O-Level Physics

Topic Title: Electricity

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Figure 1: Electric current flows when battery generates an
electric field between the ends of a wire
❑ In order for water to flow between two points in a pipe,
there must be a difference in pressure.
❑ The end of the pipe from which the water is being
supplied from must be at a higher pressure while the
other end must be at a lower pressure.
❑ In the same way, in order for current to flow between two
points in a circuit, there must a potential difference
between the two points in the circuit.
❑ One end of the wire must be at a higher potential (must
have less negative charge), while the other end must be
at a lower potential (must have more negative charge).
❑ Without a potential difference, current will not flow and
there will be no electricity.
❑ Potential difference is defined as the work done or the
energy transferred in moving one coulomb of charge
between two points in a circuit.
Figure 2: Potential difference necessary for flow of charge
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Figure 3: The higher the p.d across a device, the more
energy and power will be transferred from electrical energy
to other forms such as heat, light, sound, etc. for the same
current
Figure 4: Comparing energy transferred from electrical to
light by a 240V(higher p.d) lamp on the left with 12V(lower
p.d) lamp on right, on the supplied with the same current
Electromotive force
❑ Batteries and generators produce a potential difference
across the entire circuit that forces current to flow
throughout the whole circuit.
❑ This potential difference due to a power supply is called
the electromotive force (shortened to e.m.f).
❑ For constant circuit resistance. The higher the e.m.f the
higher the current in the circuit and vice versa.
❑ Electromotive force is defined as the work done or
energy transferred in moving one coulomb of charge
charge throughout the whole circuit.
❑ Just as potential difference, e.m.f is measured in volts
(V) also.
❑ An e.m.f of 1V means 1J of work is done (or transferred
from the power supply to each coulomb of charge) in
moving 1C of charge throughout the whole circuit, 2V
means 2J is used to move 1C. 3V means 3J is used to
move 1C etc.
❑ Hence the higher the e.m.f the more energy given to
each coulomb of charge as it passes through the power
supply and the more energy and power available in the
circuit.
❑ This is illustrated in the model shown in the next slide.
Figure 5: Model of electrical energy change of charge in
battery
Ohm’s Law
❑ A constant wire can be connected to a battery to form a
complete circuit, and a voltmeter connected across it to
measure the p.d across it, and an ammeter is connected
in series to it to measure the current through the wire as
shown below.
Figure 6: Circuit to verify ohms law
❑ The p.d across the wire is varied, and the current
through it is measured for each p.d.
❑ A table of sets of values of current is voltage is then
drawn and a graph of current against potential difference
(voltage) is then plotted as shown below:
Figure 7: Graph of current against voltage
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❑ The graph of an ohmic and a number of non-ohmic
conductors is shown below.
Figure 8: Graphs of current against voltage for ohmic and
non-ohmic conductors
Figure 9: Filament lamp and constantan wire
a) Filament lamp b) Constantan wire
(Does not obey ohm’s law) (obeys ohm’s law)
❑ A filament lamp does not obey ohms law because, as the
voltage across it increases the current through it
increases also increases also.
❑ This causes the filament wire to heat up and therefore its
temperature increases.
❑ Since the temperature needs to remain constant in order
for a conductor to obey ohm’s law, the filament lamp
cannot obey ohms law as its temperature increases.
❑ One way to prevent this is to use the lamp for a few
minutes and then switch it off for a few minutes in order
to allow it to cool.
❑ This procedure is then repeated throughout the
remainder of the experiment.
❑ Since it is allowed to cool, the filament lamp maintains a
constant temperature, and therefore can obey ohms law
in this case.
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Circuit symbols
❑ Current must have a complete path of conductors from
the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the
supply, if it is to flow.
❑ This path of conductors is called a circuit.
❑ Because copper is a good electrical conductor, it used in
making wires used for most electrical circuit connections.
❑ On the other hand, plastic is an insulator, so it is used to
insulate conducting wires and electrical appliances.
❑ It is difficult to draw electrical devices exactly as they
appear, so instead electrical symbols are used.
❑ The electrical signs and symbols are shown in the next
slide.
Figure 10: Electrical signs and symbols
Direct current and alternating current
❑ A battery produces current that flows in only one
direction and usually has a constant value.
❑ This type of current is called direct current (abbreviated
to d.c)
❑ The variation with time of direct current is shown below:
Figure 11: Variation of current with time for direct current
❑ On the other hand, the current from the mains supply
repeatedly changes direction.
❑ A current that changes direction and magnitude
continuously is called an alternating current (abbreviated
a.c).
❑ In Zambia, alternating current changes direction
repeatedly 50 times per second.
❑ The number of cycles of the alternating current per
second is called the frequency (f).
❑ A frequency of 1Hz means 1cycle per second, a
frequency of 2Hz means 2 cycles per second, 3Hz
means 3 cycles per second.
❑ So, in Zambia, alternating current has a frequency of
50Hz.
❑ The variation with time of alternating current is shown in
the next slide.
Figure 12a: Variation of alternating current with time

Figure 12b: Symbol for a.c power source

Series and parallel circuits
Series circuits
❑ A series circuit is one in which the devices and circuit
components are connected one after another to make
one continuous path only from one terminal of the battery
to another, as shown below.
Figure 13: Series circuit
 For all series circuits:
a) The current is the same at all points in the series circuit

b) The total p.d between any two points is equal to the

sum of the individual p.d’s across each device. If the
circuit is complete then the total p.d should equal the
e.m.f of the power supply.
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Parallel Circuits
❑ A parallel circuit is one in which current can take one or
more alternative routes in different loops from one
terminal to the other, as shown below.
Figure 14: Parallel circuit
For all parallel circuits:
a) The voltage (p.d) is the same for all parallel branches
that start at the same junction and end at the same junction
b) The sum of currents entering a junction is equal to the
sum of currents leaving the same junction
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Figure 15: Calculating total resistance in parallel
Example
A p.d of 24V from a battery is applied to the network of
resistors shown below.

a) What is the combined resistance of the 6Ω and 12Ω

resistors in parallel?
b) What is the current in the 8Ω resistor?
c) What is the voltage across the parallel network?
d) What is the current in the 6Ω resistor?
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Exercise
Dangers of electricity
❑ Electricity, although greatly useful can be a source of
danger as well.
❑ The following are some of the hazards associated with
the use of electricity:
i. Electric shock (electrocution) – occurs if current flows
from an electric circuit through a person’s body to
Earth. This can be due to damaged insulation or faulty
wiring. It could lead to death or injury among many
other things hence it is the greatest hazard. To
minimise risk of electric shock, avoid the following:
a. Damp conditions – they increase the risk and severity of
an electric shock by lowering resistance. Wearing shoes
with insulating soles or standing on a dry insulating
floor/mat between the person and the Earth reduces the
risk and severity of an electric shock.
Figure 16: Electrocution
b. Switch off electrical supply to appliance before starting
repairs.
c. Use plugs that have an earth pin and a chord grip with a
rubber or plastic case.
d. Do not allow appliances or cables to come into contact
with water.
e. Do not have long cables trailing across a room, or under
a carpet that is walked over regularly or in other situations
where insulation can become damaged. Take special care
when using cutting devices such as hedge cutters not to cut
the supply cable.

In the event of someone getting electrocuted, do the

following:
1) Switch off the power supply, especially if the
electrocuted person is still connected to the equipment.
2) Send for qualified medical personnel
3) If breathing or heartbeat has stopped, commence CPR
(cardiopulmonary resuscitation) by applying chest
compressions at a rate of 100 compressions per minute
until there are signs of chest movement or medical
assistance arrives.

ii. Fire risks – appliances/wires heat up with continued use.

So if a flammable material is placed close to a
wire/appliance that overheats, it could catch fire. The larger
the current the hotter the wire or appliance. To reduce the
risk of fire due to overheating take the following precautions:
a. Use plugs that have a correct fuse.
b. Do not attach too many appliances to the same circuit.
c. Do not overload circuits by using too many adapters.
Figure 17: Fire risk
d. Do not connect a large appliance, such as a heater, to a
low current circuit such as a lighting circuit.

Fuse
❑ A fuse is a device that protects a circuit or an appliance
from excessive current.
❑ It consists of a short length of wire with a low melting
point, usually tinned copper, which melts and breaks the
circuit when the current in it exceeds a certain value.
❑ Usually current exceeds the maximum rated values for
the circuit due to short circuits or due to overloaded
circuits.
❑ Without the fuse, the wiring would become too hot and
may end up causing a fire.
Figure 16: a) Fuse

b) Fuse symbol
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Exercise
Spot all the electrical hazards in this picture.
Exercise
 House Circuits
❑ Electricity comes to our homes by an underground cable
containing two wires, the live (L) and the neutral (N).
❑ The neutral wire is earthed at the local sub-station and
so there is no p.d. between it and the earth.
❑ The supply is a.c. so the live wire is alternatively positive
and negative many times per second.
❑ A typical house circuit is shown in the next slide.

(a) Circuits in parallel

❑ Every circuit connected in parallel with the supply, i.e.
across the live and neutral, receives the full mains p.d.
of 230V. The following are the advantages of having
appliances connected in parallel rather than in series:
Figure 17 Typical electrical circuit in a house
i. The p.d. across each lamp (or any other device)
connected in parallel is the same, so the lamp shines
with the same brightness irrespective of how many
other lamps are switched on.
ii. Each lamp can be turned on and off independently.
This allows allows that if one lamp fails then the others
can still be operated.

(b) Switches and fuses

❑ Switches and fuses are always connected in the live
wire. This is because light switches and power sockets
would be ‘live’ when switches were “off” or fuses “blown”.
❑ A fatal shock could then be obtained by, for example,
touching the element of an electric fire when it was
switched off.
(c) Staircase circuit
❑ Staircase switches allow lights to be controlled from two
places by the two way switches.

Figure 18 Staircase circuit

(d) Ring Main Circuit
❑ The live and neutral wires each run in two complete rings
round the house and the power sockets, each rated at
13A, are each tapped off from them.
❑ Thinner wires can be used since the current to each
socket flows by two paths, i.e. from both directions in the
ring. The Ring has a 30A fuse and if it has, say, ten
sockets, then all can be used as long as the total current
does not exceed 30A, otherwise the wires overheat.
❑ A house may have several ring circuits, each serving a
different area.

(e) Fused plug

❑ The Ring man circuit uses one type of socket known as
the three pin top plug, shown in the next slide.
❑ The wires in the three pin top-plug are colour coded
based on whether they are live, neutral or earth.
❑ The Live (L) wire is covered in Brown/Red insulating
covering.
❑ The Neutral (N) wire is covered in Blue/Grey insulation.
❑ The Earth (E) is covered in Green/Yellow or a
combination of both.
❑ The three pin top plug also has a fuse connected on its
live wire so that when the fuse blows the devise is no
longer “live”.
Figure 19 Wiring of a three pin top plug
Safety in electrical circuits
❑ Earthing - A ring main circuit has a third wire which goes
to the top sockets on all power points and is earthed by
being connected either to a metal water pipe entering the
house or to an earth connection on the supply cable.
This third wire is a safety precaution to prevent electric
shock should an appliance develop a fault. The earth pin
plug is connected to the metal case of the appliance
which is thus joined to earth by a path of almost zero
resistance. If then, for example, the element of an
electric fire breaks or sags and touches the case, a large
current flows to earth and “blows” the fuse. Otherwise,
the case would be “live” and anyone touching it would
receive a shock which might be fatal, especially if they
were, say, standing on a damp environment such as a
wet floor.
❑ Circuit breakers – These are now used instead of fuses
in consumer circuits. They protect the appliance incase
the current exceeds a certain value as they contain an
electromagnet which becomes strong enough to
separate a pair of contacts and breaks the circuit. They
are becoming increasingly popular because they operate
faster than fuses and have the advantage that they can
be reset by pressing a button.
❑ Double insulation – Appliances such as vacuum
cleaners, hairdryers, and food mixers are usually double
insulated. Connection to the supply is by a two-core
insulated cable, with no earth wire, and the appliance is
enclosed in an insulated case. Any metal attachments
that the user might touch are fitted into this case so that
they do not make a direct connection with the internal
electrical parts, such as a motor. There is then no risk of
a shock should a fault develop.
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*This is the end of
the topic*

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