Chemistry
CHAPTER-5
Definition: The total number of electrons in the outermost energy level
of an atom is called its valence electrons.
Examples:
• Na (11) → 2,8,1 ⇒ 1 valence electron
• Li (3) → 2,1 ⇒ 1 valence electron
• O (8) → 2,6 ⇒ 6 valence electrons
• F (9) → 2,7 ⇒ 7 valence electrons
Valency: Valency is the number of electrons an atom can gain, lose, or
share to form a chemical bond.
Example:
• N (7) → 2,5 ⇒ Valency = 3 (It needs 3 electron to fill it’s last orbit)
• P (15) → 2,8,5 ⇒ Valency = 3 or 5
• Cl (17) → 2,8,7 ⇒ Valency = 1
• Ca (20) → 2,8,8,2 ⇒ Valency = 2
Explanation: An atom's valency is usually equal to its number of valence
electrons or (8 - number of valence electrons).
Examples:
1. In HCl, H and Cl combine, so Cl has valency 1.
2. In H2O, O bonds with 2 H atoms ⇒ O has valency 2.
3. In CaO, Ca bonds with O (O x 1 = 1, x2 = 2) ⇒ Ca valency = 2
4. In NaCl, Na bonds with Cl ⇒ Valency = 1
Variable Valency: Some elements have multiple valency values. For
example, Fe has valency 2 and 3.
Latent Valency: Difference between maximum and minimum valency.
Example: In FeCl2, Fe has active valency 2 and maximum 3 ⇒ Latent
valency = 1.
Latent valency = (Maximum valency – Active valency)
Example 1: FeCl₃ and FeCl₂
Let oxidation number of Fe = n
We know Cl = -1, and total charge = 0
FeCl₃ = 0
=> n + (-1)x3 = 0
=> n – 3 = 0
=> n = 3
• So, valency of Fe = 3
• If max valency = 3 and active valency = 3
⇒ Latent valency = 3 - 3 = 0
Radical Name Formula Charge (Valency)
Ammonium NH₄⁺ +1
Carbonate CO₃²⁻ -2
Bicarbonate HCO₃⁻ -1
Sulfate SO₄²⁻ -2
Bisulfate HSO₄⁻ -1
Sulfite SO₃²⁻ -2
Nitrate NO₃⁻ -1
Phosphate PO₄³⁻ -3
Rules of writing chemical formula :
• If a molecule has more than one atom of an element, we write
that number as a small number to the bottom right of the
element's symbol in English. For example – O2, H2, N2
• Sometimes, a molecule is made from atoms of different elements.
If the valency is not divisible by a common number, then the
valencies can be written by exchanging their valencies. For
example, the valency of H is 1 and O is 2, when they form
compound, it can be written as H2O. If there is a radical, then the
formula of the radical goes inside a first bracket () along with it’s
number and exchange valencies to write it. For example –
Mg3(PO4)2
• When two elements form a compound, their valencies can
sometimes be divided by a common number. The resulting
quotients are used to write the chemical formula. For example:
Carbon (valency 4) and oxygen (valency 2) divide by 2, giving CO2
Ferrous (valency 2) and sulfate (valency 2) divide by 2, giving FeSO4
Boron and nitrogen (both valency 3) divide by 3, giving BN.
Structural and Molecular Formulas:
Molecular Formula:
It shows how many atoms of each element are in a molecule.
Example: H₂O means 2 hydrogen (H) atoms and 1 oxygen (O) atom.
Structural Formula:
It shows how the atoms are joined (bonded) in a molecule.
Example: In H₂O, the oxygen is in the middle, connected to 2 hydrogen
atoms like this:
H—O—H
In short:
• Molecular formula = what atoms + how many
• Structural formula = how atoms are connected
Octet Rule: The tendency of atoms to achieve 8 electrons in their
outermost shell is called the Octet Rule.
When forming a molecule, an element obtains the electronic
configuration of inert gases by donating, accepting or sharing electrons.
This is known as the octet rule.
Duet Rule: In various molecules, atoms gain, lose, or share electrons
between each other to achieve a stable electron configuration where
the outermost shell has two electrons. This is called the duet rule.
Inert gases (Group-18) and their stability: Helium (He), Neon (Ne),
Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), Radon (Rn).
These gases have maximum amount of electrons in their outermost
shell and that is why they are stable. Those who have 2 electrons in the
outermost shell forms a duet and those who have 8 electrons in their
outermost shell forms an octet.
Why are they stable?
Since they already have their outermost shells fulfilled, they no need to
donate, accept or share any electron because atoms exchange or share
electrons to fill their outmost shell to become stable which the inert
gases already have. This stability makes them chemically inert – they do
not donate, accept, or share electrons easily.
Chemical bonding: Chemical bonding means the force that holds atoms
together in a molecule or compound.
Why do atoms bond?
To become stable by completing their outer shell (like getting 8 or 2
electrons). For example, in H₂O, hydrogen and oxygen atoms are
bonded together by sharing electrons.
Cations (Positively Charged Ions): Atoms that lose electrons, becoming
positively charged.
Their outer electrons are weakly attracted to the nucleus (low ionization
energy). Low ionization energy → Easy to lose electrons.
Anions (Negatively Charged Ions): Atoms that gain electrons, becoming
negatively charged.
Their outer electrons are strongly attracted to the nucleus (high
ionization energy). High electron affinity → Tend to gain electrons.
Ionic Bond: The electrostatic force between two oppositely charged
ions formed by donating or accepting electrons from metal to non
metal is called ionic bond.
Electron Transfer:
• Metals (e.g., Na, Mg, Ca) lose electrons → form cations (+).
• Nonmetals (e.g., Cl, O) gain electrons → form anions (–).
Electrostatic Attraction:
• The opposite charges attract, creating a strong ionic bond.
Example – NaCl –
Na - e- → Na+
Cl + e- → Ca-
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Na + Cl → Na+ + C- → NaCl
