MEE 321: Fluid Mechanics - I

Lecture - 02
Properties of Fluids
Classification of Fluid Flows
Continuum Approach
H M To u f ik A h me d Z isa n
L e c t u re r
D ep art ment O f M ec h an ical E n g ineering
S h a h j a la l U n ive rsit y O f S c ie n c e A n d Te c h n o logy
 Properties of Fluids
Density and Specific Volume
• Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
m
Density,  = (kg/m3 )
V
• The reciprocal of density is called specific volume.
V 1
Specific volume, v = = (m3 /kg)
m 
• The density of most gases is proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to
temperature.
• Liquids and solids, on the other hand, are essentially incompressible substances,
and the variation of their density with pressure is usually negligible.

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 2

 Properties of Fluids
Specific Gravity (or Relative Density) SF-18

• Specific gravity denotes the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of
some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C, for
which ρ=1000 kg/m3)

SG =
 H O at 4 C 0
2

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 3

 Properties of Fluids
Specific Weight (or Weight Density)
• The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called specific weight or weight
density. It can be found by multiplying density (i.e., mass per unit volume) with the
gravitational acceleration.

 s =  g (N/m ) 3

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 4

 Properties of Fluids
Vapor Pressure
• At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase
is called the saturation temperature, Tsat.
• Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance
changes phase is called the saturation pressure, Psat.
• At an absolute pressure of 1 standard atmosphere (1 atm or 101.325 kPa), for
example, the saturation temperature of water is 100°C. Conversely, at a
temperature of 100°C, the saturation pressure of water is 1 atm.

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 5

 Properties of Fluids
Vapor Pressure
• The vapor pressure, Pv of a pure substance is defined as the pressure exerted by
its vapor in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature.

• Vapor pressure, Pv is a property of the pure substance, and turns out to be

identical to the saturation pressure Psat of the liquid (i.e., Pv = Psat).

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 6

 Properties of Fluids
Vapor Pressure and Cavitation
• The reason for our interest in vapor pressure is the possibility of the liquid pressure
in liquid-flow systems dropping below the vapor pressure at some locations, and
the resulting unplanned vaporization.
• For example, water at 10°C (having a saturation pressure of 1.23 kPa) may
vaporize and form bubbles at locations (such as the tip regions of impellers or
suction sides of pumps) where the pressure drops below 1.23 kPa.

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 Properties of Fluids
Vapor Pressure and Cavitation
• The vapor bubbles (also called cavitation bubbles since they form “cavities” in
the liquid) collapse as they are swept away from the low-pressure regions,
generating highly destructive, extremely high-pressure waves. This phenomenon,
which is a common cause for drop in performance and even the erosion of
impeller blades, is called cavitation.

SF-23

Damage of different objects

due to cavitation

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 Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
• When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction force develops
between them and the slower layer tries to slow down the faster layer.
• This internal resistance to flow is quantified by the fluid property
viscosity, which is a measure of internal stickiness of the fluid.
• Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces between the molecules
in liquids and by molecular collisions in gases.

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 Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
• We already know that, in fluid stress is proportional to strain rate.
• Fluids in which the stress and strain rate are directly proportional are called
Newtonian fluids.
• The relation between shear stress and strain rate for Newtonian fluids can be
expressed as follows:
𝜕𝑢
𝜏=𝜇 (𝑁/𝑚2 )
𝜕𝑦

• Here, μ is called coefficient of viscosity or dynamic viscosity or absolute viscosity.

• Its unit is kg/m.s, or equivalently, N.s/m2 (or Pa-s where Pa is the pressure unit
pascal). Another common viscosity unit is poise, which is equivalent to 0.1 Pa-s.
• The viscosity of water at 20°C is 1.002 centipoise.

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 10

 Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
• The shear force acting on a Newtonian fluid layer is:

𝜕𝑢
𝐹 = 𝜏𝐴 = 𝜇 𝐴(𝑁)
𝜕𝑦
where, A is contact area.
• For non-Newtonian fluids, the relationship
between shear stress and strain rate is non-linear.
• The slope of the curve on the t versus du/dy
chart is referred to as the apparent viscosity of the
fluid.

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 11

 Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
• Fluids for which the apparent viscosity increases with the rate of deformation
(such as solutions with suspended starch or sand) are referred to as dilatant or shear
thickening fluids.
• Fluids for which the apparent viscosity decreases
with the rate of deformation (such as paints, polymer
solutions and fluids with suspended particles) are called
pseudoplastics or shear thinning fluids.

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 12

 Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
• Some materials such as toothpaste can resist a finite shear stress and thus
behave as a solid, but deform continuously when the shear stress exceeds the yield
stress and behave as a fluid. Such materials are referred to as Bingham plastics
(named after Eugene C. Bingham).
• The branch of fluid mechanics that deals with
non-Newtonian fluids is called Rheology.

Question: Is blood a non-Newtonian fluid? Explain

the reasons.

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 13

 Properties of Fluids
Kinematic Viscosity
• In fluid mechanics and heat transfer, the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density
appears frequently. For convenience, this ratio is given the name kinematic
𝝁
viscosity 𝜐 and is expressed as 𝝊 = .
𝝆

• Two common units of kinematic viscosity are m2/s and stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm2/s =
0.0001 m2/s).

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 14

 Properties of Fluids
Viscosity and No-Sip Condition

• Consider the flow of a fluid in a stationary pipe or over a solid surface that is
nonporous (i.e., impermeable to the fluid).
• All experimental observations indicate that a fluid in motion comes to a complete
stop at the surface and assumes a zero-velocity relative to the surface.
• That is, a fluid in direct contact with a solid “sticks” to the surface, and there is no
slip. This is known as the no-slip condition.
• The fluid property responsible for the no-slip condition and the development of
the boundary layer is viscosity.

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• A consequence of the no-slip condition is that all velocity profiles must have zero
values with respect to the surface at the points of contact between a fluid and a
solid surface. Therefore, the no-slip condition is responsible for the development
of the velocity profile.
• The flow region adjacent to the wall in which the viscous effects (and thus the
velocity gradients) are significant is called the boundary layer.

relative

Velocity profile due to no-slip condition Development of boundary layer for

for flow over a stationary flat plate flow over a stationary flat plate

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• Another consequence of the no-slip condition is the surface drag, or skin friction
drag, which is the force a fluid exerts on a surface in the flow direction.
• Drag is one of the responsible factors for energy loss in a flowing fluid.

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 17

 Properties of Fluids
Problem 1

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 Properties of Fluids
Problem 2

Fig shows a journal

bearing where a
cylindrical shaft rotates
inside a static
cylindrical casing

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 19

 Properties of Fluids
Surface Tension SF-18

• The pulling effect on the liquid molecules at a liquid-liquid or liquid-gas interface

caused by the attractive forces of molecules per unit length is called surface
tension, 𝜎𝑆 .
• This property manifests itself only in the liquid.
• The forces between molecules in the bulk of a liquid are equal in all directions,
and as a result, no net force is exerted on the molecules.
• However, at the surface, the molecules exert
a force that has a resultant in the surface layer.
This resultant force per unit length is called
surface tension.

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 20

 Properties of Fluids
Surface Tension
• This force holds a drop of water suspended on a rod and limits the size of the drop
that may be held. It also causes the small drops from a sprayer or atomizer to
assume spherical shapes.
• The surface tension of a substance can be changed considerably by impurities.
Therefore, certain chemicals, called surfactants, can be added to a liquid to
decrease its surface tension.

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 Classification of Fluid Flows

Criteria Type of Fluid Flow

Viscosity (μ) 1. Viscous (boundary layer) flow, 2. Inviscid (frictionless) flow
Geometry 1. Internal (closed), 2. External (open)
Driving Force 1. Forced (external force), 2. Natural (buoyancy force)
Time 1. Steady (∂u/∂t = 0), 2. Unsteady (∂u/∂t ≠ 0)
Space 1. Uniform (∂u/∂s = 0), 2. Non-uniform (∂u/∂s ≠ 0)
Profile 1. Uniform or Plug (constant), 2. Couette (linear), 3. Poiseuille
(parabolic)
Dimension 1. One-dimensional, 2. Two-dimensional, 3. Three-dimensional
Density (ρ) 1. Incompressible (∆ρ < 5%), 2. Compressible (∆ρ > 5%)
Nature 1. Laminar, 2. Transition, 3. Turbulent

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Viscous vs Inviscid Flow
• Flows in which the frictional effects are significant are called viscous flows.
• However, in many flows of practical interest, there are regions (typically regions
not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are negligibly small compared to
inertial or pressure forces. Neglecting the viscous terms in such flow regions
greatly simplifies the analysis without much loss in accuracy. Such flows are called
inviscid flows.

The flow of an originally uniform fluid stream over a flat plate, and the regions of
viscous flow (next to the plate on both sides) and inviscid flow (away from the plate)

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 23

Internal vs External Flow
• The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe is
external flow.
• If the fluid is completely bounded by solid surfaces while it is flowing through a
pipe or duct then it is called internal flow.
• If the duct or pipe is only partially filled with the liquid and there is a free surface
then that flow is called open-channel flow.

External flow of air Internal flow

over a tennis ball through pipe

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Natural (or Unforced) vs Forced Flow
• In natural flows, fluid motion is due to natural means such as the buoyancy effect,
which manifests itself as the rise of warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the fall of
cooler (and thus denser) fluid.
• In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external
means such as a pump or a fan.

Natural Flow Forced Flow

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Steady vs Unsteady Flow
• The term steady implies no change of properties, velocity, temperature, etc., at a
point with time.
• For unsteady flow, the properties, velocity, temperature etc. of the flow can
change with time.
u
=0
t

u
0
t
t=0 seconds t=5 seconds

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Uniform vs Non-Uniform Flow
• The flow in which flow conditions remain same/constant from one location to
another location is called uniform flow.
• The flow in which flow conditions vary from one location to another location is
called non-uniform flow.

Uniform flow Non-uniform flow

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 SF-22
Uniform Or Plug (constant), Couette (Linear) & Poiseuille (Parabolic) Flow
• Uniform or plug flow is an idealized flow of fluids in which all particles in a given
cross-section have identical velocity and direction of motion.
• Couette flow is the flow of a viscous fluid in the space between two surfaces, one
of which is moving tangentially relative to the other. The relative motion of the
surfaces imposes a shear stress on the fluid and induces flow.
• Poiseuille flow is pressure induced flow in a long pipe or duct. Because of the
geometry, Poiseuille flow is analyzed using cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z) with
origin on the center-line of the pipe entrance and z-direction aligned with the
center-line. Symmetry means that Poiseuille flow is swirl-free and axisymmetric.

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 Uniform or plug flow: Flow of fluids in which
all particles in a given cross-section have
identical velocity and direction of motion
Couette Flow: Flow of viscous
fluid between two parallel
surfaces where one surface
moves tangentially relative to the Poiseuille Flow: Flow of a fluid
other creating a linear velocity through a fixed pipe or channel due
profile. to a pressure difference, creating a
Uniform or plug flow parabolic velocity profile

Couette flow Poiseuille flow

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One-, Two- & Three-Dimensional Flows
• Generally, a fluid flow is a rather complex three-dimensional, time dependent
phenomena- V = V(x, y, z, t).
• In many situations, however, the variation of velocity in certain directions can be
small relative to the variation in other directions and can be ignored with
negligible error. In such cases, the flow can be modeled conveniently as being
one- or two-dimensional, which is easier to analyze.
→ →
→
1 − D flow: V = V ( y ) 2 − D flow: V = V ( x, y ) 3 − D flow: V = V ( x, y, z )

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 SF-18
Compressible vs Incompressible Flow
• A flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible, depending on the
level of variation of density during flow.
• Incompressibility is an approximation, in which the flow is said to be
incompressible if the density remains nearly constant throughout or the changes
in density are considered negligible. Therefore, the volume of every portion of
fluid remains unchanged over the course of its motion when the flow is
approximated as incompressible.
• The densities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus the flow of liquids is
typically incompressible.
• Gases, on the other hand, are highly compressible.

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• Mach number (named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach) can be used to
find whether a fluid flow is compressible or incompressible.

V V Flow velocity
Mach Number, M = = =
c kRT Local Speed of sound in the fluid

where, k = specific heat ratio of an ideal gas = 1.4 (for air)

R = gas constant = 287 J/kg-K
T = temperature = °K

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• In aerodynamics (applied fluid mechanics), the following flow classes are
classified roughly depending on the Mach number
M << 1 : Incompressible flow (density effects are negligible)
M<1 : Subsonic flow
M=1 : Sonic flow (density effects are important)
M>1 : Supersonic flow (density effects become prominent)
M >> 1 : Hypersonic flow (shock waves and other flow changes are strong)

©HM Toufik Ahmed Zisan MEE 321 33

Problem 3: A fighter jet is flying at a speed of 400 m/s. The velocity of sound at
that location is 349 m/s. Specific heat capacity ratio of air, k = 1.4 and gas constant,
R = 287 J/kg-K .

(a)Determine whether the jet is subsonic or supersonic?

(b)Is the air flow around the jet compressible?
(c)Find out the air temperature (in °C) around the jet.

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Laminar vs Turbulent Flow
• Laminar flow occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers and the layers slide past
one another. It usually occurs at low speed. No lateral mixing and interaction
occurs between the layers.
• Turbulent flow is a fluid motion with particle trajectories varying randomly in time,
in which irregular fluctuations of various flow properties arise.
In a turbulent flow, the lateral mixing and interactions
Turbulent
between the fluid layers occur due to the conditions
imposed by the geometry and flow field such as: a)
surface topography, b) surface roughness, c) surface Laminar
mass injection (or suction), d) pressure gradient, e)
surface temperature and so on
Candle Plume
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• Due to these interactions, the fluid layers are no longer streamlined and well
behaved. Hence, the turbulent flow occurs.

• The fundamental difference between laminar and turbulent flow lies in the
chaotic, random behavior of the various flow properties. Such variations might
occur in the three components of velocity (u-, v-, w-), the pressure, the shear
stress, the temperature, and any other variable that has a field description (such
as density).

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• A typical time trace of the axial component of velocity measured at a location in
the flow is shown in the figure. Its irregular, random nature is the distinguishing
feature of turbulent flow.

Time trace of velocity components in flow

• For laminar flow: v(t ) = v

• For turbulent flow: v(t ) = v  v '

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• Shear stress in 1-D fluid flow:

where, u y = velocity gradient (or strain rate or rate of deformation) for 1-D flow
 = molecular or laminar or dynamic viscosity (property of fluid)
t = eddy viscosity (property of flow)

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• Flow nature of a fluid (whether it is laminar or turbulent) can be found out by a
dimensionless number called “Reynolds number, Re” (named after Osborne
Reynolds)
For flow through a smooth pipe,
Vd
Re =

Re  2300; Laminar flow
2300 < Re < 4000; Transition flow
Re > 4000; Turbulent flow
• Keep it in mind that, Re acts as a good guess. It can’t always correctly indicate
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Sometimes, even at low Re (≈500) flow
can be turbulent. Hence, the nature of flow depends on various other factors.

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Problem 4: Water is flowing at a speed 5 m/s though a pipe of 20 cm diameter.
Dynamic viscosity of water at 25°C is 8.90×10-4 Pa-s. Determine the nature of the
flow.

Problem 5: SAE – 10 motor oil is flowing at a speed 4 m/s though a pipe of 5 cm

diameter. Dynamic viscosity of motor oil at 20°C is 0.079 Pa-s and density of the oil is
856.7 kg/m3. Determine the nature of the flow.

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 Continuum Approach
• A typical portion of fluid contains so many molecules that it becomes totally
unrealistic to attempt to account for the motion of individual molecule
(molecular approach).
• It is rather convenient to disregard the atomic nature of the fluid and view it as
continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes, that is, a continuum.
• The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions and to
assume that the properties vary continually in space with no jump discontinuities.
• This idealization is valid as long as the size of the system we deal with is large
relative to the space between the molecules.
• The continuum model is applicable as long as the characteristic length of the
system (such as its diameter) is much larger than the mean free path of the
molecules within the system..
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• In the following figure, the “density” as calculated from molecular mass within a
given volume is plotted versus the size of the unit volume. There is a limiting
volume below which molecular variations may be important (molecular
approach) and above which aggregate variations may be important
(continuum approach).

Fluids contain millions of molecules making it impractical to track each one. So it is convenient to disregard the
atomic nature of fluid and view it as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes that is a continuum.The
continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions and to assume that the properties like density,
pressure, velocity vary continually in space with no jump discontinuities.The continuum model is applicable as long
as the system is much larger than the mean free path of the molecules within the system.For gases at atmospheric
pressure the limiting volume is around 10^-9 mm³.Most real-world problems like flow in pipes, aerodynamics involve
large scales compared to molecular spacing.At such scales properties like density appear continuous. air at
standard conditions(10^-9 mm³) has enough molecules to define an average density, making continuum
assumptions valid.

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• The limiting volume is about 10-9 mm3 for all
liquids and for gases at atmospheric pressure.
For example, 10-9 mm3 of air at standard
conditions contains approximately 3 × 107
molecules, which is sufficient to define a nearly
constant density (i.e. aggregate variations are
important).

• Most engineering problems are concerned with physical dimensions much larger
than this limiting volume, so that density is essentially a point function and fluid
properties can be thought of as varying continually in space (i.e. the continuum
concept applies).

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• An alternative way to find out which approach to take is by finding out the value
of a non-dimensional number called “Knudsen number, kn”.


Mean free path of gas molecules
Knudsen number, kn = =
L Characteristic dimension of flow

kn  0.001 ; Continuum flow (continuum approach)

0.001 < kn < 0.1 ; Slip flow
0.1 < kn < 10 ; Transitional flow
kn > 10 ; Free molecular flow (molecular approach)

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