Microscopy

• Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a microscope he

constructed to observe “little animalcules” – he
discovered and described diverse protists, sperm cells,
and even bacteria
• 1600s: Robert Hooke looked at cork through a
microscope, and named the tiny compartments he
observed cellulae
• 1820s: Robert Brown noticed a discrete, spherical body
inside some cells, which he called a nucleus
• Mid-1800’s: Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann
concluded that the tissues of animals as well as plants are
composed of cells and their products.
The Surface-to-Volume Ratio
Cells Are Small and Are Visualized Using a Microscope
• Most cells are too small to be seen by the unaided eye – ranging
from about 0.5 μm (bacteria) to a few hundred micrometers
(plant cells)

• Biologists use microscopy to see cells and the structures within

them:
• Light microscopes use light to illuminate the specimen
• Electron microscopes use electrons to illuminate the
specimen
Light Microscopy
Light Microscopy
Light Microscopy
Electron Microscopy

Scanning Electron Microscope Transmission Electron Microscope

Magnification and Resolution
• Magnification
• The ratio of the object as viewed to its real size
• e.g. 1,200X
• Resolution
• The minimum distance that two points in the
specimen can be separated and still be seen as
two points
• Depends primarily on the wavelength of light or
electrons used to illuminate the specimen
Origin of Life on Earth
Sparks were discharged to mimic
lightning.
The “atmosphere” contained a
mixture of hydrogen gas (H2),
methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), and
water vapor.

A condenser cooled the atmosphere,

raining water and dissolved
molecules into the sea flask.

The water mixture in the ”sea” flask

was heated; vapor entered the
”atmosphere” flask.
As material cycled through the
apparatus, Miller periodically
collected samples for analysis..

Miller and Urey Experiment

Spontaneous Generation
Spontaneous Generation
Cell Theory - Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann in 1839
• By the mid-19th century, microscopic observations had yielded
three generalizations which constitute the cell theory:
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all
living organisms.
3. Cells arise only from the division of preexisting cells.
Basic Features of Cell Structure and Function
• As the basic structural and functional units of all living
organisms, cells carry out the essential processes of life

• Cells contain DNA and RNA, which carry hereditary

information and direct manufacture of cellular molecules

• Cells use energy, respond to changes in their environment,

reproduce, and pass on hereditary information
Prokaryotic Cells
An Animal Mitochondrion Microbody Nuclear pore
Cell complex

Nuclear Nucleus
envelope
Chromatin
Nucleolus
Ribosome
Endo-plasm
Lysosome Rough ER
ic reticulum
Ribosome
(ER)
Microtubules Smooth ER

Microfilaments
Centrioles Plasma membrane
Vesicle Golgi complex Cytosol
A Plant
Cell
Mitochondrion Cytosol Nuclear pore
complex
Golgi
complex
Nuclear Nucleus
Vesicle envelope
Tonoplast Chromatin
Nucleolus
Central
vacuole
Chloroplast
Plasmodesmata
Microtubules Rough ER Endo-plasmi
Ribosome c reticulum
Cell wall
Smooth ER
Plasma membrane Ribosome
Eukaryotic Plasma Membrane and Cell Wall
• The eukaryotic plasma membrane carries out various
functions through several types of embedded proteins
• Channel proteins transport substances in and out of cells
• Receptors recognize and bind specific signal molecules in
the cellular environment and trigger internal responses
• Immune system proteins label cells as “self”

• A supportive cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane of

fungal, plant, and many protist cells
The Eukaryotic Nucleus
•The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear
envelope, which consists of two membranes

•A network of protein filaments (lamins) reinforces the nuclear

envelope in animal cells – other proteins reinforce the nuclear
envelope in protists, fungi, and plants

•Nuclear pore complexes embedded in the nuclear envelope

regulate the transport of proteins and RNA molecules between
the nucleus and cytoplasm
The
Nuclear Cytoplasm
Ribosomes on outer surface of
Envelope Nuclear pore nuclear envelope
complex Outer nuclear membrane
(faces cytoplasm)

Space between nuclear Nuclear

membranes envelope
Inner nuclear membrane
(faces nucleoplasm)

Nucleoplasm Nuclear pore complex

Enlarged
region showing
phospholipid
bilayer
The Nucleus
• Proteins to be imported into the nucleus have a special, short
amino acid sequence called a nuclear localization signal

• A specific protein in the cytosol recognizes and binds to the

signal and moves the protein containing it to the nuclear pore
complex, where it is transported into the nucleus
The Nucleus
• The liquid within the nucleus is called the nucleoplasm

• The nucleus contains chromatin, a combination of DNA and

proteins

• In eukaryotes, each DNA molecule is linear – organized with its

proteins into a specific eukaryotic chromosome

• Human cells have 46 chromosomes

The Nucleus
• A eukaryotic nucleus contains one or more nucleoli – formed
around the genes coding for rRNA molecules of ribosomes

• Ribosomal subunits are formed in nucleoli and exit the

nucleus through nuclear pore complexes – in the cytoplasm,
they join on mRNAs to form ribosomes

• Expression of genes is carefully controlled, according with the

function of each cell
The Nuclear Envelope

Chromatin

Nucleolus
Eukaryotic Ribosomes
• A eukaryotic ribosome consists of a large and a small subunit
• Some ribosomes are freely suspended in the cytosol – others
are attached to membranes
Ribosome Ribosome

Large subunit

Small subunit
Eukaryotic Ribosomes
• Proteins made on free ribosomes
may remain in the cytosol, pass into
the nucleus, or become parts of
mitochondria, chloroplasts,
cytoskeleton, or other cytoplasmic
structures
• Proteins made on ribosomes
attached to the ER follow a special
path to other organelles in the cell
Ribosomes
- Made up of ribosomal RNA and protein
- Protein synthesis
- Cells that have rates or protein synthesis have particularly
large number of ribosomes.
- Free ribosomes and bound ribosomes.
The Endomembrane System
The Endomembrane System
• Eukaryotic cells have an endomembrane system that divides
the cell into functional and structural compartments

• The membranes may be connected directly (physically) or

indirectly by vesicles – small membrane-bound sacs that
transfer substances between parts of the system

• The endomembrane system includes the nuclear envelope,

endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, vesicles,
and plasma membrane
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Extensive interconnected network (reticulum) of
membranous channels and cisternae
• Each cisterna is formed by a single membrane that
surrounds an enclosed space (ER lumen)

• ER occurs in two forms: rough ER and smooth ER

Rough ER
•Rough ER has many ribosomes on its outer surface
Rough ER
Smooth ER
• Smooth ER membranes have no
ribosomes attached to their
surfaces
• In the liver, smooth ER converts
drugs, poisons, and toxic
by-products into substances that
can be tolerated or more easily
removed from the body
Golgi Complex
• The Golgi complex consists of a stack of flattened,
membranous sacs (cisternae)
• Proteins made in the ER enter on the cis face of the complex,
delivered by transport vesicles that fuse with the membrane
• Proteins are chemically modified by removing segments or
adding functional groups, lipids or carbohydrates
• Modified proteins exit from the trans face in vesicles that bud
off from the membrane
The Golgi Complex
Golgi Complex and Exocytosis
• The Golgi complex “tags” proteins for sorting to their final
destinations
Outside cell

Plasma membrane

Secretory vesicle

Cytoplasm
Endocytosis
• Vesicles also form by the reverse process, endocytosis, which
brings molecules into the cell from the exterior

Endocytic vesicle
Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing
hydrolytic enzymes that digest complex molecules – cells
recycle the subunits of these molecules

• Lysosomes are found in animals, but not in plants

• Lysosomes are formed by budding from the Golgi complex –

their hydrolytic enzymes are synthesized in the rough ER
Lysosomes
• pH within lysosomes is acidic (pH ~ 5), significantly lower than
the pH of the cytosol (pH ~ 7.2)

• Lysosomal enzymes digest food molecules, worn-out

organelles (autophagy), and break down bacteria or other
cellular debris in phagocytosis
A Lysosome
Vacuoles
- Large vesicles derived from ER and Golgi bodies.

- There are different types of vacuoles base on its function.

Functions of Vacuoles

• Water storage
• Turgor pressure allows the cells
to create a form, and stand up to
wind and rain.
• Endocytosis and exocytosis
• Vacuoles are used to create an
entire ecosystems.
Roles of Cytoskeleton
● The main function of cytoskeleton is to give mechanical
support to the cell and maintain its shape.
● Cytoskeleton provides anchorage for many organelles and
cytosolic enzyme molecules.
● Cytoskeleton involved in cell motility.
Microtubules
● Microtubules are the thickest type of cytoskeleton.
● Microtubules are hollow rods constructed from globular
protein.
● Tubulin is a dimer consists of α-tubulin and β-tubulin.
Microfilaments
● Microfilaments are thin solid rods, also called the actin
filaments.
● A microfilament is a twisted double chain of actin subunits.
Microfilaments
Intermediate
filaments are named
for their diameter,
which is larger than
the diameter of
microfilaments but
smaller than that of
microtubules.
Endosymbiont Theory
Endosymbiont theory states that an early ancestor of
eukaryotic cells engulfed an oxygen-using non-photosynthetic
prokaryotic cell.

•They have two layers of membrane

•Contain their own ribosomes and circular DNA
•They are autonomous organelles
The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
Mitochondria
Mitochondria - (singular, mitochondrion) are the sites of
cellular respiration, the metabolic process that uses oxygen to
drive the generation of ATP by extracting energy from sugars,
fats, and other fuels.
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts - found in plants and algae, are the sites of
photosynthesis.
Peroxisome
Peroxisomes - contain enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms
from various substrates and transfer them to oxygen (O ),
2

producing hydrogen peroxide (H O ) as a by-product.

2 2

• Use oxygen to break fatty

acids
• Detoxify alcohol in the
liver
Cell Walls in Plants
Cell wall - protects the plant
cell, maintains its shape, and
prevents excessive uptake of
water.
- holds the plant up
against the force of gravity.