Comparative Politics

Comparative Politics Lesson 1

Comparative politics
●​ Empirical answers are responses or conclusions derived from empirical evidence, which
is information obtained through observation, experimentation, or experience.
●​ Political science is considered a science because it studies politics in a systematic and
organized way, using facts and evidence to understand how governments, leaders, and
people behave. It relies on data, such as surveys, statistics, and real-world examples, to
test ideas and theories about political systems. Political scientists use clear methods, like
experiments, interviews, and analysis, to explain why political events happen and to
predict future trends.
●​ Comparative Politics is a subfield of political science that focuses on analyzing and
comparing political systems, institutions, processes, and behaviors across different
countries or regions. It seeks to understand how and why political systems differ and
what factors shape their development and outcomes.

A regime is a set of rules, institutions, and practices that define how a country or society is
governed. It includes the structure of power (like who makes decisions and how), the laws that
guide behavior, and the goals or values the government follows. Regimes can take many forms,
such as democracies (where people vote for leaders), authoritarian systems (where power is held
by a small group or one person), or monarchies (ruled by a king or queen).

Scope of Comparative Politics

A.Political Order
State formation is the process by which a state (a centralized political organization with a
government, laws, and control over a specific territory and population) is created and develops
over time. Examples of state formation include the creation of modern nations like France or the
United States, which developed over centuries through wars, treaties, and political reforms.

State collapse is the breakdown or failure of a state, where its government loses control and can
no longer function effectively. This happens when:

●​ Institutions Fail: Systems like law enforcement, courts, or tax collection stop working.
●​ Loss of Authority: The government can no longer enforce its rules or protect its people.
●​ Conflict: Wars, rebellions, or civil unrest weaken the state.
●​ Economic Crisis: Poverty, corruption, or lack of resources make it impossible to govern.

When a state collapses, it can lead to chaos, violence, or the rise of new groups trying to take
control. Examples include the collapse of Somalia in the 1990s or the fall of the Soviet Union in
1991.
War
Revolutions
A revolution is a sudden, dramatic, and often violent change in a society or government. It
happens when people rise up to overthrow an existing system (like a government, ruler, or social
order) and replace it with something new. Revolutions are usually driven by widespread
dissatisfaction with issues like inequality, oppression, or poor leadership.

Nationalism
Nationalism is a strong sense of loyalty, pride, and devotion to one's nation or country. It is the
belief that people who share a common identity—based on factors like culture, language, history,
or territory—should have their own independent state or govern themselves. Nationalism often
emphasizes the idea that a nation is unique and deserves to protect its interests and way of life.

Civil Wars and Violence

Ethnicity and Ethnic conflict

A State may contain different varieties of ethnicities with different cultures and identities. These
may result in the development of secession and autonomous movements that may lead to ethnic
conflict between the ruling institution and those who desire to break away. Example of this is the
bangsamoro conflict in Muslim Mindanao where various groups desire to secede from the
current government.

B. Political Regimes
●​ Varieties of political regimes
Democracy: Power lies with the people, either directly or through elected representatives
(e.g., USA, India).
Authoritarianism: Power is concentrated in a single leader or small group, with limited
freedoms (e.g., North Korea).
Totalitarianism: Extreme control over all aspects of life by the state (e.g., Nazi Germany).
Monarchy: Rule by a king/queen, either absolute (e.g., Saudi Arabia) or constitutional
(e.g., UK).
Oligarchy: Power held by a small elite group, often based on wealth or family ties.
Theocracy: Religious leaders rule, and laws are based on religion (e.g., Iran).
Military Dictatorship: Rule by the military, often after a coup (e.g., Myanmar).
Hybrid Regimes: Mix of democratic and authoritarian traits (e.g., Russia).
Anarchy: No central government; stateless society.
Federalism: Power shared between central and regional governments (e.g., USA,
Germany).
Confederation: Loose union of independent states (e.g., EU to some extent).
 Socialist/Communist: State controls economy and resources (e.g., China, Cuba)
●​ Democratization and democratic breakdowns
Demoratization-The process of transitioning from a non-democratic regime (e.g.,
authoritarianism, monarchy) to a democratic system. It involves establishing free
elections, the rule of law, civil liberties, and accountable institutions.
Democratic breakdown-The collapse or erosion of a democratic system, leading to a
return of authoritarianism or instability.

C. Social Actors
●​ Social Movements(Strikes, social capital, protests)
are organized, collective efforts by groups of people to bring about or resist social,
political, economic, or cultural change. They often arise when individuals share common
grievances and work together to challenge existing power structures or norms.
●​ Interests groups(Labor studies include business)
are organizations that aim to influence public policy and decision-making to benefit their
specific cause, members, or stakeholders. Unlike social movements, which are often
broad and grassroots-driven, interest groups are typically more structured and focused on
specific issues.
●​ Citizen attitudes and popular culture
●​ Religion
●​ Clientelism
it’s when someone with power gives things to people who have less power, but only if
they do something in return, like being loyal or helping them out.

Main Periods of Evolution of CP​

Period of Evolution

Pre Modern​ Modern Postmodern​

400-1750 CE 14th Century(1500) 1940-21st century

Key Features Speculative, Separate discipline Social facts are

Normative, and of sociology and social constructs
anecdotal political science
established since
Chicago school

Boundaries with Behaviorism is a Theories, contents

philosophy, history, dominant approach and methods are
and jurisprudence with an empirical influenced by
 were not clearly testing of political events
defined. generalizations

Machiavelli, CP is established in Modernization,decol

Montesqiue, de the academia onization,transition
Tocqueville came to democracy, and
close to founding of so on influenced CP
CP

The main goal of the From classifications

analysis is to to analysis of politics
establish and policies
classifications and
typologies, to
describe polity but
not politics or
policies

Scholars in Comparative Politics

No. Scholar Key Contributions/Themes

1 Gabriel A. Almond Structural functionalism and political development

2 Barrington Moore, Jr. The critical spirit and comparative historical analysis

3 Robert A. Dahl Normative theory, empirical research, and democracy

4 Juan J. Linz Political regimes and the quest for knowledge

5 Samuel P. Order and conflict in global perspective

Huntington

6 Arend Lijphart Political institutions, divided societies, and consociational

democracy

7 Guillermo O'Donnell Democratization, political engagement, and agenda-setting

research
 8 Philippe C. Schmitter Corporatism, democracy, and conceptual traveling

9 James C. Scott Peasants, power, and the art of resistance

10 Alfred Stepan Democratic governance and the craft of case-based research

11 Adam Przeworski Capitalism, democracy, and science

12 Robert H. Bates Markets, politics, and choice

13 David Collier Critical junctions, concepts, and methods

14 David D. Laitin Culture, rationality, and the search for discipline

15 Theda Skocpol States, revolutions, and the comparative historical imagination

Comparative Method​
1. *Comparison as an Analytical Method*:
- Comparing things helps us understand why something happens.
- By looking at similarities and differences, we can find patterns or causes.

2. *John Stuart Mill’s Method of Agreement (19th Century)*:

- Look for a *single event* that is common in all cases where the same thing happens.
- If this single event always changes when the outcome changes, it might be the *cause*.
- Example: If you notice that every time people get sick, they all ate the same food, that food
might be the cause of the sickness.
 Comparing Political Regimes by Alan Siaroff
Chapter 1 Introduction
1. The Importance of Studying Comparative Politics
Siaroff argues that comparative politics helps us understand why countries develop differently
despite similar starting conditions. For example:
Why did South Korea evolve into a stable democracy while North Korea remains an
authoritarian regime?
Why do some countries experience economic growth while others remain stagnant?
Studying political regimes allows us to identify patterns and trends in governance, such as the
factors that lead to democratization or authoritarianism.
It also provides lessons for policymakers on how to design institutions and policies that promote
stability, development, and human rights.

2. Defining Political Regimes

a regime refers to the set of formal and informal rules, norms, and institutions that shape how
power is exercised and distributed within a political system. It encompasses the structures and
processes through which governments operate and interact with society.
Siaroff emphasizes that regimes are not limited to the formal institutions of government but also
include informal practices, cultural norms, and power dynamics. Regimes can vary widely across
different political systems, ranging from democratic to authoritarian, and they play a crucial role
in shaping the outcomes of political processes.

3. The Role of Sovereignty

Siaroff highlights the dual nature of sovereignty:
Internal sovereignty: The state’s ability to enforce laws and maintain order within its territory.
External sovereignty: The recognition of a state’s independence by other states and
international organizations.
Sovereignty is often challenged by non-state actors, such as multinational corporations, terrorist
organizations, and international NGOs, which operate across borders and influence domestic
politics.
Globalization has blurred the lines of sovereignty, as states increasingly cooperate on issues like
trade, security, and environmental protection.
4. The Growth of the International System
The chapter provides a detailed analysis of the waves of state creation:
Post-World War II decolonization: Led to the emergence of over 50 new states, particularly in
Africa and Asia.
Post-Cold War fragmentation: The dissolution of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and
Czechoslovakia created over 20 new states.
Ongoing independence movements: Cases like Scotland, Catalonia, and Kurdistan highlight the
continuing relevance of sovereignty and self-determination.
Siaroff notes that the growth in the number of states has increased the complexity of international
relations, as new actors enter the global stage.

5. Historical Classification: First, Second, and Third Worlds

First World: These countries were not only wealthy and democratic but also played a leading
role in shaping the post-World War II global order, including the establishment of institutions
like the United Nations and the International Monetary Fund.
Second World: Communist regimes were characterized by centralized control over the economy
and society, often leading to inefficiencies and human rights abuses. The fall of the Soviet Union
marked the end of the Second World as a distinct category.
Third World: The term “Third World” was often associated with dependency theory, which
argued that developing countries were economically exploited by wealthier nations. Siaroff
explains how this framework has been replaced by more nuanced approaches like globalization
theory.

6. Contemporary Classification of Countries

By Income Levels:
Low-income countries: Often rely on foreign aid and struggle with issues like corruption, weak
institutions, and limited access to education and healthcare.
Middle-income countries: These include emerging economies like China, India, and Brazil,
which have made significant progress but still face challenges like inequality and environmental
degradation.
High-income countries: Typically face issues like aging populations, immigration, and the need
to innovate in a globalized economy.

By Geographic Regions:
Siaroff emphasizes the importance of regional context in shaping political regimes.
For example:
●​ Latin America has a history of populism and military dictatorships.
●​ The Middle East is characterized by authoritarianism and sectarian conflict.
●​ Scandinavia is known for its social democratic welfare states.

By Political Systems:
●​ Liberal democracies: These regimes are characterized by free and fair elections, the rule
of law, and the protection of civil liberties. Examples include Canada, Germany, and
Japan.
●​ Hybrid regimes: These combine elements of democracy and authoritarianism, often with
limited political competition and restricted freedoms. Examples include Russia, Turkey,
and Venezuela.
●​ Authoritarian regimes: These concentrate power in the hands of a single leader or party,
often suppressing dissent and controlling the media. Examples include North Korea,
Saudi Arabia, and China.

Chapter 3
Chapter 3: Electoral Democracies, Liberal Democracies, and Autocracies
Democracy and the Demos
●​ Siaroff defines democracy as a political system where the people (demos) hold power
through mechanisms of participation and representation. The term “demos” refers to the
citizens who form the political community.
●​ Democracy is rooted in the principle of popular sovereignty, where authority is derived
from the consent of the governed.
●​ The chapter emphasizes that democracy is not just about elections but also about ensuring
inclusiveness, participation, and accountability in governance.
2. Elections and Accountability
●​ Elections are a cornerstone of democracy, serving as the primary mechanism for ensuring
government accountability. They allow citizens to choose their leaders and hold them
responsible for their actions.
●​ Siaroff distinguishes between:
●​ Free and fair elections: Inclusive, competitive, and transparent, with equal
opportunities for all candidates and parties.
●​ Sham elections: Used by authoritarian regimes to create the appearance of
legitimacy without genuine competition or accountability.
●​ He highlights the importance of electoral institutions, such as independent electoral
commissions and clear legal frameworks, to ensure the integrity of elections.
3. Electoral Democracy vs. Liberal Democracy
●​ Siaroff introduces two key types of democracy:
 ●​ Electoral Democracy: A minimalist form of democracy where elections are held
to choose leaders, but there may be limited protections for civil liberties and the
rule of law. Examples include hybrid regimes like Russia or Turkey.
●​ Liberal Democracy: A more comprehensive form of democracy that combines
free and fair elections with strong protections for civil liberties, the rule of law,
and institutional checks and balances. Examples include countries like Canada,
Germany, and Sweden.
●​ He argues that while electoral democracy is a necessary starting point, it is incomplete
without the broader institutional and legal framework of liberal democracy.
4. The Five Elements of Liberal Democracy
Siaroff outlines the five essential elements that define liberal democracy:
1.​ Free and Fair Elections: Competitive, inclusive, and transparent elections that allow
citizens to choose their leaders.
2.​ Civil Liberties: Protection of fundamental rights such as freedom of speech, assembly,
religion, and the press, enabling citizens to express themselves and hold the government
accountable.
3.​ Rule of Law: Equality before the law, an independent judiciary, and legal protections
against arbitrary power.
4.​ Checks and Balances: Separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial
branches to prevent the concentration of power.
5.​ Accountability: Mechanisms to ensure that leaders are answerable to the people and that
government actions are transparent and subject to scrutiny.
5. Political Regimes in the World Today
●​ Siaroff provides a global overview of political regimes, categorizing them based on their
level of democracy:
●​ Liberal Democracies: Countries that meet all five elements of liberal democracy.
Examples include the United States, Japan, and most of Western Europe.
●​ Electoral Democracies: Countries that hold elections but fall short in areas like
civil liberties or the rule of law. Examples include India, Brazil, and South Africa.
●​ Hybrid Regimes: Countries that combine elements of democracy and
authoritarianism. Elections may be held, but they are often manipulated, and civil
liberties are restricted. Examples include Russia, Turkey, and Venezuela.
●​ Authoritarian Regimes: Countries where power is concentrated in the hands of a
single leader or party, elections are nonexistent or sham, and civil liberties are
severely curtailed. Examples include North Korea, China, and Saudi Arabia.
●​ He discusses the challenges to democracy, such as populism, corruption, and the erosion
of democratic norms, which threaten the stability and quality of democratic regimes.
6. Beyond Liberal Democracy
●​ Siaroff explores alternative forms of democracy beyond the liberal model, such as:
 ●​ Participatory Democracy: Emphasizes direct citizen involvement in
decision-making, often through mechanisms like referendums and grassroots
movements.
●​ Deliberative Democracy: Focuses on inclusive and reasoned public deliberation to
reach consensus on policy decisions.
●​ Social Democracy: Combines democratic governance with a strong welfare state
and policies aimed at reducing inequality.
●​ He notes that these models highlight the diversity of democratic practices and the
potential for innovation in governance.
7. The Copenhagen Document
●​ Siaroff discusses the Copenhagen Document (1990), a landmark agreement by the
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) that established
international standards for democracy and human rights.
●​ Key principles outlined in the document include:
●​ Free and fair elections.
●​ The rule of law and an independent judiciary.
●​ Protection of civil liberties and human rights.
●​ Political pluralism and the right to form political parties.
●​ The Copenhagen Document serves as a benchmark for evaluating the quality of
democracy in countries around the world.

Chapter 7
Chapter 7: Electoral Systems and Party Systems in Democracies
1. Electoral Systems
Definition and Importance:
●​ An electoral system is a set of rules that govern how votes are cast, counted, and
translated into seats in a representative body. It plays a crucial role in shaping the political
landscape, influencing voter behavior, party strategies, and governance outcomes.
Types of Electoral Systems:
1.​ Majoritarian Systems:
●​ First-Past-the-Post (FPTP): The candidate with the most votes in a constituency
wins. Used in countries like the United States and the United Kingdom.
●​ Two-Round System (TRS): If no candidate receives a majority in the first round, a
second round is held between the top candidates. Used in France and Brazil.
●​ Single Non-Transferable Vote (SNTV): Voters cast a single vote in multi-member
districts, and the candidates with the most votes win. Used in some local elections
and historically in Japan.
2.​ Proportional Representation (PR) Systems:
 ●​ List PR: Voters vote for a party list, and seats are allocated proportionally based
on the total votes received by each party. Used in countries like Sweden and
Israel.
●​ Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP): Combines FPTP and list PR, ensuring
proportional outcomes. Used in Germany and New Zealand.
3.​ Mixed Systems:
●​ Parallel Systems: Combines FPTP and PR, but the PR seats do not compensate for
disproportionality in the FPTP seats. Used in Japan and Russia.
●​ Additional Member System (AMS): A type of MMP that explicitly balances
proportionality. Used in Germany.
Effects of Electoral Systems:
●​ Representation: PR systems tend to produce more proportional outcomes, while
majoritarian systems often favor larger parties.
●​ Party System: PR systems encourage multi-party systems, while majoritarian systems
tend to produce two-party systems.
●​ Voter Behavior: Electoral systems influence voter turnout, strategic voting, and the
salience of issues.

2. Party Systems
Definition and Importance:
●​ A party system refers to the configuration of political parties in a country, including their
number, size, and interactions. It is shaped by historical, social, and institutional factors,
particularly the electoral system.
Types of Party Systems:
1.​ Two-Party Systems: Dominated by two major parties, often in majoritarian systems.
Examples include the United States and the United Kingdom.
2.​ Multi-Party Systems: Characterized by multiple parties, often in PR systems. Examples
include Germany, Sweden, and India.
3.​ Dominant-Party Systems: One party consistently wins elections, even in competitive
systems. Examples include South Africa (African National Congress) and Japan (Liberal
Democratic Party historically).
4.​ One-Party Systems: Only one party is legally allowed to exist. Found in authoritarian
regimes like China and North Korea.
Functions of Political Parties:
●​ Representation: Articulating and representing the interests of various social groups.
●​ Governance: Forming governments and implementing policies.
●​ Integration: Mobilizing citizens and fostering political participation.
●​ Accountability: Holding the government responsible for its actions.

3. Party System Institutionalization

Definition and Importance:
●​ Party system institutionalization refers to the stability, predictability, and strength of
political parties and their interactions. High institutionalization indicates well-established
parties with clear ideologies, stable voter bases, and strong organizations.
Indicators of Institutionalization:
1.​ Stability: Consistency in the number and strength of parties over time.
2.​ Rootedness: Parties’ connections to social groups and their ability to mobilize support.
3.​ Autonomy: Independence from external influences, such as wealthy donors or foreign
powers.
4.​ Legitimacy: Acceptance of parties as legitimate actors in the political process.
Challenges to Institutionalization:
●​ Weak Parties: Fragmented or unstable parties, often in new democracies.
●​ Populism: The rise of anti-establishment parties that undermine traditional party systems.
●​ Corruption: Erodes public trust in parties and their legitimacy.
Importance of Institutionalization:
●​ Stability: Institutionalized party systems contribute to political stability and predictability.
●​ Governance: Strong parties are better able to form coherent governments and implement
policies.
●​ Democracy: Institutionalized parties enhance representation and accountability, which are
essential for democratic governance.

Chapter 8: Types of Autocracies

1. Introduction
Siaroff begins by defining autocracy as a political system where power is concentrated in the
hands of a single individual or a small group, with little or no accountability to the public. Unlike
democracies, autocracies restrict political competition, suppress dissent, and limit civil liberties.
Siaroff emphasizes that autocracies are not monolithic; they vary significantly in their structure,
ideology, and methods of control.

2. Totalitarianism
Totalitarianism represents the most extreme and intrusive form of autocracy. Siaroff defines it as
a regime that seeks total control over all aspects of public and private life, often through an
ideology that justifies its actions.
Characteristics of Totalitarianism
●​ Ideology: A comprehensive and often dogmatic ideology (e.g., communism, fascism) that
justifies the regime’s actions and mobilizes the population.
●​ Single-Party Rule: A single political party dominates all aspects of governance, and
opposition is systematically eliminated.
●​ State Control: The state controls the economy, media, education, and even private life,
leaving no room for independent institutions or civil society.
 ●​ Repression: Extensive use of secret police, surveillance, and terror to suppress dissent
and maintain control.
●​ Mobilization: The regime actively mobilizes the population through propaganda, mass
rallies, and participation in state-sponsored organizations.
Examples
●​ Nazi Germany (1933-1945): Adolf Hitler’s regime, characterized by fascist ideology,
extreme nationalism, and the use of terror.
●​ Soviet Union under Stalin (1924-1953): A communist regime that sought total control
over society and the economy.

3. Pre-Totalitarianism and Post-Totalitarianism

Siaroff distinguishes between pre-totalitarian and post-totalitarian regimes to highlight the
evolution and decay of totalitarian systems.
Pre-Totalitarianism
●​ Characteristics: The regime is in the process of establishing total control. It may still face
resistance from remnants of the old order or lack full institutionalization of its ideology.
●​ Examples: The early years of the Soviet Union or Maoist China, where the regime was
consolidating power and eliminating opposition.
Post-Totalitarianism
●​ Characteristics: The regime still maintains elements of control but has lost its ideological
fervor and seeks to preserve power through routine rather than mobilization. The
population may become disillusioned with the ideology.
●​ Examples: The later years of the Soviet Union under Brezhnev, where the regime relied
on bureaucracy and repression rather than ideological commitment.

4. Sultanistic Regimes
Sultanistic regimes are a subtype of autocracy characterized by personalistic rule, where power is
concentrated in the hands of a single leader who treats the state as his personal property.
Characteristics of Sultanistic Regimes
●​ Personal Rule: The leader’s authority is absolute, and institutions are subordinate to his
will.
●​ Patronage: The leader uses patronage networks to reward loyalty and maintain control.
●​ Lack of Ideology: Unlike totalitarian regimes, sultanistic regimes lack a coherent
ideology and focus on the leader’s personal interests.
●​ Weak Institutions: State institutions are weak and personalized, serving the leader’s
whims rather than functioning as independent entities.
Examples
●​ Nicaragua under Somoza (1936-1979): The Somoza family ruled Nicaragua as a personal
fiefdom, using state resources for their enrichment.
 ●​ Philippines under Marcos (1965-1986): Ferdinand Marcos centralized power and
amassed personal wealth while suppressing opposition.

5. Authoritarian Regimes
Authoritarian regimes are the most common form of autocracy, characterized by limited political
pluralism and the absence of meaningful competition. Unlike totalitarian regimes, they do not
seek total control over society.
Characteristics of Authoritarian Regimes
●​ Limited Pluralism: A small elite or ruling party controls power, but some degree of
political or social pluralism may exist.
●​ Repression: The regime uses coercion to suppress dissent but does not employ
widespread terror or ideological mobilization.
●​ Institutionalization: Authoritarian regimes often rely on institutions like the military,
bureaucracy, or a dominant party to maintain control.
●​ Pragmatism: The regime focuses on maintaining power and stability rather than pursuing
an ideology or transforming society.
Types of Authoritarian Regimes
1.​ Military Regimes: The military directly controls the government, often after a coup.
Examples include Myanmar (under the junta) and Egypt (under Sisi).
2.​ One-Party Regimes: A single party dominates the political system, allowing limited
competition within the party or controlled elections. Examples include China and North
Korea.
3.​ Personalist Regimes: Power is concentrated in the hands of an individual leader, with
institutions serving the leader’s interests. Examples include Venezuela under Chávez and
Russia under Putin

2nd Revision(Modules sent)​

​
An Introduction to Comparative Politics (CP)

What is Comparative Politics?

●​ Definition:
○​ CP is a subfield of Political Science (PS) that focuses on comparing political
systems, institutions, processes, and behaviors within and across countries.
○​ It involves the systematic study of political phenomena to understand similarities
and differences between political systems.
●​ Purpose:
 ○​ To analyze and explain political phenomena.
○​ To predict political outcomes and behaviors.
○​ To understand the linkages between domestic and international politics.
●​ Scope:
○​ CP studies internal political structures (e.g., parliaments, executives), actors (e.g.,
voters, political parties, interest groups), and processes (e.g., policy-making,
political culture) within states.

Key Aspects of Comparative Politics

1.​ Internal Focus:

○​ CP primarily examines domestic politics (politics within countries).
2.​ Comparative Method:
○​ CP uses systematic comparison to analyze political systems.
○​ It employs both qualitative (e.g., case studies) and quantitative (e.g., statistical
analysis) research methods.
3.​ Scientific Approach:
○​ CP aims to define, describe, explain, and predict political phenomena through
empirical analysis.
○​ It seeks to identify patterns, processes, and regularities among political systems.

Why Study Comparative Politics?

●​ Understanding Other Countries:

○​ CP helps us learn about different political systems and appreciate the strengths
and weaknesses of our own system.

●​ Linkages:
○​ It explores the connections between domestic and international politics.
○​ It examines the relationship between politics and other fields like economics,
culture, technology, and public health.
●​ Critical Thinking:
○​ CP sharpens analytical skills and helps us form informed political opinions.
 ○​ It encourages scientific logic and coherent argumentation in understanding
political phenomena.

Key Scholars and Contributions

●​ Aristotle (384-322 BC):

○​ Studied different forms of government in Greek city-states.
○​ Classified governments into monarchy, aristocracy, and polity (good forms) and
tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy (corrupt forms).
●​ Machiavelli (1469-1527):
○​ Compared and evaluated different forms of rule in his works.
●​ Karl Marx (1818-1883):
○​ Focused on economic and political development and revolutionary change.
●​ Robert Dahl:
○​ Emphasized the study of power distribution in decision-making.
●​ Jean Blondel:
○​ Focused on public policy and the outcomes of political action.

Evolution of Comparative Politics

●​ 19th Century:
○​ CP emerged as an academic discipline, focusing on formal institutions of
government.
●​ 20th Century:
○​ Shifted from descriptive to more analytical and scientific approaches.
○​ Influenced by behaviorism (focus on political behavior) and institutionalism
(focus on political institutions).
●​ Post-Modern Era:
○​ Incorporation of historical, economic, and cultural approaches.
○​ Influenced by events like decolonization and the transition to democracy.

Comparative Method

●​ John Stuart Mill:

○​ Introduced the "method of agreement" to identify causes of political phenomena.
○​ If a phenomenon occurs whenever a particular event occurs, that event is likely
the cause.
●​ Arend Lijphart:
○​ Advocated for using experimental, statistical, and case study methods in CP.
 ○​ Introduced the idea of comparative research to establish general empirical
propositions.
●​ Charles Ragin:
○​ Focused on identifying patterns of similarities and differences across a moderate
number of cases.

Key Concepts in Comparative Politics

1.​ Classification:
○​ Simplifies descriptions by categorizing political systems (e.g., monarchy,
democracy).
○​ Aristotle’s classification of governments:
■​ Good Forms: Monarchy, Aristocracy, Polity.
■​ Corrupt Forms: Tyranny, Oligarchy, Democracy.
2.​ Hypothesis-Testing:
○​ Seeks to explain political phenomena by testing theories against empirical
evidence.
○​ Helps build more complete theories of politics.
3.​ Prediction:
○​ Uses hypothesis-testing to make probabilistic predictions about political outcomes
in different countries.

Forms of Governance (Aristotle’s Classification)

1.​ Monarchy: Rule by one (good) or Tyranny (corrupt).

2.​ Aristocracy: Rule by the nobility (good) or Oligarchy (corrupt).
3.​ Polity: Rule by many (good) or Democracy (corrupt).

Contemporary Comparative Politics

●​ Focus:
○​ Contemporary CP focuses on variables that explain political behavior and
outcomes.
○​ It uses cross-national comparisons to test theories and identify significant
associations.
●​ Aim:
○​ To understand the complexity of power, influence, and authority in modern
political systems.
 ○​ To conceptualize, measure, and understand the relationships of power in a
globalized world.

Conclusion

●​ Comparative Politics is a vital field within Political Science that helps us understand,
compare, and predict political systems and behaviors across different countries.
●​ It combines historical, institutional, and behavioral approaches to provide a
comprehensive understanding of politics.
●​ By studying CP, we can become more informed citizens and develop a sophisticated
understanding of the political world.

Public Administration
Module 1
Introduction to Public Administration
What is Public Administration?
●​ is the organization and management of men and materials to achieve the purposes of the
government (Waldo, 1955)
●​ is the action on the part of government, the means by which the purposes and goals of the
government are realized (Rossenbloom, 1989)
●​ the art and science of management as applied to the affairs of the state (Waldo, 2155)
●​ is a cooperative group effort in the public setting – covers all three branches of the
government and their inter-relationships (F. Nigro & L. Nigro, 2000)
●​ Involvement of resources not only monetary but also other forms of resources such as
manpower and more
●​ Centered the resources on the respective goals of the administration example is the
prioritization of infrastructure of the duterte administration the same with the current
goals administration.
Use of Public Administration
Public Administration is both a professional and scholarly discipline.

As a Field of Practice: - Consist of activities and processes of administering public affairs and carrying
out governmental functions
As a Field of Study or Discipline: - A systematic study and improvement of government capacity and
practice in forming policies, making decisions, implementing and securing the desired result

Importance of Public Administration

●​ It provides a basis for the government
●​ Acts as instrument of change in the society
●​ Plays a vital role in the life of the people
●​ Acts as instrument for the execution of policies and programs
●​ Acts as a stabilizing force in the government

Nature of Public Administration

Integral View - Perceives public administration as a field which is comprehensive and
encompasses several activities necessary to accomplish the objectives of the government
●​ It includes everything the government does to achieve its goals—like planning,
managing, and even the small tasks like paperwork. It’s all part of the job.

Managerial View - Perceives public administration as a field which limits itself to managerial
activities disregarding the technical and clerical functions that form part of the discipline
●​ It sees public administration as just the management part—making decisions, leading,
and organizing. It ignores the smaller tasks like typing or technical work, treating them as
separate.

Scope of Public Administration

POSDCORB:
●​ Planning
●​ Organizing
●​ Staffing
●​ Directing
●​ Coordinating
●​ Reporting
●​ Budgeting
Public Administration vs Private Administration

Public Administration Private Administration

Broad field of administration Limited field of administration

Public administration consists of different
institutions that make up the overall structure
of the government.

Actions are based on public trust Not necessarily based on public trust

Routine decision procedure Unlimited decision-making process

Maintenance of status quo Dynamic entrepreneurship

Actions subject to public criticisms Not normally subject to public criticisms

Restricted by fiscal accountability No such restrictions

Peculiarities of Public Administration

●​ It is unavoidable
●​ It expects obedience
●​ It has an exceptional size
●​ It is anywhere but more visible at the local level The top management is political
●​ Its performance is difficult to measure

Emergence of Administration
●​ Public administration emerged during the development of early civilizations
●​ As a field of study, it can be traced back to either Europe or United States
●​ Separation of Public Administration from Political Science
●​ Creation of Public Administration as a [separate] discipline
●​ Wilson, in his paper “The Study of Public Administration” noted that administration is
obvious part of the government – it is government in action”
●​ Politics-Administration Dichotomy

Politics - Administration Dichotomy

Woodrow Wilson, the Father of Public Administration, advocated for the separation of
administration from the field of politics. Politics is a province of law making body while
administration constitutes the application of government policies.
According to F. Nigro and L. Nigro, the separation of politics from administration is not
considered, instead, it focuses on the role of politics in the process of administering the
government.

The field of public administration in the Philippines is viewed as a concept that is both a field of
study and a field of practice.
●​ As a study, it has evolved into the present set-up of the discipline in the NCPAG and
other universities that offer the discipline as one of the best courses to learn the
government; it has it’s own theories and principles; and it has its areas of specialization
●​ As a practice, it is a reflection of the processes and activities of the different government
offices in the Philippines, emphasizing the processes in the Philippine bureaucracy
●​ Devoid of “politics-administration dichotomy” (Brillantes and Fernandez, 2008) There is
a closely knit connection between politics and administration.

Theories of Public Administration

CLASSICAL THEORIES
Scientific Management
Scientific Management, developed by Frederick B. Taylor, is a theory focused on improving
efficiency and reducing waste in how work is done. It is based on the idea that there is always a
"best way" to perform a task—one that is the most efficient, economical, and effective. This
approach aims to minimize costs while maximizing results. Taylor emphasized the importance of
having a strong managerial team to supervise and organize work. Techniques like time and
motion studies, incentive systems, breaking tasks into smaller parts, separating planning from
execution, and using specialized supervisors (functional foremanship) were introduced to
achieve this goal. In public administration, this theory contributed to the widespread acceptance
of efficiency as a primary objective. Its principles also align with government reforms, such as
creating merit-based hiring systems, centralizing authority, ensuring accountability, and
removing partisan politics from administrative processes.

Administration Management
Henry Fayol’s principles focus on organizing and managing organizations effectively. Here’s a
simplified explanation:
1.​ Division of Labor: Work is divided among employees to improve efficiency.
2.​ Authority: Supervisors have the right to give orders and expect them to be followed.
3.​ Discipline: Employees must follow the organization’s rules and policies.
4.​ Unity of Command: Each employee should report to only one supervisor to avoid
confusion.
5.​ Unity of Direction: Teams with the same goal should be led by one supervisor.
 6.​ Subordination of Individual Interest: The organization’s goals come before personal
interests.
7.​ Remuneration: Employees should be paid fairly for their work.
8.​ Centralization: Major decisions are made by top management, but some authority can
be delegated.
9.​ Scalar Chain: There’s a clear line of authority from top to bottom, shown in the
organizational chart.
10.​Order: Employees should be assigned to roles that match their skills.
11.​Equity: Employees should be treated fairly and given what they need to succeed.
12.​Stability of Tenure: Keeping employees long-term ensures continuity and efficiency.
13.​Initiative: Employees should be encouraged to come up with ideas and take action.
14.​Esprit de Corps: Promoting teamwork and unity boosts morale and productivity

BUREAUCRATIC MODEL - Derived from the construct of ideal bureaucracy of Max Weber -
According to Weber, bureaucracy is the most efficient form of organization for administrative
purposes - Three main characteristics of ideal bureaucracy:
1. Hierarchy
2. Division of labor
3. Formally written rules and procedures
4. Impersonality
5. Neutrality

Neoclassical Theory
●​ Commonly referred to as the “human relations” or “human behavior school” which
focuses more on humanistic perspective
●​ Organizations is seen as a social system of interpersonal relationship
●​ It focused on the people and dynamics of human behavior in the organization
●​ It was believed that social and psychological incentives were more important than
economic considerations

Integrative or Modern Organization Theories

DECISION-MAKING THEORY
- Proposes that a complete rationality in administrative decision making is not possible because
of certain organizational and human limitations - Bounded rationality

INDUSTRIAL HUMANISM
- The socio-psychological being of workers affects their performance at work
- Human nees and motivation should be taken into consideration in the overall appreciation of
the organization
- Application of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
- Theory X and Theory Y
- Employees behave in the manner that their supervisors expect them to be
- Theory X managers have negative presumption about their employees; while Theory Y
managers regard their employees in a more positive light

OPEN SYSTEMS THEORY

- Organizations are viewed as open social systems because they continuously relate or transact
with their environment
- Organizations are dynamic and have the capacity to make and adjust to internal changes and
respond to the changing conditions in the environment where they are operating, this allows the
organization to grow.

CONTINGENCY APPROACH
- No single technique or approach is applicable to all situations, hence, administrators or
managers have to identify the best solution or strategy that is most suitable in a given situation
- Administrators and managers shall have the understanding of different factors and aspects
affecting the organization.

Module 2
Definition
LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNIT
A political subdivision of a nation or a state constituted by law which has substantial control over
local affairs, including the power to impose taxes, the governing body of which is elected and
appointed.
Any sub-national government which is comprised of provinces, cities, municipalities, and
barangays that provide some of the basic services.

Distribution of Powers to LGU

Horizontal Distribution of Government Powers
Distributed among the three (3) branches of the government: Executive, Legislative, and
Judiciary.

Vertical Distribution of Government Powers

Distributed among at least two (2) levels of Government:
(1) National Government (NG); and
(2) Local Government Units (LGUs).
LGC of 1991 on Local Autonomy and Decentralization
(a) The State’s policy gives local areas (like towns, cities, and provinces) real and meaningful
independence. This helps them grow into strong, self-sufficient communities and work better as
partners in achieving national goals. To make this happen, the State will create a local
government system that is more responsive and responsible. This will be done by decentralizing
power—meaning the National Government will grant local governments more authority, duties,
and resources to manage themselves effectively.

Decentralization
Decentralization is the transfer of power, authority, and responsibility from the central institution
to the lower or local levels of a government system.

IMPERATIVES OF DECENTRALIZATION

1.​ Leadership
2.​ Structure
3.​ Resources
4.​ Personnel

FORMS OF DECENTRALIZATION
Devolution (Political Decentralization)
Transfer of powers and responsibilities to LGUs.

Deconcentration (Administrative Decentralization)

Delegation of powers from the national government to the different LGUs.

Privatization
Assumption of a private entity of a service or function of the government.

Decentralization
In its broad or general sense, decentralization has two forms in the Philippine setting, namely:
the decentralization of power and the decentralization of administration.
Decentralization of Power:​

1.​ This is when the central government gives political power to local government units
(LGUs) so they can make their own decisions and plan their future with little interference
from the central government. This means LGUs become independent and are accountable
to their local people, not to the central government. It’s like giving them the freedom to
lead themselves.
Decentralization of Administration:​

2.​ This is when the central government gives LGUs the authority to manage certain tasks or
responsibilities. This helps LGUs grow stronger, more capable, and more responsive to
their communities, making them better partners in achieving national goals. It also allows
the central government to focus on bigger, nationwide issues instead of handling local
matters.

Local Autonomy
Article X, Section 2 of the 1987 Constitution specifically grants local autonomy to "territorial
and political subdivisions." The constitutional mandate to ensure local autonomy refers to
decentralization. The grant of local autonomy is Constitutionally mandated and allows local
government units to make independent administrative determinations subject only to the
Executive branch's general supervision. Thus, any regulations imposed on the exercise of local
autonomy should not, in any way, amount to control.

Effects of Local Autonomy

If the Constitutional guarantee of local autonomy is to be given effect, it should amount to
effective authority for local government units to decide matters concerning local affairs. While
this autonomy is not absolute, the criteria limiting its exercise must be reasonable and should not
give central government agencies the power to restrict the actions of a local government unit, or
to substitute it with their own.

Local autonomy should give local government units sufficient discretion to act on matters of
local importance, without undue interference from central government agencies. This is intrinsic
in the Constitution's qualification that executive interference is limited to general supervision, as
opposed to control, over local government units.

Decentralization vs Local Autonomy

Decentralization is a process where power and responsibilities are transferred from the central
government to local governments. Local autonomy, on the other hand, is the result or condition
that comes from this process.

Barangays
Section 384. Role of the Barangay. - As the basic political unit, the barangay serves as the
primary planning and implementing unit of government policies, plans, programs, projects, and
activities in the community, and as a forum wherein the collective views of the people may be
expressed, crystallized and considered, and where disputes may be amicably settled.
Municipalities
Section 440. Role of the Municipality. - The municipality, consisting of a group of barangays,
serves primarily as a general purpose government for the coordination and delivery of basic,
regular and direct services and effective governance of the inhabitants within its territorial
jurisdiction.

Cities
Section 448. Role of the City. - The city, consisting of more urbanized and developed barangays,
serves as a general purpose government for the coordination and delivery of basic, regular, and
direct services and effective governance of the inhabitants within its territorial jurisdiction.

Provinces
Section 459. Role of the Province. - The province, composed of a cluster of municipalities, or
municipalities and component cities, and as a political and corporate unit of government, serves
as a dynamic mechanism for developmental processes and effective governance of local
government units within its territorial jurisdiction.

Highly Urbanized Cities

Section 452. Highly Urbanized Cities.
(a) Cities with a minimum population of two hundred thousand (200,000) inhabitants as certified
by the National Statistics Office, and within the latest annual income of at least Fifty Million
Pesos (P50,000,000.00) based on 1991 constant prices, as certified by the city treasurer, shall be
classified as highly urbanized cities.
(b) Cities which do not meet above requirements shall be considered component cities of the
province in which they are geographically located. If a component city is located within the
boundaries of two (2) or more provinces, such city shall be considered a component of the
province of which it used to be a municipality.
(c) Qualified voters of highly urbanized cities shall remain excluded from voting for elective
provincial officials.
Powers Granted to LGUs
Local Taxation
Section 5. Each local government unit shall have the power to create its own sources of revenues
and to levy taxes, fees, and charges subject to such guidelines and limitations as the Congress
may provide, consistent with the basic policy of local autonomy. Such taxes, fees, and charges
shall accrue exclusively to the local governments.

Doctrine: Municipal Corporations do not possess inherent power to tax.

Local Police Power

Section 16, LGC 1991 (GENERAL WELFARE CLAUSE)
SECTION 16. General Welfare. - Every local government unit shall exercise the powers
expressly granted, those necessarily implied therefrom, as well as powers necessary, appropriate,
or incidental for its efficient and effective governance, and those which are essential to the
promotion of the general welfare. Within their respective territorial jurisdictions, local
government units shall ensure and support, among other things, the preservation and enrichment
of culture, promote health and safety, enhance the right of the people to a balanced ecology,
encourage and support the development of appropriate and self-reliant scientific and
technological capabilities, improve public morals, enhance economic prosperity and social
justice, promote full employment among their residents, maintain peace and order, and preserve
the comfort and convenience of their inhabitants.

Requisites:​
1. Must not contravene the Constitution and other statutes;
2. Must not be unfair or oppressive
3. Must not be partial or discriminatory
4. Must not prohibit but may regulate trade
5. Must be general and consistent with public policy
6. Must not be unreasonable

Local Eminent Domain

Section 19. Eminent Domain. - A local government unit may, through its chief executive and
acting pursuant to an ordinance, exercise the power of eminent domain for public use, or purpose
or welfare for the benefit of the poor and the landless, upon payment of just compensation,
pursuant to the provisions of the Constitution and pertinent laws: Provided, however, That the
power of eminent domain may not be exercised unless a valid and definite offer has been
previously made to the owner, and such offer was not accepted: Provided, further, That the local
government unit may immediately take possession of the property upon the filing of the
expropriation proceedings and upon making a deposit with the proper court of at least fifteen
percent (15%) of the fair market value of the property based on the current tax declaration of the
property to be expropriated: Provided, finally, That, the amount to be paid for the expropriated
property shall be determined by the proper court, based on the fair market value at the time of the
taking of the property.
​
Requisites:
1.Governed by the Local Chief Executive and Based on Local Laws
●​ The local government, led by its Chief Executive, must follow local laws
(ordinances) for this process.
2.​ For Public Use or Welfare, Especially for the Poor and Landless
●​ Public Use means the project must benefit everyone, especially the poor and
landless. The project must be necessary, reasonable, and practical.
●​ The local government must first confirm that the land is suitable for the intended
purpose and get the required permits and approvals from authorities.
3.​ Payment of Fair Compensation
●​ Under the Constitution, private property cannot be taken for public use without
paying the owner fair compensation.
●​ Fair Compensation means the owner must be paid the full and fair market value of
the property at the time it is taken.
●​ The court will decide the amount based on the property’s value when it is
acquired.
4. A valid and definite offer has been previously made to the owner , and such offer was not
accepted
• The LGU must first make an offer to buy the property before it can initially initiate an
expropriation proceedings so that if the owner of the property agrees to sell it, the LGU
need not expropriate the property

CREATION, CONVERSION, DIVISION, MERGER & ABOLITION OF LGUs

Section 6, LGC of 1991
Authority to Create Local Government Units. - A local government unit may be created, divided,
merged, abolished, or its boundaries substantially altered either by law enacted by Congress in
the case of a province, city, municipality, or any other political subdivision, or by ordinance
passed by the sangguniang panlalawigan or sangguniang panlungsod concerned in the case of a
barangay located within its territorial jurisdiction, subject to such limitations and requirements
prescribed in this Code.

CRITERIA for Creation and Conversion

Section 7. Creation and Conversion. - As a general rule, the creation of a local government unit
or its conversion from one level to another level shall be based on verifiable indicators of
viability and projected capacity to provide services, to wit:
a) Income. - It must be sufficient, based on acceptable standards, to provide for all essential
government facilities and services and special functions commensurate with the size of its
population, as expected of the local government unit concerned;
b) Population. - It shall be determined as the total number of inhabitants within the territorial
jurisdiction of the local government unit concerned; and
c) Land Area. - It must be contiguous, unless it comprises two or more islands or is separated by
a local government unit independent of the others; properly identified by meters and bounds with
technical descriptions; and sufficient to provide for such basic services and facilities to meet the
requirements of its populace.

Why do LGUs aspire to convert?

Answer: LGUs aspire to convert mainly for the:

1.​ Effectual changes in their fiscal status, particularly in the distribution of the Internal
Revenue Allotment (IRA) vis-a-vis their devolved functions; and
2.​ Political payoffs in the local government.

Division and Merger of LGUs

Section 8. Division and Merger. - Division and merger of existing local government units shall
comply with the same requirements herein prescribed for their creation: Provided, however, That
such division shall not reduce the income, population, or land area of the local government unit
or units concerned to less than the minimum requirements prescribed in this Code: Provided,
further, That the income classification of the original local government unit or units shall not fall
below its current classification prior to such division.

Abolition of LGUs
Section 9. Abolition of Local Government Units. - A local government unit may be abolished
when its income, population, or land area has been irreversibly reduced to less than the minimum
standards prescribed for its creation under Book III of this Code, as certified by the national
agencies mentioned in Section 7 hereof to Congress or to the sangguniang concerned, as the case
may be. The law or ordinance abolishing a local government unit shall specify the province, city,
municipality, or barangay with which the local government unit sought to be abolished will be
incorporated or merged.

The Plebiscite Requirement

Section 10. Plebiscite Requirement. - No creation, division, merger, abolition, or substantial
alteration of boundaries of local government units shall take effect unless approved by a majority
of the votes cast in a plebiscite called for the purpose in the political unit or units directly
affected. Said plebiscite shall be conducted by the Commission on Elections (COMELEC)
within one hundred twenty (120) days from the date of effectivity of the law or ordinance
effecting such action, unless said law or ordinance fixes another date.

Intergovernmental Relations
The National Government & LGUs
Municipal governments are just agents of NG. Local Councils exercise only delegated legislative
powers conferred to them by Congress, hence, the delegate (LGUs) cannot be superior or
exercise higher powers than the principal (NG).

The President and the LGUs

The President of the Philippines shall exercise general supervision over LGUs and autonomous
regions to ensure that their acts are within the scope of their prescribed powers and functions.
The President shall exercise supervisory authority over provinces, HUCs, and independent
component cities; through the province with respect to component cities and municipalities; and
through the city and municipality with respect to the barangays.

Congress and LGUs

LGUs derive their existence and powers from Congress. As the legislature creates, so it may
destroy; as it may destroy, it may abridge and control. Acts of LGUs are always subject to such
guidelines and limitations set by Congress.

MOTHER LGU & COMPONENT LGU

Provincial Relations with Component Cities and Municipalities
Section 29. Provincial Relations with Component Cities and Municipalities. - The province,
through the governor, shall ensure that every component city and municipality within its
territorial jurisdiction acts within the scope of its prescribed powers and functions. Highly
urbanized cities and independent component cities shall be independent of the province.

City and Municipal Relations with Component Barangays

The city or municipality, through the city or municipal Mayor concerned, shall exercise general
supervision over component barangays, to ensure that said barangays act within the scope of
their prescribed powers and functions.

Two (2) Types of Reviews

Executive – The LCE of Mother LGU reviews the Executive Orders (EOs) of LCE of
Component LGU
The LCE of Mother LGU shall ensure that executive orders promulgated by the component LGU
are within the powers granted by law and in conformity within provincial, city or municipal
ordinances. Copies of such orders shall be forwarded to the LCE of Mother LGU within three (3)
days from their issuance. If the LCE of Mother LGU fails to act on said executive orders within
30 days after their submission, the same shall be deemed consistent with law and therefore valid.

Legislative – Sanggunian of Mother LGU reviews ordinances of Sanggunian and EOs of

LCE of Component LGUs
a. Local Development Plans and Public Investment Programs formulated by the Local
Development Councils

Within 3 days after approval - Submission of local development plans and public investment
programs to Sangguniang Panlalawigan (SP).

Within 30 days after receipt of the Sanggunian of Mother LGU – documents shall be examined
or referred to the provincial attorney or prosecutor for examination. The provincial
attorney/prosecutor within 10 days from receipt of the documents, inform the SP in writing of
his/her comments and recommendations, which may be considered by the SP in making its
decision. If the SP finds that such ordinance/resolution is beyond the power of the conferred
upon the Sangguniang Bayan/Panlungsod, it shall declare the same invalid, in whole or in part
and advise the corresponding city/municipal authorities of the action it has taken. If no action has
been taken within 30 days after submission, the same shall be deemed consistent with law and
therefore valid.

LOCAL LEGISLATION
Section 48. Local Legislative Power. - Local legislative power shall be exercised by the
sangguniang panlalawigan for the province; the sangguniang panlungsod for the city; the
sangguniang bayan for the municipality; and the sangguniang barangay for the barangay.

Relations With People's and Non-Governmental Organizations

Section 34. Role of People's and Non-governmental Organizations. - Local government units
shall promote the establishment and operation of people's and non-governmental organizations to
become active partners in the pursuit of local autonomy.

Section 35. Linkages with People's and Non-governmental Organizations. - Local government
units may enter into joint ventures and such other cooperative arrangements with people's and
non-governmental organizations to engage in the delivery of certain basic services,
capability-building and livelihood projects, and to develop local enterprises designed to improve
productivity and income, diversify agriculture, spur rural industrialization, promote ecological
balance, and enhance the economic and social well-being of the people.
Section 36. Assistance to People's and Non-governmental Organizations. - A local government
unit may, through its local chief executive and with the concurrence of the sanggunian
concerned, provide assistance, financial or otherwise, to such people's and non-governmental
organizations for economic, socially-oriented, environmental, or cultural projects to be
implemented within its territorial jurisdiction.

Contemporary World
Module 1​
Immanuel Wallerstein's World-System Theory:
●​ Developed in response to the limitations of modernization theory.
●​ Focuses on the asymmetrical trade relationships between rich (core) and poor
(peripheral) countries.
●​ Divides the world into three regions: Core (developed, powerful regions),
Periphery (subordinated regions), and Semi-Periphery (regions in transition
between core and periphery).
Manuel Castells' Network Society:
●​ Describes a society structured around networks powered by information and
communication technologies.
●​ The new economy is informational, global, and networked.
●​ The Internet creates a global symbolic environment, leading to a "digital divide"
between those connected to and those marginalized from this technological
system.
Anthony Giddens' Global Risk Society:
●​ Argues that globalization has led to a "global risk society" where human activities
produce various risks (e.g., pollution, market crashes).
●​ Societies are increasingly responsible for managing these risks.
Theories of Global Culture:
●​ Homogenization: Globalization leads to cultural convergence (e.g., world
1cuisines, uniform consumption patterns).
●​ Hybridization: Mixing of cultural forms to create something new (e.g., Burundi
drummers in New Zealand).
●​ Heterogeneity: Continued cultural differences and resistance to homogenization.
Marshall McLuhan's Global Village:
●​ Coined the term "global village" to describe how media integrates the planet,
allowing real-time global experiences.
●​ "The medium is the message" emphasizes the impact of the medium itself, not
just the content it carries.
George Ritzer's McDonaldization:
●​ Describes the spread of fast-food principles (efficiency, calculability, predictability,
control) to various sectors of society globally.
●​ Roland Robertson's Glocalization:
●​ The global is manifested in the local, allowing organizations to meet local needs while
operating globally.
●​ Examples include Coca-Cola in the Philippines and McDonald's local menu items in
different countries.
Arjun Appadurai's Landscapes of Cultural Flows:
●​ Identifies five dimensions of cultural flows: Mediascapes (image and communication),
Ethnoscapes (movement of people), Ideoscapes (exchange of ideas), Technoscapes (flows
of technology), and Financescapes (movement of money and capital).

What is Globalization?

Globalization means the world is becoming more connected. People, countries, and economies
are increasingly linked through trade, communication, and travel. According to Roland
Robertson, globalization makes the world feel smaller and makes people more aware of global
issues. David Held adds that globalization changes how people and countries interact, creating
networks of activity and power across the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines
it as the increased flow of goods, services, money, people, and ideas across borders, supported by
changes in policies and institutions.

Key Questions About Globalization:

1.​ Is globalization new or old?​

While the term "globalization" became popular in the 20th century, the process of global
interaction has existed for thousands of years through trade, migration, and conquest.
2.​ Is it a process or a condition?​
Globalization is an ongoing process, not a fixed state. It’s about the world becoming more
connected over time.
3.​ Is globalization good or bad?​
It depends. Globalization can bring economic growth and cultural exchange, but it can
also lead to inequality and environmental problems.
4.​ Is globalization truly "global"?​
Not everyone benefits equally. Some people and countries are left out or marginalized.

Key Concepts:

●​ Globalism: Policies or actions that promote global connections.

 ●​ Globality: A future where the world is fully connected, with fewer barriers between
countries.

What Drives Globalization?

Several factors push globalization forward:

●​ Technology: Advances in communication and transportation make it easier to connect
across distances.
●​ Trade and Business: Multinational companies operate globally, spreading products and
services.
●​ Population Growth and Urbanization: More people moving to cities and growing
populations increase global interactions.
●​ International Organizations: Groups like the World Bank and IMF encourage global
cooperation.

Different Views on Globalization:

1.​ Hyperglobalists (Optimists): Believe globalization is creating a single global culture and
economy, leading to prosperity and democracy.
2.​ Sceptics: Argue that the world is not truly globalizing but instead becoming more
regionalized, with countries focusing on their own regions.
3.​ Transformationalists: See globalization as a complex process that blends global and local
influences, without clear predictions for the future.

Waves of Globalization:

Globalization has happened in five waves:

1.​ First Wave: Ancient trade and migration (thousands of years ago).
2.​ Second Wave: European colonialism and the spread of capitalism (16th–19th centuries).
3.​ Third Wave: Technological advances and mass migration (1870–1914).
4.​ Fourth Wave: Post-World War II global cooperation (1945–1980).
5.​ Fifth Wave: Current era of unprecedented global interdependence and powerful global
actors.

Forms of Globalization:

Globalization affects many areas of life:

●​ Economic: Trade of goods, services, and labor across borders.
●​ Political: Rise of international organizations and global political actors.
●​ Environmental: Global cooperation to solve environmental problems like climate change.
●​ Cultural: Spread of cultural practices, food, and ideas across the world.
●​ Technological: Rapid spread of technology and innovation.
●​ Criminal: Global crime networks and their impact on societies.
 ●​ Military: International military alliances and operations.

The Big Picture:

The presentation ends with a metaphor: "The global scholars and the elephant." It suggests that
different people see globalization in different ways, like blind men touching different parts of an
elephant. Each perspective is partly right, but no one sees the whole picture. Globalization is
complex, and understanding it requires looking at it from many angles.
Module 2
What is Global Governance?​
Global governance refers to the ways countries, organizations, and individuals work together to
solve global problems that no single country can handle alone. It’s not about having a "world
government" but about cooperation through institutions, rules, and agreements. Examples
include addressing climate change, terrorism, and global health issues.

Why is Global Governance Needed?​

As the world becomes more interconnected through globalization, problems like climate change,
pandemics, and terrorism affect everyone. These issues cross borders, so countries need to work
together to manage them. Global governance helps coordinate efforts to reduce risks and
promote peace, security, and development.
Key Points:
●​ No World Government: There’s no single authority to enforce global rules, so countries
and organizations must cooperate.
●​ Challenges: Issues like climate change, migration, and economic inequality require
collective action.
●​ Essence of Global Governance: It’s about managing the risks of globalization while
promoting its benefits.

What is Economic Globalization?​

Economic globalization is the process of economies around the world becoming more connected
through trade, investment, and technology. It allows goods, services, and money to flow across
borders more easily. For example, a product like jeans might be made using materials and labor
from multiple countries.
Pros of Economic Globalization:
●​ Economic Growth: It can reduce poverty and create jobs in poorer countries.
●​ Access to Markets: Businesses in developing countries can sell their products globally.
●​ Technology Transfer: Poorer countries gain access to new technologies and skills.
Cons of Economic Globalization:
●​ Inequality: Wealthy countries and corporations often benefit more than poorer ones.
●​ Job Losses: Workers in developed countries may lose jobs as companies move production
to cheaper locations.
 ●​ Exploitation: Some argue that globalization benefits rich nations and corporations at the
expense of poorer countries.
History of Economic Globalization:
●​ Ancient Trade: Globalization isn’t new. The Silk Road (an ancient trade route) connected
Asia, Europe, and Africa thousands of years ago.
●​ Modern Era: In the 20th century, institutions like the World Bank, IMF, and WTO were
created to regulate global trade and finance.
Key Institutions:
●​ World Trade Organization (WTO): Promotes free trade and resolves trade disputes.
●​ International Monetary Fund (IMF): Helps countries with financial problems and
promotes global economic stability.
●​ BRICS: A group of major developing countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South
Africa) that work together to challenge the economic power of wealthy nations.
Regional Groups:
●​ ASEAN: Promotes economic and security cooperation in Southeast Asia.
●​ European Union (EU): A group of 27 European countries with a single currency (the
euro) and shared policies.
●​
What is the Global Divide?​
The global divide refers to the gap between the Global North (wealthy, developed countries) and
the Global South (poorer, developing countries). This divide is based on differences in income,
living conditions, and access to resources. The Brandt Line, proposed by Willy Brandt in 1980,
visually represents this division, with the North being wealthier and the South facing challenges
like poverty and underdevelopment.
Key Points:
●​ Global North: Wealthy, democratic countries with strong economies (e.g., USA, Europe,
Japan).
●​ Global South: Poorer countries, often former colonies, with weaker economies and
political systems (e.g., Africa, Asia, Latin America).
●​ Inequalities: The Global South has 85% of the world’s population but only 20% of its
wealth. These countries face issues like poverty, poor health, and lack of education.
Causes of Inequality:
●​ Lack of natural resources.
●​ Weak economies and industrial sectors.
●​ Poor governance and corruption.
●​ Vulnerability to natural disasters and climate change.
Challenges for the Global South:
●​ Imperialism: Many countries in the Global South were colonized, which left them
economically dependent on wealthier nations.
 ●​ Underdevelopment: They often rely on foreign aid and struggle with poverty, illiteracy,
and poor health.
●​ Political Instability: Many countries have authoritarian governments or face corruption,
making it hard to implement effective policies.
Global South’s Response:
●​ Non-Alignment: During the Cold War, many Global South countries refused to align with
either the US or the USSR.
●​ National Security: Some countries focused on building military strength, even acquiring
nuclear weapons.
●​ Environmental Protection: Many are working to reduce vulnerability to natural disasters.

Asia’s Role in Globalization:​

Asia is a diverse and dynamic region that plays a key role in globalization. It includes
economically powerful countries like Japan, China, and South Korea, as well as poorer nations
like Cambodia and Nepal. Asia’s relationship with globalization can be seen in three ways:
1.​ As an Object: Asia has been impacted by globalization, especially through colonialism
and Western influence.
2.​ As a Subject: Asia has actively pushed globalization forward, with countries like China
and India becoming major global economic players.
3.​ As an Alternative: Asia offers alternatives to Western-style globalization, such as the idea
of Asian values (e.g., community over individualism) and regional organizations like
ASEAN.
Historical Impact of Globalization on Asia:
●​ Colonialism: European powers colonized much of Asia, bringing economic and cultural
changes.
●​ Cold War: After World War II, Asia became a battleground for US and Soviet influence.
●​ Economic Growth: In the 1970s and 1980s, countries like Japan, South Korea, and
Taiwan experienced rapid economic growth by adopting export-oriented policies.
Asia’s Contribution to Globalization:
●​ Economic Power: China and India are now major players in the global economy, with
China surpassing the World Bank in lending to developing countries.
●​ Cultural Influence: Asian culture, including anime, K-pop, and Bollywood, has spread
globally.
●​ Regional Cooperation: Organizations like ASEAN and the East Asia Economic Caucus
promote regional economic and political cooperation.
Challenges and Criticisms:
●​ Asian Financial Crisis (1997): Rapid economic growth led to instability, with countries
like Thailand and Indonesia facing economic collapse.
●​ Cultural Homogenization: Critics argue that globalization is leading to the loss of local
cultures, as Western fast food and media become more popular.
 ●​ Resistance to Western Influence: Some Asian leaders promote Asian values as an
alternative to Western individualism and democracy.

ASF 4

Saint Augustine on Church and Society

The Beginning of Christianity

●​ After Christ’s death, the Apostle feared for their lives. Their hopes crumpled all around
them.
●​ Through Christ’s Resurrection, the Apostles found new Hope.
●​ The Resurrection of Christ is the starting point of Christian Faith.
●​ From Ascension to the missions accomplished by the Apostles.
Matthew 28:16-20​
16 Then the eleven disciples went to Galilee, to the mountain where Jesus had told them to go.
17 When they saw him, they worshiped him; but some doubted. 18 Then Jesus came to them and
said, “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. 19 Therefore go and make
disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy
Spirit, 20 and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with
you always, to the very end of the age.”
●​ Before the ascended into heaven, Jesus commanded His disciples to make more disciples,
baptize them, and instruct them in Faith.
●​ The Ascension of Jesus: He also promised that he will be with us until the end of time
and that He will be back.
●​ “and you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the end
of the earth” (Acts 1:8).

Pentecost
●​ As promised by Christ, the Holy Spirit descended on his Apostles after his ascension into
heaven.
●​ The Holy Spirit builds, animates, and sanctifies the mystical body, the Church.
●​ As the Spirit descended on the Apostles, they went out from hiding and began to
undertake the evangelizing mission Christ left them with – so was the Church birthed on
Pentecost Sunday.
●​ At the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, the Apostles were transformed from being
fearful disciples into courageous preachers of the good news.
 ●​ The Holy Spirit empowered the Apostles to carry out their mission of
EVANGELIZATION.
●​ EVANGELIZATION: The initial proclamation of the Gospel to non-believers for the
purpose of converting them to faith in the Lord Jesus.
●​ In the Acts of the Apostles, we see the Church grow under the guidance of the Holy
Spirit.
●​ What begins with a group of frightened disciples in an upper room ends with a Church
spanning the Roman Empire. Chapters 1–12 focus on Saint Peter’s leadership in
Jerusalem and nearby communities. Chapters 13–28 focus on the missionary work of
Saint Paul and his companions.
●​
The Early Church

The early Church faced a significant question: To be or not to be Jewish. This was a central
issue as the Church began to grow and include both Jewish and Gentile converts. The Jewish
roots of Christianity were undeniable, as Jesus and his Apostles were Jewish, and the first
Christians were Jews who believed Jesus was the Messiah. However, as the Gospel spread
beyond Jewish communities, the Church had to grapple with whether Gentile converts needed to
adhere to Jewish laws and customs, such as circumcision and dietary restrictions.

Paul’s Challenge: Jews & Gentiles

Saint Paul played a crucial role in addressing this challenge. Paul, originally a Pharisee and a
persecutor of Christians, underwent a dramatic conversion after encountering the risen Christ on
the road to Damascus (Acts 9). After his conversion, Paul became a fervent missionary,
spreading the Gospel to both Jews and Gentiles. He argued that salvation through Jesus Christ
was available to all, regardless of whether they followed Jewish law. This message was
revolutionary and sometimes controversial, as it challenged the traditional Jewish understanding
of God’s covenant.
Paul’s missionary journeys took him throughout the Roman Empire, where he established
Christian communities in major cities such as Antioch, Ephesus, Corinth, and Rome. He faced
opposition from both Jewish leaders, who saw his teachings as a threat to their traditions, and
from some Jewish Christians, who believed that Gentile converts should be required to follow
Jewish law.

Council of Jerusalem: No Mosaic Burdens (Acts 15:22-39)

The tension between Jewish and Gentile Christians came to a head at the Council of Jerusalem,
described in Acts 15. This council was convened to address the question of whether Gentile
converts needed to be circumcised and follow the Mosaic Law. The debate was intense, with
some Jewish Christians insisting that Gentiles must adhere to Jewish customs, while Paul and
Barnabas argued that such requirements were unnecessary for salvation.
The council, led by James the Just (the brother of Jesus and a leader of the Jerusalem Church),
ultimately decided that Gentile converts did not need to be circumcised or follow the full Mosaic
Law. Instead, they were asked to abstain from certain practices, such as eating food sacrificed to
idols, consuming blood, and engaging in sexual immorality. This decision was a significant
milestone in the early Church, as it allowed Christianity to become a universal faith, open to all
people, regardless of their cultural or ethnic background.

Effects of the Council of Jerusalem

The decision of the Council of Jerusalem had profound effects on the early Church:
1.​ Inclusivity: The Church became more inclusive, welcoming Gentiles without requiring
them to adopt Jewish customs. This helped Christianity spread more rapidly throughout
the Roman Empire.
2.​ Unity: The council helped to maintain unity between Jewish and Gentile Christians, at
least for a time. However, tensions between the two groups persisted, and over time, the
Church became increasingly Gentile in character.
3.​ Missionary Expansion: The decision freed Paul and other missionaries to focus on
spreading the Gospel to Gentiles without the burden of imposing Jewish laws. This led to
the establishment of numerous Christian communities throughout the Roman Empire.

What Happened to the Apostles After Christ’s Ascension?

●​ The twelve Apostles were just ordinary working men. But Jesus formed them into the
backbone of the Church and gave them the most extraordinary task imaginable: calling
the entire world, including the mightiest empire ever known, to repentance and faith in
the risen Christ.
The 12 Apostles of Jesus​

Apostle Key Details Martyrdom/Death

Simon peter -First to preach at Crucified upside down in

Pentecost. Rome under Nero (66 AD).
- Advocated for the Apostles
before Jewish courts.
- Served as a judge in
Church discipline.

Andrew - Preached in the "land of crucified in Greece.

the man-eaters"
(modern-day Soviet Union).
- Established churches in
Asia Minor (Turkey) and
Greece.
 - Endured beatings and
expulsion from cities.

Thomas - Preached in India; Pierced by spears in India.

founded Marthoma
Christians.
- Initially reluctant but
reassured by Jesus.

Philip - Ministered in Carthage Martyred by the proconsul

(North Africa) and Asia for his conversion efforts.
Minor.
- Converted the wife of a
Roman proconsul.

Matthew -Tax collector and Gospel Possibly stabbed to death in

writer. Ethiopia.
- Ministered in Persia and
Ethiopia.

Bartholomew - Missionary in India, Flayed alive and crucified

Ethiopia, Mesopotamia, head downward.
Parthia, and Lycaonia.
- Brought Christianity to
Armenia; converted King
Polymius.

James, Son of alpheus - Ministered in Syria. Stoned and clubbed to

death.

Matthias - Replaced Judas after Burned to death.

drawing lots.
- Preached in Syria with
Andrew.

John - Only Apostle to die Died of old age; exiled to

naturally. Patmos.
- Leader of the Church in
Ephesus.
- Cared for Mary, mother of
Jesus.
- Wrote Revelation while
exiled on Patmos.

James, son of zebedee - Brother of John. Beheaded by Herod.

- Preached in Judea.
 Jude - Preached in Edessa and Died and buried in Berytus.
Mesopotamia.

Simon The zealot - Son of Clopas. Died at 120; buried in

- Became bishop of Jerusalem.
Jerusalem after James the
Just.

Saint Paul
●​ Paul traveled over 10,000 miles proclaiming the Gospel of Jesus Christ.
●​ His journeys on land and sea took him through present-day Israel, Syria, Turkey, and
Greece.
●​ Saint Paul lived during the early to middle first century AD.
●​ He was born into a Jewish community.
●​ He was a Roman citizen.
●​ He studied under Rabbi Gamaliel and became a Pharisee.
●​ He spent the first part of his life persecuting Christians, and he witnessed the martyrdom
of Saint Stephen.
The Conversion of Saint Paul
●​ Saint Paul encountered the risen Christ on the road to Damascus, in Syria.
●​ The story of his conversion is found in Acts, chapter 9.
●​ His conversion led him to become a true Apostle.
●​ He established many Christian communities in major Roman cities.
●​ To remain in contact with these communities, he wrote letters offering advice,
encouragement, and teaching.
●​ These letters are part of his great contribution to our understanding of the Christian faith.
Paul’s First Journey
●​ In response to a call of the Holy Spirit, the Church in Antioch chose Barnabas and Paul to
proclaim the Gospel.
●​ They first traveled to Cyprus, then to Antioch in Pisidia, a city in present-day
west-central Turkey.
●​ When they stopped in each city, they went to the synagogues to preach the coming of
Jesus Christ, the Messiah, as the fulfillment of the promises made in the Old Testament.
Paul’s Second Journey
●​ Barnabas and Paul separated over a disagreement.
●​ Paul had a dream calling him to bring the Gospel to Macedonia.
●​ Paul attempted to proclaim the Gospel in Athens, where he was met with polite
indifference.
 ●​ He then went to Corinth, where he established a Church that would give him both great
joy and pain.

Paul’s Third Journey

●​ This was a pastoral journey revisiting the Churches he had founded to strengthen them
and give them further instruction.
●​ While in Ephesus, Paul heard a prophecy that should he return to Jerusalem, he would be
imprisoned. The Churches he visited pleaded with him not to go.
●​ Paul felt called by Christ to continue to meet whatever God willed for him.

Paul’s Journey to Rome

●​ In Jerusalem, Paul was arrested and accused of violating the sacred grounds of the
Temple.
●​ He was saved from being beaten to death when the Roman tribune intervened and
brought him to the barracks.
●​ Paul claimed his right as a Roman citizen to appeal his case to the Emperor. He was then
sent to Rome to have his case resolved.

Persecution of the Early Church

●​ Acts 6:54-60: St. Stephen’s Martyrdom.
●​ Period of Persecutions:
○​ Stephen, a deacon, was filled with grace and power, working great wonders and
signs among the people (Acts 6:8).
○​ He became the first martyr of Christianity.
○​ His death was the signal for increased persecution against the Church at
Jerusalem.
○​ Sporadic persecutions were experienced by the early Christians.
Reasons for the Persecutions of Christians by the Romans:
1.​ Their doctrines based on Christ's teachings were designed to conquer the minds and
hearts of humanity, and this became a threat to the might and power of the Roman
Empire.
2.​ The beliefs and practices of the Christians were in conflict with the worldview of pagan
Rome:
○​ They worshiped only one God and did not recognize the Roman gods and
goddesses.
○​ They also refused to worship the emperor.
3.​ Christians were believed to be engaged in some form of cannibalism in their Eucharistic
Rite, which was celebrated in secret.
4.​ Public spectacles of bloody games, like gladiatorial contests, were condemned by
Christians as inhuman.
 5.​ Christians refused to serve in the army and protested against wars.
6.​ Christians showed disloyalty to the state by not paying the imposed temple tax.

The 10 Persecution of Roman Emperors

Persecution Emperor Time Key Details Impact on Christians

Period

First Nero A.D. 67 - Blamed Christians for the Increased devotion and
Great Fire of Rome. commitment among
Christians.
- Christians sewn into
animal skins and thrown to
dogs.

- Others set on fire as

human torches.

Second Domitian A.D. 81 - Blamed Christians for Christians faced

disasters (famine, widespread executions.
pestilence, earthquakes).

- Executed Christians.

Third Trajan A.D. - Christians beaten, Massive loss of life;

108 beheaded, and fed to wild strengthened resolve of
beasts. believers.
 - About 10,000 Christians
killed.

Fourth Marcus A.D. - Christians burned at the Brutal methods used to

Aurelius 162 stake, tarred, beheaded, intimidate and eliminate
Antoninus boiled, and ravaged by Christians.
beasts.

Fifth Severus A.D. - Christians tortured and Persecution intensified;

192 killed in various brutal many martyred.
ways.

Sixth Maximus A.D. - Christians slain without Widespread slaughter;

235 trial. Christians buried
indiscriminately.
- Buried in mass graves
(50–60 at a time).

Seventh Decius A.D. - Bishop Fabian of Rome Targeted Church

249 beheaded (January 20, leaders; increased fear
A.D. 250). among Christians.

Eighth Valerian A.D. - Christians tortured for Christians used as

257 entertainment. public spectacles for
amusement.
- Mockery and brutal
executions.

Ninth Aurelian A.D. - Bishop Felix of Rome Targeted prominent

274 beheaded. Christians; increased
persecution.
- Agapetus (a wealthy
Christian) tortured and
beheaded.
Tenth Diocletian A.D. - Known as the "Era of the Most severe
303 Martyrs." persecution; aimed to
eradicate Christianity.
- Persecution due to the
growing number and
influence of Christians.

- Used racks, scourges,

swords, daggers, crosses,
poisons, and famine to kill
Christians.

The Protestant Reformation

●​ It was the year 1517 when the German monk Martin Luther pinned his 95 Theses to the
door of his Catholic church, denouncing the Catholic sale of indulgences—pardons for
sins—and questioning papal authority.
●​ That led to his excommunication and the start of the Protestant Reformation.