Nuclei

Introduction
of centrally positive
studied the structure of atom in the last chapter. A atom consists
We have concentrated in the
mass (about 99.9%) of the atom is
charged region called nucleus. Most of the nucleus. In other
we shall discuss the structure of the
nucleus of the atom. Now in this chapter constituents of the nucleus to
what kecps the
words, the constituents of the nucleus, its size &
gether.

Atomic mass unit (a.m.u.)

Atomic mass unit is defined ash

12
the mass of carbon 12 (6 Cl2) atom.

Ia.m.u. = 1.6604 x 10 2 g
Ia.m.u. = 1.6604 x 10-27 kg

Composition of Nucleus
A nucleus of an atom consists of positively charged particle called protons & neutral particles
called Neutrons. The no. of protons in anucleus is known as atomic number. It is written as Z

The sum of no. of proton (Z) & no. of neutron (N) is called mass no. is denoted by A.

Thus, A=Z+N (or) N=A-Z

Protons & neutrons in a nucleus are collectively known as nucleons.

The nucleus of an atom of element is represented by
A

Here X=symbol of the element

Z= Atomic no. of element
A = mass no. of element

For example, the nucleus of sodium is written as

Na23
11

Properties of protons
1)Proton is a constituent of nucleus.
2) Proton is positively charged particle.
3) The magnitude of charge on a proton is 1.6 x 10 c.
Its mass is equal to 1.6726 x 10-" kg.
5) The no. of proton in the nucleus is called atomic no. (Z) of the atom.

Properties of Neutrons
1) Neutron is a constituent of the nucleus.
2) Neutron is a neutral particle.
3)The mass of neutron is about 1.6748 x 10-27 kg.
4) Neutron has very high penetrating power. Being neutral it is
the nucleus of an atom, so it can penetrate deep into the atom.
neither attracted nor repelled by
5) Neutron has low ionising power.
Isotopes Isobars & Isotones

1) Isotopes
The atoms of an element having same atomic no. (Z) but different mass no. (A) are called
isotopes.
Eg. Hydrogen has 3 isotopes namely Hydrogen (|H), deuterium (H}) &tritium (1H').
Isotopes have same no. of electrons & protons but different no. of neutrons. Isotopes of an ele
ment occupy the same position in the periodic table. The chemical properties of the isotopes of
an element are identical.

2) Isobars
The atonms of elements having same mass no. (A) but different atomic no. (Z) are called isobars.
Isobars have samne no. of total nucleons but different no.of protons, electrons & neutrons.
Eg. H³ & He; 3Li? & 4Be?: NS &0!5
They have different chemical properties but their physical properties may be identical.
3) Isotones
The atoms of elements whose nuclei have the same no. of neutrons are
called isotones.
Eg. 4Be & _B°; Cl & N4 : Fl9 & oNe20
Size of Nucleus
The nuclear size is found to vary linearly with mass no. (A) & since nucleus is
spherical, therefore, the volume of nucleus is proportional to its mass no. (A). approximately
If 'R' is the Radius of nucleus, then volume
GR) « A
Or
R« Al3

R=Ro A /3

Where Ro is an empirical constant for all nuclei

i.e, Ro = 1.2 x 10 -1Sm
Ro= 1.2 fm
1fermi (fim) = 10-lSm
Heavier nuclei are bigger in size than lighter nuclei.
Mass - Energy -Equivalence
Einstein showed from his theory of special relativity that it is necessary to treat mass as
form of energy. He showed that one can convert mass energy into other forms of another
& vice versa. energy say K.E
Einstein gave the famous mass-energy equivalence relation
B= m¢?
Here the energy equivalent of mass 'm' is related by the above equation & 'C is velocity of
invacuum & is approximately equal to 3 x 10 m/s. light

Mass defect
is defined as diiference between the mass of the
constituent's nucleons of the nucleus in the
free state & the mass of the nucleus. This difference in mass is called mass
defect and is denoted
by Am.
Consider a nucleus of mass Mhaving Z-protons & (A-Z) neutrons. Let m, be the mass
of each neutron & mp be the mass of each
proton.
The mass of Z protons = Z mp.
The mass of (A-Z) neutrons = mn (A-2).
Sum of the masses of Z protons (A-Z) neutrons
= Z m, t+ (A-Z) m.
Am = { Z mp + (A-Z) mn } - M
Units 1) Mass defect is measured in a.m.u, if atomic masses are
2) Mass defect is expressed in kg if atomic masses are
expressed in a.m.u.
expressed in kg.
 Binding energy. (B.E.) nucleon) is
The total energy required to disintegrate the nucleus into its constituent particle (i.e,
called binding energy of nucleus.
When nucleons form a nucleus, the mass of the nucleus is less than sum of masses of nucleons.
accordance
This decrease in mass of nucleoncqualto mass defect) is converted into energy in
with the equation E= me'
Which is responsible to hold the nucleons in the nucleus.
Binding energy of nucleus.
i.e, B.E. = Am c²
B.E. = [(Zm, +(A-Z) ma}-M] c
in kg.
This B.E. is expressed in joule, because mass defect (Am) is measured
When mass defect (Am) is expressed ina.m.u.
Then B.E. =[{Zm, + (AZ) mn}-M] a.m.u.
Mev
l a.m.u., =931
B.E. - [{Zm, + (A-Z) ma}-M] x 931 MeV

Binding energy per nucleon (vT)

The average energy required to release anucleon from the nucleus is called binding energy per
nucleon.
B.E.
B.E. per nucleon = Total no.of nucleons in nucleus (mass no.)

B.E. Am x 931 MeV

Or nucleon A

Significance of B.E. per nucleon.

B.E. per nucleon determines the stability of a nucleus i.e, stability of nucleus is proportional to
B.E. per nucleus. If B.E. per nucleon is less, the nucleus is less stable whereas nucleus is more
stable if its B.E. per nucleon is higher.

The variation of B.E. per nucleon with mass no. (A) is shown in below fig.
56
Fe
10* 26
’(MeV)
B.E/Nudleon
Most stable nuclei
8

B0 ,238
Nucie prone to fission
3Lió
4T

k Nuclei prohe to fusion

100 150 200 250

Mass no. (A)

From the graph, it is clear that

(1) Sone nuclei with mass no. less than 20 (A < 20) have large B.E, per nucleon than their
neighbouring nuclei.
Eg. 2He', Be, 6C", s0l6, oNe20 have more B.E. per nucleon than their neigh
bours. So these nuclei are more stable than their neighbours.
2 For A> 40 B.E. per nucleon increases gradually till it attams value of 88 MeV per nucle
ons corresponding to iron 26fFe" nucleus. Thus iron is a stable element.
2 For puclei A> 56 B.E. per nucleon gradually decreases. For uranium (A= 238) one of the
heaviest natural element, the value ofB.E. per nucleons drops to 7.5 Mey
Conclusion
From the above graph, we conclude that
()The B.E. per nucleon has low value for both the light &heavy nuclei so they are unstable nu
clei.
(2) The intermediate nuclei have large value of B.E. per nucleon so they are more stable.
(3) B.E. per nucleon of light nuclei having mass no.
A=4, 8, 12, 16 &20 is more than their neighbours.This shows that these nuclei are more stable
than their neighbours.
Note: 1) When a heavy nucleus split up into lighter nuclei, the B.E. per nucleon of light
nuclei is more than that of original heavy nucleus. Thus a large amount of energy is
liberated in this process. This process called nuclear fission.
2) When two very light nuclei combine to form a relatively heavy nucleus, then B.E. per
nucleon increases. Thus,encrgy is released inthis process. This process is called nuclear
fusion.

Natural Radioactivity
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiation by heavy elements is called radioactívity.
The elements which shows this phenomenon are called radioactive elements.
Radioactivity was discovered accidently by Antoine HenriBecquerel in 1896. He noted that ura
nium element (Z=92) gave out some invisible radiations that can penetrate through several thick
black paper &affect a photographic plate placed on the other side. The same phenomenon was
confirmed several month later by pierre curie & his wife marie curie. They name these penetrat
ing rays as Becquerel rays . Curie showed that uranium ore contain traces of polonium (84 Poy &
226,
radium (&s Ka) &these elements where much more radioactive than uranium itself other radio
active elements are ionium, radium & thorism etc.
Nature of Becquerel ravs.
A simple experiment demonstrating this is illustrated in fig. below.
E

+
+
++

+
+
+
++

Nuclear energY
The energy obtained from the conversion of nuclear mass is known as nuclear energy.
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is a process of splitting heavy nucleus into two nucleiof comparable
mass along with emission of large amount of energy.
Nuclear fission was discovered by otto Hahn & strassman in 1939.
 92
166 Ba +Kr + 3+Q
fission. Nuclear fission of Uwhere bom
Where Q is the amount of energy released during 92

barded with thermal neutron ( n) is shown in fig. below.

141
Ba
56

235 236

92
92
92 Energy
ke
36

Chain Reaction (N1:)

235
nlost

FP)
(235 nlost
(FP)
235
nlost
141ga/
(FP)

235
nlost

9
(FP.) 235
n lost

235 nlost

FP 235 n lost
U

In achain reaction, the number of nuclei undergoing fission increases very rapidly in an extreme
w ehort time, Further each time a fission takes place, an enornmous amount equal to about 200
Mev is released. This means that in the case of uncontrolled chain reaction, a huge amount of
energy is released in a very short time, which causes violent explosion. This is principle of the
Cmb. However if the chain reaction can be controlled, then nuclear fission can be used as
ameans for obtaining enormous amount of energy that can be harnessed to produced electricity.
 Nuclear fusion
The process in which two light nuclei combine (at extremely high temperature) to form a single
heavier nucleus is called nuclear fusion.
The mass of heavier nucleus formed is less than the sum of masses of the combining nuclei. The
mass-defect is released as energy in accordance with Einstein's mass-energy relation.

E= Amc2
For example, when two nuclei of deuterium ( 1) fuse together, the following products are
formed.

3
jH+He+a + Q(327 MeV)
When four hydrogen ( iH) nuclei fuse together, the following products are formed.
He+2,e+ 2r +Q
Nuclear fusion is known as thermonuclear reaction
Nuclear fusion cant takes place easily. When two light nuciei are brought together close to each
other. They exert arepulsive force on each other due their positive charge. As such these nuclei
can't fuse together. This nucleican fuse together if they have enough K.E. to overcome force of
Repulsion between them. High K.E. implies high temp. Thus, nuclear fusion can be achieved at
very high temp & hence known as thermo-nuclear Reaction. In fact a temp of order of 10' k is
required to trigger nuclear fusion. This much temp is available in the core of the sun &other
stars, so nuclear fusion is possible is sun & other stars.