Module 5: OTHER SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS

Alternative Feeds

Increasing feed grain and supplement costs and the potential for feed grain inventories to be depleted
due to increased demand are significant issues for producers in the pork industry. Historically, feed costs
have represented 65-75 percent of the variable costs of swine production, but for many producers this
figure is higher now. As a result, feed costs play a major role in determining the profitability of a swine
enterprise.

While corn and soybean meal have been industry standards for supplying energy and protein, there are
many suitable alternatives that meet nutritional requirements while reducing the cost of the diet and
these may be included cost effectively as demand for corn and soybeans increases or as actual inventory
shortages develop. Energy and protein are the main nutrient components in a swine diet. Grains such as
corn, barley, wheat, sorghum and oats have traditionally supplied energy, while protein has come from
meals produced from oilseeds such as soybeans and canola.

According to the Department of Agriculture (2011), many local swine raisers resort to using alternative
feeds as substitutes for commercial feeds in order to cut cost production. Aside from being economic, it
is also sustainable such that alternative feed ingredients could be produced closer to home and could
benefit local producers.

Coconut residue (sapal), cassava (balinghoy), water spinach (kangkong), sweet potato (kamote), wild
sweet potato leaves (kamote tops), taro (gabi), banana pseudo stem (bani), ipil-ipil leaves, madre de
agua leaves and water hyacinth (water lily) are some of the alternative feed ingredients which are locally
found and are readily available in the surroundings and in the market. These alternative feeds are less
expensive, however, it is most likely that they do not have sufficient nutrient content thus resulting in a
higher tendency for the swine to be smaller or have more fat. Some swine raisers employ an alternating
ration, mixing commercial feeds with alternative feeds to cater the nutrients needed by the swine.

Risks

When accuracy in the nutritional value of the pig’s diet is not critical, and when alternative feeds are low
in price at the point of use, there can be a cost benefit of using them. For this reason, alternative feeds
are more suited to established breeding stock and finishing pigs rather than newly weaned and young
pigs.

Pigs are naturally capable of eating and digesting a mixed diet and can use a much wider variety of
nutrient sources than we normally feed them. However, an awareness of the risks associated with using
alternative feeds is important if consequences are to be avoided.

Information on the nutritive values of alternative feeds and guidelines on feeding practice are needed to
formulate a balanced diet. However, variability is a key factor in the use of alternative feeds and this can
shift the actual nutritional value of the final diet compared with formulated targets, which could affect
animal performance.

Alternative feeds differ from cereals and soya for good reason
1. Supply can be unreliable due to volume and seasonality.

2. They are often bulky, have a high moisture content and are low in nutrient density.

3. The above properties involve appropriate handling, storage and feed delivery solutions

compared with dry cereal-based diets.

4. There may be a lack of knowledge over the nutritional value of some alternative feeds

and their nutrient content is more variable than documented values for commonly used

dry feed ingredients.

5. Where book values on nutrient content are available, those may not represent the true

composition of the material of interest. Naming of alternative feeds can be generic (e.g.

Silage) rather than specific (e.g. grass silage vs. maize silage).

6. The above introduces an element of guesswork and risk in the formulation of balanced

diets. In turn, this may result in a loss of predictability in pig performance and

productivity.

7. Some alternative feeds may transfer disease to both pigs and crops. For example,

rejected potatoes fed to outdoor pigs may introduce disease to land which is

subsequently intended for potato production in a rotational system.

8. Some alternative feeds, such as green potatoes, may contain naturally occurring

toxins, and in others, toxins develop during storage, for example through the growth of

fungal organisms.

9. Some alternatives, such as raw potatoes, may contain naturally occurring inhibitors

which disrupt protein digestion in the pig.

10. High fiber and low dry matter content and the presence of anti-nutritive factors and

toxins may affect appetite, digestibility and metabolism, resulting in a loss of pig

performance.

Manage the risks through greater knowledge

1. Consider the above issues and how you could address them

2. Don’t rely on guesswork. Obtain as much information as you can about the alternative

feeds before making any commitments. Ask the supplier, consult your nutritionist.
3. Overcome uncertainty in the nutrient worth of the alternative feeding material by

sampling and analysis. A small investment in laboratory analysis through your

nutritional consultant will be rewarded in improved accuracy and nutritional balance of

the final diet and predictability in pig performance and productivity. Sample and

analyze frequently as there can be batch-to-batch differences in nutrient content

4. Monitor pig performance and productivity continuously, don’t leave things to chance

Factors Considered in Using Alternative Feeds

The appropriate amount to use will depend on the cost, nutrient availability (digestibility),

quality of protein, amino acid profile, palatability, presence of anti-nutritional factors, storage

life, and age of the pig for which the feed is intended.

1. Cost is one of the most difficult factors to determine when considering the use of alternative

feeds. A producer must consider the amount of nutrients supplied by the replacement feed.

This can be extremely difficult since most feeds cannot be directly compared due to nutrient

variability. As a result, relative values are often used for comparison purposes. However,

note that the ultimate cost of any ration change must also consider other factors such as

transportation, special processing needs and storage. This is particularly important when

evaluating high moisture products such as distillers’ grains and high moisture corn. The

value of alternative feeds should be primarily based on their actual nutrient contribution to

the ration with regard to digestibility and cost. Historically, rations were least cost balanced

based on protein levels because protein was the most expensive primary ingredient.

However, in many current economic environments, energy may now be more expensive

per unit than protein. Rations should be reformulated to recognize this scenario and

reformulated often as feed ingredient costs change.

2. The relative value of a feed ingredient is used to compare the value of that feed to the price

of the industry standard energy and protein supplying ingredients delivered to the farm. The

value is based purely on a comparison between the nutrient levels in the alternative feed

and the nutrient standards - corn, soybean meal and dicalcium phosphate - and their

respective costs.

3. Protein quality refers to the amino acid content of the feed ingredient. Since lysine is the
most limiting essential amino acid in corn-soybean meal based rations, it is important to

consider lysine when valuing replacement feeds. For example, corn gluten and wheat

contain a high level of protein relative to the amount of lysine. If a ration was prepared with

these ingredients based solely on the protein concentration, the pigs would not be provided

with sufficient lysine to support optimum performance. As a result, rations for swine should

be balanced according to the level of lysine instead of crude protein.

4. Nutrient availability, or digestibility, is the extent to which a nutrient can be used by a pig. A

feed may be relatively high in protein but this protein is not available to the pig due to the

high fiber content of the feed.

5. Anti-nutritional factors are factors in a feed ingredient that interfere with nutrient digestibility.

These may include trypsin inhibitors, tannins, lectins or glucosinolates.

For example, raw whole soybeans contain a trypsin inhibitor. As a result, they must be heat-

processed or they will cause a decrease in performance due to decreased protein digestibility and
absorption.

6. Palatability is the term used to describe the extent to which a pig likes to eat a feed

ingredient or ration. As pigs grow older, flavor preferences change, just as they do in

humans. Pigs, in fact, have more taste buds than humans (15,000 vs 9,000) so flavors, or

off-flavors, can have an impact on what feed alternatives are feasible. In pig rations, for

example, dried whole milk is very palatable while triticale has poor palatability at high

inclusion levels.

7. Inclusion rate will vary for ingredients depending on palatability, nutrient availability, protein

quality, nutrient interrelationship, and the method of processing and feeding. The maximum

inclusion rates in Table 1 vary for each class of pig and are based on limiting factors. If the

ingredient is fed above the maximum suggested inclusion rate, animal performance and

pork quality can be compromised. The table below lists specific feed ingredients and the

corresponding factors that will limit their inclusion in a swine ration.

8. Nutrient variability refers to the variation in nutrient content of different samples of a given

ingredient. Many alternative feeds, such as bakery waste, are extremely variable in their

nutrient content. This variability makes these feeds more difficult to use and ensure that the
ration is properly balanced. Testing of repeated samples can be useful in assessing nutrient

variability in a given feed ingredient.

9. Stability is the extent to which a nutrient or feed ingredient will remain intact in its original

form. For example, vegetable oils that are not stabilized with an antioxidant will go rancid

quickly. Rancid oils are very unpalatable and compromise feed intake.

Alternative Ways of Production, Propagation and Processing of Feeds

Demand for animal products, especially in developing countries, is likely to rise significantly

as a result of population growth, urbanization, and rising incomes in the face of relatively low

levels of consumption at present (Nonhebel & Kastner, 2011). Consequently, changing

climatic conditions are envisaged to lead to yield and crop reduction culminating in a reduction

in the quantity and quality of meat and meat products (Nardone et al., 2010). It is under such a

situation that some invaluable plants are required to feed livestock.

Hydroponic Fodder Production

The hydroponic fodder system is a temperature and humidity-controlled growing room that is specifically
designed to sprout very nutritious grains. A selection of grains is put into photo-chemically treated trays
without soil and sprayed with nutrient-rich water solution at predetermined intervals. The temperature
and humidity inside the hydroponic fodder system are controlled using only a hydro-net and a hydro-
cloth, to ensure higher growth and the best nutritional value possible. There is no electricity usage
whatsoever.

After only 7 days, the fodder is removed from the tray and can be fed to the animal. The animal eats
everything (i.e. roots, leaves and nuts) therefore, the hydroponic fodder system is waste-free, 100%
sustainable and cost-effective.

Benefits of Hydroponic Fodder to Pigs

1. Free range pigs being fed 3kg of grain per day were changed to a diet of 1kg grain and

2kg of fresh fodder.

2. The principle conclusion was that growth rates accelerated, finishing 2 weeks sooner than

the pigs not on the fodder.

3. The sows came into heat much quicker and had a longer milking period, enabling the

piglets’ early growth rates.

4. Feeding costs were reduced by nearly 50%, with concentrate costs rising, fodder makes

sound sense.
Aquaponics integrates the advantages of two well defined technologies: (1) aquaculture

(production of fish) and (2) hydroponics (culturing plants without soil). Water from the fish

tank(s) is converted by beneficial bacteria into nutrient-rich water that flows into separate plant

grow beds (hydroponic troughs) which is immediately utilized by the plants (such as lettuce or

herbs) as fertilizer. The plants clean the water by consuming the nutrient water and the clean

water is returned to the fish tank(s) repeating ad infinitum, creating a symbiotic environment

and a recirculating self-sustaining system. The result is clean food because the plants grow in

natural nutrient rich, pesticide free, organic environment. Pesticides and chemicals are

prohibited anywhere within the system or the fish and or the plants will perish.

Advantages of Both Hydroponics and Aquaponics

1. Less water usage

2. Minimal land use

3. Minimal energy use

4. Minimal incidences of pests and diseases, as well as reduced use of pesticides.

5. Constant food supply

6. Reduced labor requirement

7. Cost effective

8. Good nutritional value

9. Enhanced digestion

Feed Additives

Feed additives used as alternative to antibiotics

1 Nutraceutical

Veterinary nutraceutical was defined in 1997 by the North American Veterinaran Nutraceutical Council,
Inc. (NAVNC). A veterinary nutraceutical is “a substance which is produced in a purified or extracted form
and administered orally to patients to provide agents required for normal body structure and function
and administered with the intent of improving the health and well-being of animals”.

There is no debate as to the proven efficacy of in-feed antibiotics (Antibiotic growth promoters or AGPs)
over the years. Due to legislation, only four AGPs are still allowed for use (avilamycin,
flavophospholipidol, monensin and salinomycin), but their future is uncertain. Not surprisingly, the EU
regulatory activity is giving a huge boost to the demand for non-pharmaceutical growth promoter
alternative.
Antibiotic alternatives includes:

• Probiotics

• Organic acids/ acidifiers

• Zinc oxide

• Mannan Oligosaccharides

• Enzymes

• Plant extracts

Probiotics

Probiotics are live microbial products. Probiotics increase the population of desirable microflora in the
gut at the expense of disease-producing organisms. Other benefits include a reduction in intestinal pH
and a reduction of toxic amines whereby improving the daily gain and feed efficiency.

Acidifiers

Organic acids and their salts appear to potential alternatives to prophylactic in-feed antibiotics and
growth promoters. In the gastro-ileal region, the lowering of pH by organic acids inhibit undesirable
microbes such as E. coli and Salmonella, hence reducing the proliferation and /or colonisation of
potentially pathogenic bacteria and thus reduces diarrhea incidences.

However, Rot and Kirchgessner (1989) found that the bactericide mode of action of organic acids is not
only caused by a pH lowering effects of acids, but also by direct effect of the acid anion. Organic acids
especially short chain fatty acids like formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid and lactic acid can penetrate
the cell wall of bacteria.

Organic acids may have anti-agalactic properties for sows and alleviate piglet diarrhea caused by
antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Lactic acid and fumaric acid based blends can effectively improve growth
performance of young growing pigs and sow productivity.

The nutritional benefits of organic acids include lowering gastric pH, resulting in increased activity of
proteolytic enzymes and gastric retention time and improved protein digestion. They may affect mucosal
morphology, as well as stimulate pancreatic secretions and contribute to improved digestion, absorption
and retention of dietary nutrients.

Zinc Oxide

Zinc oxide is added piglet diets at levels between 2,000 and 3,000 ppm. Zinc has been shown to improve
starter pig growth rate.

Mannan Oligosaccharides

Oligossacharides are complex carbohydrates extracted from yeast cell walls. It protects the health of
animals by at least two mechanisms:
1. bind several species of pathogenic microorganisms

2. modulate the animals immune system

Plant Extracts

The initial effect of adding plant extracts to animal feed is stimulating appetite. Many plants also contain
active ingredients which increase secretion by the salivary glands and of gastric and pancreatic juices
(garlic, onion, paprika), therefore leading to a decrease in pH in the stomach and better digestion.

Some substances have been shown to have strong antibacterial properties. For example, oregano oil has
been shown to significantly reduce post-weaning diarrhea and mortality in piglets, by inhibiting intestinal
E.coli.

Of course, these nutritional alternatives should be combined with good husbandry practices. Biosecurity
is the most important factor. Flavenoids which are found in extracts of garlic, onion and paprika have
been found to increase phagocytic activity.

Enzymes: Enzymes may be beneficial in diets of newly weaned pigs which do not have a full complement
of digestive enzymes necessary for digesting starch and vegetable proteins.

2 Carcass Modifiers

Chromium: Organic chromium (tripicolinate) increases leanness for about 6 %, but not consistent. 200
ppb chromium improves sow fertility, number of piglets born and weaned. Must be fed at least six
months to get response.

Betaine: Enhanced leanness and feed efficiency. Works with methionine and cystine defficiency and
lysine excess.

Carnitine: Initially thought to improve leanness and efficiency. 50 ppm in gestation improves litter size
and birth weight.

Ractopamine: Beta agonist that “repartitions” where nutrients go from fat to lean deposition. It
improves growth rate, fed conversion and lean deposition. Dosage is 5 g/ton for 2 weeks then 9.9 g/ton
for the last 2 weeks. Feed should contain at least 16 % crude protein and 0.90 % lysine.