off to one million bytes.
• Megahertz (MHz) – A measurement used to identify the speed of the central processing unit.

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 • Memory - Temporary storage for information, including applications and documents. Computer
memory is measured in terms of the amount of information it can store, commonly in megabytes
or gigabytes.
• Menu – A list of choices shown on the display screen.
• Menu Bar – The horizontal strip across the top of an application's window. Each word on the strip
has a context sensitive drop-down menu containing features and actions that are available for the
application in use.
• Merge – Combining two or more files into a single file.
• Metadata – Data about data, i.e., name, length, valid values or description of a data element. It is
stored in a data dictionary and repository.
• Microcomputer – A microprocessor-based computer, consisting of an MPU, internal
semiconductor memory, input and output sections and a system bus, all on one, or several
monolithic IC chips inserted into one or several PC boards.
• Microprocessor – A complete Central Processing Unit (CPU) contained on a single silicon chip.
• MIDI – It stands for Music Instrument Digital Interface. It allows a computer to store and replay a
musical instrument's output.
• Minicomputer – It is considered to be more capable than a microcomputer but less powerful than
a mainframe.
• Minimize – A term used in a GUI operating system that uses windows. It refers to reducing a
window to an icon, or a label at the bottom of the screen, allowing another window to be viewed.
• MIPS – An acronym derived from Million of Instruction Per Second (MIPS). It is used to measure
the speed of a processor.
• Mnemonic – A symbolic label or code remainder that assists the user in remembering a specific
operation or command in assembly language.
• Modem – An acronym for Modulator/Demodulator that refers to specific equipment that
provides a means of communication between two computer systems over conventional
telephone lines.
• Monitor – The visual readout device of a computer system. A monitor can be in several forms a
cathode ray tube (CRT), a liquid crystal display (LCD), or a flat-panel, full-colour display.
• Mouse – A manually operated input device for moving or entering positional information and
other data or commands by accessing (pointing to) images on a monitor.
• Morphing – The transformation of one image into another image.
• Motherboard – Main circuit board of a microcomputer that contains the CPU, BIOS, memory,
mass storage interfaces, serial and parallel ports, expansion slots and all the controllers required
to control standard peripheral devices such as display screen, keyboard and disk drive.
• MS-DOS – An early operating system developed by Microsoft Corporation (Microsoft Disc
Operating System).
• Multitasking – Multitasking can simultaneously work with several programs or interrelated tasks
that share memories, codes, buffers and files.
• Multithreading – It is a facility available in an operating system that allows multiple functions
from the same application packages.
• Multiuser – The term describing the capability of a computer system to be operated at more than
one terminal at the same time.

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 • Multiplexer – It is a device that combines multiple input signals into an aggregate signal for
transmission.
• Multimedia Software programs – A program that combine text and graphics with sound, video
and animation. A multimedia PC contains the hardware to support these capabilities.
N
• Network Interface Card (NIC) – This is a part of the computer that allows it to talk to other
computers via a network protocol like TCP/IP.
• Newsgroup – An electronic discussion group maintained over the internet or tied into a bulletin
board system. Each newsgroup is typically organised around a specific interest.
• Nibble – A sequence of four adjacent bits, or a half byte. A hexadecimal or BCD coded digit can
be represented by a nibble.
• Non-Volatile Memory – A memory where stored data remains undisturbed by the removal of
electrical powers.
• Notebook Computer – A portable computer, also known as a laptop computer.
O
• Object – Something that contains both the data and the application that operates on that data,
• Object Code – A machine language code produced by a translator program, such as an assembler,
interpreter, or compiler.
• Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) – A process that permits the user to take material from one
source and insert it in another document.
• Object Oriented – A computer program and its data are modelled as a group of autonomous
objects that respond to message sent by another object.
• Offline – It refers to the state in which a computer is temporarily or permanently unable to
communicate with another computer.
• Online – It refers to the state of being connected to the networked computer system or the
Internet.
• Open Source Software (OSS) – Software that makes the underlying source code available to all
users at no charge. Linux is the example of open source software.
• Operand – The part of a machine level instruction which tells the central processor, the location
of the data to be manipulated by some operation.
• Operation Code (Op-Code) – Part of a computer instruction word that designates the function
performed by a specific instruction,
• Operating System (OS) – A set of instructions that tell a computer on how to operate when it is
turned on. It sets up a filing system to store files and tells the computer how to display information
on a video display.
• Optical Character Reader or Optical Character Recognition (OCR) – A device that can scan text
from hard copy and enter it automatically into a computer for storage or editing. Also called an
optical scanner.
P
• Password – A user’s secret identification code, required to access stored material.
• Patch – A patch is a piece of software designed to update a computer program or its supporting
data to fix or improve it.

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 • Peripheral – A term designating the various kinds of machines and devices that work in
conjunction with a computer but are not necessarily part of the computer structure. Typically,
peripherals refer to the hardware devices external to a computer.
• Personal Computer (PC) – A single-user computer containing a Central Processing Unit (CPU) and
one or more memory circuits.
• Piracy - The illegal copying of software or other creative works.
• Pitch – The number of monospace characters (with same width) that will fit in a 1-inch line of text.
• Pixel – The smallest element (a dot) on a display screen. The pixel is the basic unit of
programmable color on a computer display or in a computer range.
• Plug and play – The ability to plug in a peripheral and have it work without difficulty.
• Plug-In – This is a program that your browser uses to manipulate a downloaded file. It differs from
a Helper Application in which the plug-in works inside the browser window.
• Port – A port serves as an interface between the computer and other computers or peripheral
devices. It generally refers to the part of a computing device available for connection to
peripherals such as input and output devices.
• Portrait – A term that designates the position of conventional printing across the width of a page.
• Post Office Protocol (POP) – A protocol that specifies how a personal computer can connect to a
mail server on the internet and download e-mail.
• Primary Key – It is a key that uniquely identifies each tuple or row in a table.
• Process – A collection of code, data and other system, resources including at least one thread of
execution that performs a data processing task.
• Program – A set instructions to perform a specific task. The term program means the same as
software.
• Programming Language – A vocabulary and set of grammatical rules for instructing a computer
to perform specific tasks. Some common programming languages are BASIC, C, C+ +, dBase and
Pearl.
• Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM) – A blank read-only memory (ROM) that is
programmed with external programming equipment after Once programmed, it is not re -
programmable considered to be a ROM.
• Prompt – A prompt is text or symbols used to represent the system's readiness to perform the
next command. A prompt may also be a text representation of where the user is currently.
• Printer – A mechanical device for printing a computer's output on paper.
• Protocols – A set of rules that defines exactly how information is to be exchanged between two
systems over internet.
• Pseudocode – It is a short hand way of describing a computer program.
• Push technology – A process that allows a user to obtain automatic delivery of specified
information from the Internet to the user’s computer e.g. stock market quotes, weather forecasts
and sports scores.
Q
• Query - A request for information from a database.
• Queue – A queue is an example of a linear data structure, or more abstractly a s
• QWERTY – It is one of the standard computer keyboards with the character Q, W. E, R. T and Y on
the top row of letters
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 R
• Random Access Memory (RAM) – A volatile, semiconductor storage structure that accesses
temporary data with a random or direct accessing method. It is accurately referred to as 'erasable
read/write' memory. Data in this memory can be read by the CPU directly.
• Read Only Memory (ROM) – A semiconductor memory whose data cannot be erased, or
overwritten. It can only be accessed (read) for use by the CPU
• Record – A collection of all the information pertaining to a particular entity instance.
• Register – A temporary storage unit for quick, direct accessibility of a small amount of data for
processing. Most computers include a set of internal registers that can be accessed more quickly
than the system's main memory
• Remote Server – A network computer that allows a user on the network from a distant location
to access information.
• Response Time – The total time elapsed between submission of command and data to a computer
and getting the result of computation.
• Retrieve – To call up information from memory or storage so that it can be processed in some
way.
• Rich Text Format (RTF) – A type of document formatting which enables special characteristic like
fonts and margins to be included within as ASCII file.
• Router – A network device that enables the network to reroute messages, it receives, that are
intended for other networks. The network with the router receives the message and sends it on
its way exactly as received. In normal operations. they do not store any of the messages that they
pass through.
• Routing – The process of choosing the best path throughout the LAN.
S
• Scanner – An electronic device that uses light-sensing equipment to scan paper images such as
text, photos and illustrations and translate the images into signals that the computer can then
store, modify, or distribute.
• Scroll – To move information horizontally or vertically on a display screen so that one can see
parts of a document that is too wide or too deep to fit entirely on one screen.
• Search Engine – Software that makes it possible to look for and retrieve information on the
Internet, particularly the Web. Some popular search engines are Alta Vista, Google, BIng, Yahoo!,
Web Crawler and Lycos.
• Sector – A section of a recording track on a magnetic disk.
• Serial Operation – A method of data transmission where the data is handled in sequence, one bit
at a time.
• Server – A computer that shares its resources and information with other computers on a
network. This is a mainframe computer that serves the other computers attached to it.
• Shareware – A software that is not free but is available for a free trial period.
• Shell – A shell is an outer layer of a program that provides that user interface or the way of instruct
the computer.
• Simplex – Transmission of data in one direction.
• Socket – A bi-directional pipe for incoming and outgoing data that enables an application program
to access the TCP/IP protocols
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 • Software – The set of computer programs, procedure and associated documentation related to
the effective operation. Software includes: operating systems (system software). language
translators (assemblers, interpreters and compilers) and application programs.
• Source Code (Source Program) – A set of computer instructions in hard-copy or stored form.
When written in a language other than machine language, the source code requires translation
by an assembler (or macro assembler), interpreter, or compiler into object code.
• Spam – Irrelevant or unsolicited messages sent over Internet, typically to large numbers of users,
for the purpose of advertising. phishing spreading malwares, etc.
• Spreadsheet – Software that allows one to calculate numbers in a format that is similar to pages
in a conventional ledger.
• Swapping – Storing programs on disk and then transferring these programs into main storage as
and when they are needed.
• Synchronisation – This method ensures that the receiving end can recognise characters in order,
in which the transmitting end sends them in a serial data transmission.
• System Software – A general term for software that supervises, sequences and coordinates
programs. System software may include programs such as: operating systems, assemblers,
interpreters, compilers, software debugging programs, text editors, utilities and peripheral
drivers.
• Super Computer – The largest mainframe computer featuring exceptionally high-speed operation
while manipulating huge amounts of information.
T
• TCP/IP – It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. This is a large grouping of
programs and standards that govern how information moves round the Internet.
• Telecommunication – The process of sending and receiving information by means of telephones.
satellites and other devices.
• Telnet – A protocol that allows a computer to connect with a host computer on the Internet.
• Template – A pre-established format for a document, stored in a computer.
• Terabyte (TB) - It's about a trillion bytes. Actually it's 240 or 10095111627776 bytes.
• Teraflop – A measure of a computer's speed. It can be expressed as a trillion floating-point
operations per second.
• Terminal – This is what you look at when you're on the Internet. It's your computer screen.
• Terminal Emulation – This is an application that allows your terminal to act as a dumb terminal.
• Time Sharing – It refers to the allocation of computer resources in a time dependent fashion to
run several programs simultaneously.
• Topology – The structure of the network including physical connection such as wiring schemes
and logical interactions between network devices.
• Touchpad – The device on a laptop computer that takes the place of a mouse.
• Track – A ring on the surface of a magnetic disk.
• Trackball – Input device that controls the position of the cursor on the screen; the unit is mounted
near the keyboard and movement is controlled by moving a ball.
• Transfer Rate – The rate at which data is transmitted tween two computers or other electronic
equipment.

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 U
• Uniform Resource Locator (URL) – The specific internet address for a resource such as an
individual or an organisation.
• Universal Serial Bus (UPS) – A common standard for connecting multiple peripherals to a
computer as needed.
• Unix – This is an operating system developed by AT & T. It's a big push that it allows one server to
serve many different end users at one time.
• Upload – The process of transferring information from a computer to a web site (or other remote
location on a network).
• UPS (Universal Power Supply or Uninterruptible Power Supply) – An electrical power supply that
includes a battery to provide enough power to a computer during an outage to back -up data and
properly shut down.
• User - Someone attached to a server or host.
• User-Friendly Program – A software program that has been designed to easily direct the user
through the operation or application of a program. A menu-driven program is considered to be
'user-friendly'.
• Utility – A software program designed to perform a computer system's routine housekeeping
functions, like copying, deleting files and/or providing techniques to simplify the execution of a
program.
V
• Validation - The process of making sure that the forms and documents from a particular
transaction are correct.
• Video Teleconferencing – A remote 'face-to-face chat', when two or more people using a webcam
and an Internet telephone connection chat online. The webcam enables both live voice and video.
• Virus – A piece of computer code designed as a prank or malicious act to spread from one
computer to another by attaching itself to other programs.
• Volatile Memory – A memory whose contents are irretrievably lost when power is removed. If
data in RAM must be saved after power shutdown, back-up in non-volatile memory (magnetic
disk. tape. or CD-R) is essential.
W
• Webcam – A video camera/computer setup that takes live images and sends them to a Web
browser.
• Window – A portion of a computer display used in a graphical interface that enables users to
select commands by pointing to illustrations or symbols with. A 'Windows' is also the name
Microsoft adopted for its popular operating system.
• Word – The set of binary bits handled by a computer as a primary unit of data. Typically, each
location in memory contains one word.
• Word Processor – A computer system or program for setting, editing, revising, correcting, storing
and printing text.
• Word Wide Web (WWW) – A network of servers on the Internet that use hypertext-linked
databases and files. It was developed in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee, a British computer scientist and
is now the primary platform of the Internet.

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 • Workgroup – Persons sharing files and data between themselves.
• Workstation – The work area and/or equipment used for computer operations, including
Computer-Aided Design (CAD). The equipment generally consists of a monitor, keyboard, printer
and/or plotter and other output devices
• WORM (Write-Once, Read-Many) – A high-density optical disk memory available in a variety of
formats from 5.25" to 1.4". The Worm can be programmed once, permanently saving a user's
data. It then becomes an optical disk read-only memory having essentially the same features as a
CD-ROM. Also called CD-R (CD-RECORDABLE).
XYZ
• X-Y Plotter – A computer-driven printing mechanism that draws coordinate points in graph form.
• Zoom – The enlarging or reducing an image displayed on a computer process of proportionately
monitor.
• ZIP – It stands for Zone Information Protocol. It is an achieve file format that supports lossless
data compression. A ZIP file may contain one or more files or directories that may have been
compressed.
• Zombie – A computer that has been hijacked by a cracker without the owner's knowledge and
used to perform malicious tasks on the Internet.

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