CHAPTER FOUR

4. MEASURES OF CENTERAL TENDENCY.

Introduction and objectives of measuring central tendency.

When we want to make comparison between groups of numbers it is good to have a

single value that is considered to be a good representative of each group. This single
value is called the average of the group.
-Averages are also called measures of central tendency.
-An average which is representative is called typical average and an average which
is not representative and has only a theoretical value is called a descriptive average.
-A typical average should posses the following:
• It should be rigidly defined.
• It should be based on all observation under investigation.
• It should be as little as affected by extreme observations.
• It should be capable of further algebraic treatment.
• It should be as little as affected by fluctuations of sampling.
• It should be ease to calculate and simple to understand.

Objectives:
1. To comprehend the data easily.
2. To facilitate comparison.
3. To make further statistical analysis.

The Summation Notation:

- Let X1, X2 ,X3 …XN be a number of measurements where N is the total
number of observation and Xi is ith observation.
- Very often in statistics an algebraic expression of the form
X1+X2+X3+...+XN is used in a formula to compute a statistic. It is
tedious to write an expression like this very often, so mathematicians
have developed a shorthand notation to represent a sum of scores, called
the summation notation.
N

- The symbol  X is a mathematical shorthand for X1+X2+X3+...+XN

i=1
i

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The expression is read, "the sum of X sub i from i equals 1 to N." It means
"add up all the numbers."

Example: Suppose the following were scores made on the first homework
assignment for five students in the class: 5, 7, 7, 6, and 8. In this example set
of five numbers, where N=5, the summation could be written:

The "i=1" in the bottom of the summation notation tells where to begin the
sequence of summation. If the expression were written with "i=3", the
summation would start with the third number in the set. For example:

In the example set of numbers, this would give the following result:

The "N" in the upper part of the summation notation tells where to end the
sequence of summation. If there were only three scores then the summation
and example would be:

Sometimes if the summation notation is used in an expression and the

expression must be written a number of times, as in a proof, then a shorthand
notation for the shorthand notation is employed. When the summation sign
"" is used without additional notation, then "i=1" and "N" are assumed.

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 For example:

PROPERTIES OF SUMMATION

1.  k = nk where k is any constant

i=1
n n

2.  kX
i=1
i = k  X i where k is any constant
i=1
n n

3. (a + bX
i=1
i ) = na + b X i where a and b are any constant
i=1
n n n

4.  (X
i=1
i + Yi ) =  X i +  Yi
i=1 i=1

The sum of the product of the two variables could be written:

Example: considering the following data determine

X Y
5 6
7 7
7 8
6 7
8 8
5
a) X
i=1
i

b) Y
i=1
i

c) 10
i =1

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 5

d) ( X
i=1
i + Yi )
5

e) ( X
i=1
i − Yi )
5
f) X Y
i=1
i i

X
2
g) i
i=1
5 5

h) ( X i )( Yi )
i=1 i=1

Solutions:
5

a) X
i=1
i = 5 + 7 + 7 + 6 + 8 = 33
5

b) Y
i=1
i = 6 + 7 + 8 + 7 + 8 = 36
5

c) 10 = 5 *10 = 50
i=1
5

d) ( X
i=1
i + Yi ) = (5 + 6) + (7 + 7) + (7 + 8) + (6 + 7) + (8 + 8) = 69 = 33 + 36
5

e) ( X
i=1
i − Yi ) = (5 − 6) + (7 − 7) + (7 − 8) + (6 − 7) + (8 − 8) = −3 = 33 − 36
5

f)  X Y = 5 * 6 + 7 * 7 + 7 * 8 + 6 * 7 + 8 * 8 = 241
i=1
i i

g) X
i=1
i
2
= 5 2 + 7 2 + 7 2 + 6 2 + 8 2 = 223
5 5

h) ( X i )( Yi ) = 33 * 36 = 1188
i=1 i=1

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 Types of measures of central tendency
-There are several different measures of central tendency; each has its advantage and
disadvantage.
• The Mean (Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic)
• The Mode
• The Median
• Quantiles(Quartiles, deciles and percentiles)

-The choice of these averages depends up on which best fit the property under
discussion.
The Arithmetic Mean:
- Is defined as the sum of the magnitude of the items divided by the
number of items
- The mean of X1, X2 ,X3 …Xn is denoted by A.M ,m or X and is given
by:
X 1 + X 2 + ... + X n
X =
n
n

X i

X = i=1
n

- If X1 occurs f1 times
If X2occurs f2 times
.
.
- If Xn occurs fn times
Then the mean will be

fX
k
i i

X=
k
i =1
k
, where k is the number of classes and f i =n
f i
i=1

i =1

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 Example: Obtain the mean of the following number
2, 7, 8, 2, 7, 3, 7
Solutions:

Xi fi X i fi
2 2 4
3 1 3
7 3 21
8 1 8
Total 7 36
4

fX i i
36
X = i=1
4 = 7 = 5.15
 fi
i=1

Arithmetic Mean for Grouped Data

If data are given in the shape of a continuous frequency distribution, then the
mean is obtained as follows:
fX
k
i i

X= i=1
k
,Where Xi =the class mark of the ith class
f i=1
i

fi = the frequency of the ith class

Example: calculate the mean for the following age distribution.

Class frequency
6- 10 35
11- 15 23
16- 20 15
21- 25 12
26- 30 9
31- 35 6

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Solutions:
• First find the class marks
• Find the product of frequency and class marks
• Find mean using the formula.
Class fi X i X i fi
6- 10 35 8 280
11- 15 23 13 299
16- 20 15 18 270
21- 25 12 23 276
26- 30 9 28 252
31- 35 6 33 198
Total 100 1575
6

fX i i
1575 = 15.75
X = i=1
6 =
f i
100
i=1

Exercises:
1. Marks of 75 students are summarized in the following frequency
distribution:

Marks No. of students

40-44 7
45-49 10
50-54 22
55-59 f4
60-64 f5
65-69 6
70-74 3
If 20% of the students have marks between 55 and 59
i. Find the missing frequencies f4 and f5.
ii. Find the mean.

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 Special properties of Arithmetic mean
1. The sum of the deviations of a set of items from their mean is always
n

zero. i.e.  ( X i − X ) = 0.
i =1

2. The sum of the squared deviations of a set of items from their mean is
n n

 ( Xi − X ) 2   ( X i − A) , A  X
2
the minimum. i.e.
i =1 i =1

3. If X 1 is the mean of n1observations

If X 2 is the mean of n2 observations
.
.
If X k is the mean of nk observations
Then the mean of all the observation in all groups often called the
combined mean is given by:
k
X n + X n + .... + X n X n i i

Xc = 1 1 2 2 k k
= i =1

n1 + n 2 + ...nk
k

n
i =1
i

Example: In a class there are 30 females and 70 males. If females averaged

60 in an examination and boys averaged 72, find the mean for the entire
class.
Solutions:

Females Males
X 1 = 60 X 2 = 72
n1 = 30 n 2 = 70
2
Xn +X n X n i i

Xc = 1 1 2 2
= i =1

n1 + n 2
2

n
i =1
i

30(60) + 70(72) 6840

 Xc = = = 68.40
30 + 70 100

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4. If a wrong figure has been used when calculating the mean the correct
mean can be obtained with out repeating the whole process using:
(Correct Value − Wrong Value)
Correct Mean = Wrong Mean +
n
Where n is total number of observations.
Example: An average weight of 10 students was calculated to be
65.Latter it was discovered that one weight was misread as 40 instead
of 80 k.g. Calculate the correct average weight.
Solutions:
(Correct Value − Wrong Value)
Correct Mean = Wrong Mean +
n
(80 − 40)
Correct Mean = 65 + = 65 + 4 = 69k.g.
10

5. The effect of transforming original series on the mean.

a) If a constant k is added/ subtracted to/from every observation
then the new mean will be the old mean± k respectively.
b) If every observations are multiplied by a constant k then the new
mean will be k*old mean
Example:
1. The mean of n Tetracycline Capsules X1, X2, …,Xn are known to be
12 gm. New set of capsules of another drug are obtained by the
linear transformation Yi = 2Xi – 0.5 ( i = 1, 2, …, n ) then what will
be the mean of the new set of capsules
Solutions:
New Mean = 2 * Old Mean − 0.5 = 2 *12 − 0.5 = 23.5
2. The mean of a set of numbers is 500.
a. If 10 is added to each of the numbers in the set, then
what will be the mean of the new set?
b. If each of the numbers in the set are multiplied by -5,
then what will be the mean of the new set?

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 Solutions:
a). New Mean = Old Mean +10 = 500 +10 = 510
b). New Mean = −5 * Old Mean = −5 * 500 = −2500

Weighted Mean
- When a proper importance is desired to be given to different data a
weighted mean is appropriate.
- Weights are assigned to each item in proportion to its relative
importance.
- Let X1, X2, …Xn be the value of items of a series and W1, W2, …Wn their
corresponding weights , then the weighted mean denoted X w is defined
as:
XW
n

i i
Xw = i=1
n

W i−1
i

Example:
A student obtained the following percentage in an examination:
English 60, Biology 75, Mathematics 63, Physics 59, and chemistry 55.Find
the students weighted arithmetic mean if weights 1, 2, 1, 3, 3 respectively
are allotted to the subjects.

Solutions:
5

XW 60 *1 + 75 * 2 + 63*1 + 59 * 3 + 55 * 3 615

X =
i i
i=1
= = = 61.5
1+ 2 +1+ 3 + 3
w 5

W i
10
i−1

Merits and Demerits of Arithmetic Mean

Merits:
• It is rigidly defined.
• It is based on all observation.
• It is suitable for further mathematical treatment.
• It is stable average, i.e. it is not affected by fluctuations of sampling to some
extent.
• It is easy to calculate and simple to understand.
Demerits:
• It is affected by extreme observations.
• It can not be used in the case of open end classes.

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• It can not be determined by the method of inspection.
• It can not be used when dealing with qualitative characteristics, such as
intelligence, honesty, beauty.
• It can be a number which does not exist in a serious.
• Some times it leads to wrong conclusion if the details of the data from which
it is obtained are not available.
• It gives high weight to high extreme values and less weight to low extreme
values.

The Mode
- Mode is a value which occurs most frequently in a set of values
- The mode may not exist and even if it does exist, it may not be unique.
- In case of discrete distribution the value having the maximum frequency is
the model value.

Examples:
1. Find the mode of 5, 3, 5, 8, 9
Mode =5
2. Find the mode of 8, 9, 9, 7, 8, 2, and 5.
It is a bimodal Data: 8 and 9
3. Find the mode of 4, 12, 3, 6, and 7.
No mode for this data.
- The mode of a set of numbers X1, X2, …Xn is usually denoted by Xˆ.

Mode for Grouped data.

If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution, the mode
is defined as:
 
Xˆ = L + w 1 
 
 1 +  2 
mo

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 Where:
Xˆ = the mod eof the distribution
w = the size of the mod al class
1 = f mo − f1
 2 = f mo − f 2
f mo = frequency of the mod al class
f 1 = frequency of the class preceeding the mod al class
f 2 = frequency of the class following the mod al class
Note: The modal class is a class with the highest frequency.
Example: Following is the distribution of the size of certain farms selected at
random from a district. Calculate the mode of the distribution.
Size of farms No. of farms
5- 15 8
15- 25 12
25- 35 17
35- 45 29
45- 55 31
55- 65 5
65- 75 3
Solutions:
45 − 55 is the mod al class, sin ceit is a class withthe highest frequency.
Lmo = 45
w = 10
1 = fmo − f1 = 2
2 = fmo − f2 = 26
fmo = 31
f1 = 29
f2 = 5  2 
 Xˆ = 45 + 10 
2 + 26
 
= 45.71

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Merits and Demerits of Mode

Merits:
• It is not affected by extreme observations.
• Easy to calculate and simple to understand.
• It can be calculated for distribution with open end class
Demerits:
• It is not rigidly defined.
• It is not based on all observations
• It is not suitable for further mathematical treatment.
• It is not stable average, i.e. it is affected by fluctuations of sampling to
some extent.
• Often its value is not unique.
Note: being the point of maximum density, mode is especially useful in finding
the most popular size in studies relating to marketing, trade, business, and
industry. It is the appropriate average to be used to find the ideal size.

The Median
- In a distribution, median is the value of the variable which divides it in to two
equal halves.
- In an ordered series of data median is an observation lying exactly in the middle
of the series. It is the middle most value in the sense that the number of values
less than the median is equal to the number of values greater than it.
-If X1, X2, …Xn be the observations, then the numbers arranged in ascending
order will be X[1], X[2], …X[n], where X[i] is ith smallest value.
 X[1]< X[2]< …<X[n]
-Median is denoted by Xˆ.
Median for ungrouped data.

X~ 1X (n +1) 2  , If nisodd.

 (X +X
= ), If nis even
2 n 2 (n 2) + 1
Example: Find the median of the following numbers.
a) 6, 5, 2, 8, 9, 4.
b) 2, 1, 8, 3, 5, 8.

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Solutions:
a) First order the data: 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9
Here n=6
~ 1
X = ( X n + X[ n +1] )
2 [ 2] 2
1
= (X + X )
[3] [4]
2
1
= (5 + 6) = 5.5
2
b) Order the data :1, 2, 3, 5, 8
Here n=5
~
X= X n +1
[ ]
2

= X[3]
=3

Median for grouped data.

-If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution, the median
is defined as:
~ w n
X = Lmed + ( − c)
fmed 2
Where :
Lmed = lower classboundary of themedianclass.
w = the size of themedianclass
n = total number of observations.
c = thecumulative frequency (lessthantype) preceeding themedianclass.
fmed = thefrequency of themedianclass.

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Remark:
The median class is the class with the smallest cumulative frequency (less than
n
type) greater than or equal to .
2
Example: Find the median of the following distribution.

Class Frequency
40-44 7
45-49 10
50-54 22
55-59 15
60-64 12
65-69 6
70-74 3

Solutions:
• First find the less than cumulative frequency.
• Identify the median class.
• Find median using formula.

Class Frequency Cumu.Freq(less

than type)
40-44 7 7
45-49 10 17
50-54 22 39
55-59 15 54
60-64 12 66
65-69 6 72
70-74 3 75

n 75
= = 37.5
2 2
39 is the first cumulative frequencytobe greater thanor equal to 37.5
 50 − 54 is themedian class.

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 L = 49.5, w =5
med
n = 75, c = 17, f = 22
med
~
 med w n
X=L + ( − c)
fmed 2
5
= 49.5 + (37.5 −17)
22
= 54.16

Merits and Demerits of Median

Merits:
• Median is a positional average and hence not influenced by extreme
observations.
• Can be calculated in the case of open end intervals.
• Median can be located even if the data are incomplete.

Demerits:
• It is not a good representative of data if the number of items is small.
• It is not amenable to further algebraic treatment.
• It is susceptible to sampling fluctuations.

Quantiles

When a distribution is arranged in order of magnitude of items, the median is the

value of the middle term. Their measures that depend up on their positions in
distribution quartiles, deciles, and percentiles are collectively called quantiles.

Quartiles:
- Quartiles are measures that divide the frequency distribution in to four
equal parts.
- The value of the variables corresponding to these divisions are denoted
Q1, Q2, and Q3 often called the first, the second and the third quartile
respectively.
- Q1 is a value which has 25% items which are less than or equal to it.
Similarly Q2 has 50%items with value less than or equal to it and Q 3 has
75% items whose values are less than or equal to it.

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 iN
- To find Qi (i=1, 2, 3) we count of the classes beginning from the
4
lowest class.
- For grouped data: we have the following formula

w iN
Q i = LQ + ( − c) ,i = 1,2,3
i fQ 4
i
Where :
LQ = lower classboundaryof thequartile class.
i
w =the sizeof thequartile class
N = total number of observations.
c = thecumulative frequency (lessthantype) preceedingthequartile class.
fQ = thefrequencyof thequartile class.
i

Remark:
The quartile class (class containing Qi ) is the class with the smallest
iN
cumulative frequency (less than type) greater than or equal to .
4
Deciles:
- Deciles are measures that divide the frequency distribution in to ten equal
parts.
- The values of the variables corresponding to these divisions are denoted
D1, D2,.. D9 often called the first, the second,…, the ninth decile
respectively.
iN
- To find Di (i=1, 2,..9) we count of the classes beginning from the
10
lowest class.

- For grouped data: we have the following formula

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 w iN
Di = LDi + ( − c) ,i = 1,2,...,9
f D 10
i

Where :
LD = lower classboundaryof thedecile class.
i

w = the sizeof thedecileclass

N = total number of observations.
c = thecumulative frequency (lessthantype) preceedingthedecile class.
f D = thefrequencyof thedecileclass.
i

Remark:
The decile class (class containing Di )is the class with the smallest cumulative
iN
frequency (less than type) greater than or equal to .
10
Percentiles:
- Percentiles are measures that divide the frequency distribution in to
hundred equal parts.
- The values of the variables corresponding to these divisions are denoted
P1, P2,.. P99 often called the first, the second,…, the ninety-ninth
percentile respectively.
iN
- To find Pi (i=1, 2,..99) we count of the classes beginning from the
100
lowest class.

- For grouped data: we have the following formula

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 w iN
Pi = LP + ( − c) ,i = 1,2,...,99
i
f P 100
i

Where :
LP = lower classboundary of the percentile class.
i

w = the sizeof the percentile class

N = total number of observations.
c = thecumulative frequency (lessthantype) preceeding the percentile class.
f P = thefrequencyof the percentileclass.
i

Remark:
The percentile class (class containing Pi )is the class with the smallest
iN
cumulative frequency (less than type) greater than or equal to .
100
Example: Considering the following distribution
Calculate:
a) All quartiles.
b) The 7th decile.
c) The 90th percentile.

Values Frequency
140- 150 17
150- 160 29
160- 170 42
170- 180 72
180- 190 84
190- 200 107
200- 210 49
210- 220 34
220- 230 31
230- 240 16
240- 250 12

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Solutions:
• First find the less than cumulative frequency.
• Use the formula to calculate the required quantile.

Values Frequency Cum.Freq(less

than type)
140- 150 17 17
150- 160 29 46
160- 170 42 88
170- 180 72 160
180- 190 84 244
190- 200 107 351
200- 210 49 400
210- 220 34 434
220- 230 31 465
230- 240 16 481
240- 250 12 493

a) Quartiles:
i. Q1
- determine the class containing the first quartile.
N
= 123.25
4
 170 −180 is the class containing the first quartile.

LQ = 170 ,
1
w =10
N = 493 , c = 88 , f Q = 72
1

w N
 Q1 = LQ1 + ( − c)
fQ 4
1

10
= 170 + (123.25 − 88)
72
= 174.90

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 ii. Q2
- determine the class containing the second quartile.
2* N
= 246.5
4
 190 − 200 is the class containing the sec ond quartile.

LQ = 190 ,
2
w =10
N = 493 , c = 244 , f Q =107
2

w 2* N
 Q2 = LQ + ( − c)
2
fQ 4
2

10
= 170 + (246.5 − 244)
72
= 190.23

iii. Q3
- determine the class containing the third quartile.
3* N
= 369.75
4
 200 − 210 is the class containing thethird quartile.

LQ = 200 ,
3
w =10
N = 493 , c = 351 , f Q = 49
3

w 3* N
 Q3 = LQ 3 + ( − c)
fQ 43

10
= 200 + (369.75 − 351)
49
= 203.83

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b) D7
- determine the class containing the 7th decile.
7* N
= 345.1
10
190 − 200 is the class containing the seventh decile.
LD = 190 ,
7
w =10
N = 493 , c = 244 , f D =107
7

w 7*N
 D7 = LD + ( − c)
7
f D 10
7

10
= 190 + (345.1 − 244)
107
= 199.45

c) P90
- determine the class containing the 90th percentile.
90 * N
= 443.7
100
 220 − 230 is the class containing the 90th percentile.
L P = 220 ,
90
w =10
N = 493 , c = 434 , f P = 3107
90

w 90 * N
 P90 = LP + ( − c)
90
f P 100
90

10
= 220 + (443.7 − 434)
31
= 223.13

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