Comprehensive Embryology Notes
1. Definitions and Developmental Periods
- Embryogenesis: The developmental process that involves the formation of organs and
body structures through cellular proliferation and differentiation.
- Ontogeny: Refers to an individual’s entire biological life cycle starting from a zygote to
embryonic and fetal development, postnatal life, and eventual death.
- Embryonic Period: Extends from fertilization to early organ development, roughly 30
days in small domestic animals and up to 60 days in larger species like horses and
humans.
- Fetal Period: The stage following the embryonic period where developed organs grow,
mature, and begin functioning until birth (parturition).
2. Phases of Ontogenic Development
1. Gametogenesis: Formation and maturation of gametes (sperm and ova).
2. Fertilization: Fusion of haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote.
3. Cleavage: Mitotic divisions of the zygote into blastomeres.
4. Gastrulation: Establishment of the three germ layers.
5. Organogenesis: Formation of tissues and organs from germ layers.
6. Growth and Histological Differentiation: Increase in size and complexity.
3. Gametogenesis
- Gametogenesis is the biological process that results in the formation of gametes (sex
cells).
- In males, spermatogenesis occurs within the seminiferous tubules of the testes,
producing four spermatozoa from each spermatogonium through meiosis.
- In females, oogenesis occurs in the ovaries and produces one ovum from each
oogonium, along with polar bodies.
- Somatic cells (non-germ cells) are diploid and divide via mitosis, whereas germ cells
undergo both mitosis and meiosis to become haploid.
- The ovum is surrounded by several layers: the corona radiata, zona pellucida, and
vitelline membrane. In birds, the zona pellucida is absent.
- The sperm consists of a head (with nucleus and acrosome), midpiece (rich in
mitochondria), and a tail (flagellum composed of microtubules).
4. Fertilization
- Fertilization is the union of a haploid sperm with a haploid ovum to form a diploid
zygote.
- Occurs in the fallopian tube of mammals and the infundibulum of birds.
- Key steps include capacitation (maturation of sperm in the female tract), acrosomal
reaction (release of enzymes to penetrate zona pellucida), and cortical reaction (block to
polyspermy).
- Following fusion, male and female pronuclei form and unite to create the zygote.
- Species-specific chromosome numbers: Dog (78), Horse (64), Cattle (60), Sheep (54),
Human (46), Pig and Cat (38).
5. Cleavage and Blastulation
- Cleavage involves rapid mitotic cell divisions of the zygote, resulting in smaller cells
called blastomeres.
- Holoblastic cleavage (complete) occurs in mammals; meroblastic cleavage (incomplete)
occurs in birds and reptiles.
- A morula is a compact ball of blastomeres encased in the zona pellucida (16–64 cells).
- Transition to the blastocyst stage involves formation of a blastocoel cavity.
- Inner Cell Mass (ICM) forms the embryo proper, while the trophoblast contributes to
placenta formation.
- In avians, the blastoderm has two regions: area pellucida (overlying subgerminal cavity)
and area opaca (denser yolky layer).
6. Gastrulation and Germ Layer Formation
- Gastrulation is the process by which the three primary germ layers are formed:
ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
- The primitive streak forms on the embryonic disc, marking the start of mesodermal
migration.
- Epiblast cells give rise to ectoderm; hypoblast cells form endoderm; mesoderm arises
between them and splits into paraxial, intermediate, and lateral regions.
- The notochord forms along the midline, inducing neural plate formation and serving as
the precursor to the vertebral column.
- Body cavities arise from coelomic cavities between somatic and splanchnic mesoderm
layers.
7. Neurulation and Neural Crest Derivatives
- Neurulation involves the transformation of the neural plate into the neural tube, which
develops into the CNS.
- Neural folds elevate, converge, and fuse to form the neural tube; neural crest cells
emerge and migrate.
- Neural crest derivatives include the PNS, adrenal medulla, melanocytes, facial cartilage,
and Schwann cells.
- Brain develops into primary vesicles (prosencephalon, mesencephalon,
rhombencephalon) and further differentiates into secondary vesicles (e.g., telencephalon,
diencephalon).
- Flexures (cephalic, cervical, pontine) help form the final brain shape.
- Meninges develop from neural crest and mesodermal tissue.
