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FUNCTIONS
DEFINITION OF SETS
DEFINITION OF SETS
Sets are represented as a collection of well-defined objects or
elements and it does not change from person to person. A set is
represented by a capital letter. The number of elements in the
finite set is known as the cardinal number of a set.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS OF
WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS OF
A SSET
A ET
Since a set is usually represented by the capital letter. Thus, A is the set and
LET US TAKE AN EXAMPLE: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are the elements of the set or members of the set. The elements that
are written in the set can be in any order but cannot be repeated. All the set
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } elements are represented in small letter in case of alphabets. Also, we can
∈ ∈
write it as 1 A, 2 A etc. The cardinal number of the set is 5. Some commonly
used sets are as follows:
N: Set of all natural numbers
Z: Set of all integers
Q: Set of all rational numbers
R: Set of all real numbers
Z+: Set of all positive integers
REPRESENTATION OF SETS
The sets are represented in curly braces, {}. For
example, {2,3,4} or {a,b,c} or {Bat, Ball, Wickets}.
The elements in the sets are depicted in either the
Statement form, Roster Form or Set Builder Form.
Statement Form
In statement form, the well-defined descriptions of a member of a set are
written and enclosed in the curly brackets.
For example, the set of even numbers less than 15.
In statement form, it can be written as {even numbers less than 15}.
Roster Form
In Roster form, all the elements of a set are listed.
For example, the set of natural numbers less than 5.
Natural Number = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,……….
Natural Number less than 5 = 1, 2, 3, 4
Therefore, the set is N = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }
Set Builder Form
The general form is, A = { x : property }
Example: Write the following sets in set builder form: A={2, 4, 6, 8}
Solution:
2=2x1
4=2x2
6=2x3
8=2x4
∈
So, the set builder form is A = {x: x=2n, n N and 1 ≤ n ≤ 4}
Also, Venn Diagrams are the simple and best way for visualized representation of
sets.
Types of Sets
We have several types of sets in Maths. They are empty set, finite and
infinite sets, proper set, equal sets, etc. Let us go through the classification
of sets here.
Empty Set
A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set or void
set or null set. It is denoted by { } or Ø.
A set of apples in the basket of grapes is an example of an empty set
because in a grapes basket there are no apples present.
Singleton Set
A set which contains a single element is called a singleton set.
Example: There is only one apple in a basket of grapes.
Finite set
A set which consists of a definite number of elements is called a finite set.
Example: A set of natural numbers up to 10.
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
Infinite set
A set which is not finite is called an infinite set.
Example: A set of all natural numbers.
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9……}
Equivalent set
If the number of elements is the same for two different sets, then they are called equivalent sets.
The order of sets does not matter here. It is represented as:
n(A) = n(B)
where A and B are two different sets with the same number of elements.
Example: If A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {Red, Blue, Green, Black}
In set A, there are four elements and in set B also there are four elements. Therefore, set A and set
B are equivalent.
Equal sets
The two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same
elements, the order of elements do not matter.
Example: A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {4,3,2,1}
A=B
Disjoint Sets
The two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if the set does not contain any common element.
Example: Set A = {1,2,3,4} and set B = {5,6,7,8} are disjoint sets, because there is no common
element between them.
Subsets
A set ‘A’ is said to be a subset of B if every element of A is also an element of B, denoted as A
⊆ B. Even the null set is considered to be the subset of another set. In general, a subset is a
part of another set.
Example: A = {1,2,3}
Then {1,2}⊆ A.
Similarly, other subsets of set A are: {1},{2},{3},{1,2},{2,3},{1,3},{1,2,3},{}.
Note: The set is also a subset of itself.
⊄
If A is not a subset of B, then it is denoted as A B.
Proper Subset
If A ⊆ B and A ≠ B, then A is called the proper subset of B and it can be written as
⊂
A B.
Example: If A = {2,5,7} is a subset of B = {2,5,7} then it is not a proper subset of B =
{2,5,7}
But, A = {2,5} is a subset of B = {2,5,7} and is a proper subset also.
Superset
Set A is said to be the superset of B if all the elements of set B are the elements of set A. It is
represented as A ⊃ B.
For example, if set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and set B = {1, 3, 4}, then set A is the superset of B.
Universal Set
A set which contains all the sets relevant to a certain condition is called the universal set. It is
the set of all possible values.
Example: If A = {1,2,3} and B {2,3,4,5}, then universal set here will be:
U = {1,2,3,4,5}
Operations on Sets
In set theory, the operations of the sets are carried when two or more sets
combine to form a single set under some of the given conditions. The basic
operations on sets are:
Union of sets
Intersection of sets
A complement of a set
Cartesian product of sets.
Set difference
Basically, we work more on union and intersection of sets operations, using
Venn diagrams.
Union of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then A union B is the
set that contains all the elements of set A and set B.
It is denoted as A∪ B.
Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A union B
is:
A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Intersection of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then A intersection
B is the set that contains only the common
elements between set A and set B. It is denoted as
A ∩ B.
Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A
intersection B is:
A ∩ B = { } or Ø
Since A and B do not have any elements in
common, so their intersection will give null set.
Complement of Sets
The complement of any set, say P, is the set of all
elements in the universal set that are not in set P. It is
denoted by P’.
Properties of Complement sets:
1.P∪ P′ = U
2.P∩ P′ = Φ
3.Law of double complement : (P′ )′ = P
4.Laws of empty/null set(Φ) and universal set(U), Φ′ = U and
U′ = Φ.
Difference of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then set A
difference set B is a set which has
elements of A but no elements of B. It is
denoted as A – B.
Example: A = {1,2,3} and B = {2,3,4}
A – B = {1}
CARDINAL NUMBER
In set theory, the cardinal number of a set represents the
number of distinct elements within that set. It essentially
indicates the size or quantity of elements in the set. This is
denoted as n(A) for a set A.
QUESTIONS ON CARDINAL NUMBERS CAN BE
SOLVED WITH FORMULAS AND VENN DIGRAMS
VENN DIGRAM
A Venn diagram in set theory is a visual
representation, using overlapping circles or
other shapes, that illustrates the relationships
between different sets of items. It shows how
elements are shared between sets
(intersections) and how they differ (non-
overlapping areas). These diagrams are used
to depict set operations like union, intersection,
and complement.
Sets Formulas
Some of the most important set formulas are:
For any three sets A, B and C
n(A ∪ B ) = n(A) + n(B) – n ( A ∩ B)
If A∩ ∅B = , then n ( A ∪ B ) = n(A) + n(B)
n( A – B) + n( A ∩ B ) = n(A)
n( B – A) + n( A ∩ B ) = n(B)
n( A – B) + n ( A∩ B) + n( B – A) = n ( A ∪ B)
n(A ∪ ∪B C ) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n ( A ∩ B) – n ( B ∩ C) – n ( C ∩ A) + n ( A ∩ B ∩ C)
De Morgan's Laws
De Morgan's Laws in set theory provide a way to relate the complement of a union and intersection of sets to
the complements of individual sets. They state that the complement of a union is the intersection of the
complements, and the complement of an intersection is the union of the complements.
Specifically, the two laws are:
∪
1. (A B)' = A' ∩
B':
The complement of the union of sets A and B is equal to the intersection of the complements of A and B.
2. (A∩ B)' = A' ∪
B':
The complement of the intersection of sets A and B is equal to the union of the complements of A and B.
Cartesian Product of sets
If set A and set B are two sets then the cartesian product of set A and set B
is a set of all ordered pairs (a,b), such that a is an element of A and b is an
element of B. It is denoted by A × B.
We can represent it in set-builder form, such as:
∈
A × B = {(a, b) : a A and b∈ B}
Example: set A = {1,2,3} and set B = {Bat, Ball}, then;
A × B = {(1,Bat),(1,Ball),(2,Bat),(2,Ball),(3,Bat),(3,Ball)}
RELATION
In general, relation refers to the way in which two
or more things are connected, associated, or
linked. It can describe a connection between
people, things, or concepts. In mathematics, a
relation is a specific concept that describes a
connection between elements of one or more sets.
‘A set of ordered pairs is defined as a relation.’
Sets and Relations
Sets and relation are interconnected with each other. The relation defines the
relation between two given sets.
If there are two sets available, then to check if there is any connection between
the two sets, we use relations.
For example, an empty relation denotes none of the elements in the two sets is
same.
Let us discuss the other types of relations here.
Relations in Mathematics
In Maths, the relation is the relationship between two or more set of values.
Suppose, x and y are two sets of ordered pairs. And set x has relation with
set y, then the values of set x are called domain whereas the values of set y
are called range.
Example: For ordered pairs={(1,2),(-3,4),(5,6),(-7,8),(9,2)}
The domain is = {-7,-3,1,5,9}
And range is = {2,4,6,8}
Types of Relations
There are 8 main types of relations which include:
Empty Relation
Universal Relation
Identity Relation
Inverse Relation
Reflexive Relation
Symmetric Relation
Transitive Relation
Equivalence Relation
Empty Relation
An empty relation (or void relation) is one in which there is no relation between any
elements of a set. For example, if set A = {1, 2, 3} then, one of the void relations can be R =
{x, y} where, |x – y| = 8. For empty relation,
R=φ ⊂ A×A
Universal Relation
A universal (or full relation) is a type of relation in which every element of a set is related
to each other. Consider set A = {a, b, c}. Now one of the universal relations will be R = {x,
y} where, |x – y| ≥ 0. For universal relation,
R=A×A
Identity Relation
In an identity relation, every element of a set is related to itself only. For example, in a set
A = {a, b, c}, the identity relation will be I = {a, a}, {b, b}, {c, c}. For identity relation,
∈
I = {(a, a), a A}
Inverse Relation
Inverse relation is seen when a set has elements which are inverse pairs of another set.
For example if set A = {(a, b), (c, d)}, then inverse relation will be R-1 = {(b, a), (d, c)}. So, for
an inverse relation,
∈
R-1 = {(b, a): (a, b) R}
Reflexive Relation
In a reflexive relation, every element maps to itself. For example, consider a set A = {1, 2,}.
Now an example of reflexive relation will be R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (2, 1)}. The reflexive
relation is given by-
(a, a)∈ R
Symmetric Relation
In a symmetric relation, if a=b is true then b=a is also true. In other words, a relation R is
symmetric only if (b, a) ∈ R is true when (a,b)∈ R. An example of symmetric relation will
be R = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} for a set A = {1, 2}. So, for a symmetric relation,
aRb ⇒ bRa, ∀ a, b∈ A
Transitive Relation
For transitive relation, if (x, y) ∈ R, (y, z) ∈ R, then (x, z) ∈ R. For
a transitive relation,
aRb and bRc ⇒ aRc ∀ a, b, c ∈A
Equivalence Relation
If a relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive at the same
time, it is known as an equivalence relation.
Functions
A relation ‘f’ is said to be a function, if every element of a non-empty
set X, has only one image or range to a non-empty set Y.
Or
∊
If ‘f’ is the function from X to Y and (x,y) f, then f(x) = y, where y is
the image of x, under function f and x is the preimage of y, under ‘f’. It
is denoted as;
f: X → Y.
ONE-ONE FUNCTION (INJECTIVE
FUNCTION)
A function f: A→B is called a one-one or injective function if distinct elements of
∊
A have distinct images in B, i.e., if a1 a2 A and a1 ≠a2
f(a) f(a₂).
∊
Equivalently, we say f: A→B is one one if and only if for all a1, a2, A, f(a)=f(a₂)
a₁=a2
In terms of pictures, we say that in one one function, no more than one arrow
terminates at any given element of B. .
MANY-ONE FUNCTION
If the function f:A→Bf: A \to Bf:A→B is such that two or more elements a1,a2,…
a_1, a_2, \ldotsa1,a2,… of AAA have the same f-image in BBB, then the function
is called many-one function.
Note: That if the function f:A→Bf: A \to Bf:A→B is not one-one, then fff is
many-one.
ONTO FUNCTION (SURJECTIVE
FUNCTION)
The mapping f:A→Bf: A \rightarrow Bf:A→B is called an Onto function if the set BBB is
entirely used up, i.e., if every element of BBB is the image of at least one element of AAA.
⇒ ∈ ∈ ∈ ∈
For every b Bb \in Bb B, there exists at least one element a Aa \in Aa A such that
f(a)=bf(a) = bf(a)=b.
⇒ Range of fff is the co-domain of fff.
(Range = Co-domain)
If function f:A→Bf: A \rightarrow Bf:A→B is not onto, that is, some of the elements of BBB
remain unmapped, then fff is called an into function.
An onto function is also called a surjective function or a surjection.
A one-one or many-one function may be both onto and into.
ONE-ONE ONTO FUNCTION
(BIJECTION)
If the function f is both one-one and onto, then it is called a one-one onto function.
It is also called a bijection.
In other words, a function f:A→Bf: A \rightarrow Bf:A→B is one-one onto if:
⇒ ⇒ ∈
(i) it is one-one, i.e., f(x)=f(y) x=yf(x) = f(y) \Rightarrow x = yf(x)=f(y) x=y for all x,y Ax, y
∈
\in Ax,y A.
∈ ∈ ∈ ∈
(ii) it is onto, i.e., for all y By \in By B, there exists x Ax \in Ax A such that f(x)=yf(x) =
yf(x)=y.
Note: If A and B are finite sets and f:A→Bf: A rightarrow Bf:A→B is a one-one onto function,
then
⇒ n(A)≤n(B)andn(B)≤n(A)\Rightarrow n(A) \leq n(B) \quad \text{and} \quad n(B) \leq
⇒
n(A) n(A)≤n(B)andn(B)≤n(A)
DOMAIN OF FUNCTION
The domain of a function is the set of all possible input values (x-values) for which the function is defined, and the range is the set of all
possible output values (y-values) that the function can produce. To determine the domain and range, one needs to consider the function's
equation and identify any restrictions on the input or output values.
1. Domain:
Identify restrictions:
Look for values that would make the function undefined. Common restrictions include:
Denominators: The denominator of a fraction cannot be zero.
Square roots: The expression inside a square root must be non-negative.
Logarithms: The argument of a logarithm must be positive.
Example:
For the function f(x) = 1/(x-2), the denominator cannot be zero, so x cannot be 2. Therefore, the domain is all real numbers except 2, or
∞ ∞
(- , 2) U (2, ).
RANGE
Express x in terms of y: If possible, rewrite the function as x = g(y).
Find the domain of g(y): The domain of g(y) will be the range of the original function f(x).
Consider function type:
Linear functions: The range is all real numbers unless there's a restriction (e.g., a maximum or minimum value).
Quadratic functions: The range depends on whether the parabola opens upwards or downwards and its vertex.
Rational functions: The range may have restrictions based on asymptotes or maximum/minimum values.
Trigonometric functions: The range is limited by the maximum and minimum values of the trigonometric function.
∞
Example: For the function f(x) = x² + 2, the range is all real numbers greater than or equal to 2, or [2, ). This is
because the square of any real number is non-negative, and adding 2 will always result in a value greater than or
equal to 2.
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
f(x)=x 2
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
f(x)=x 3
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
f(x)=|x| modulus function
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
f(x)=[x] greatest integer function
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
f(x)=a x
exponential function
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
f(x)=a x exponential function
x
x y=a (0<a<1)
y=a (a>1)
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
f(x)=logₐ(x) logarithmic function
thank you
