8.1 Mathematical models 8 Basic system models Consider the following situation, A microprocessor switches on a motor. How will the rotation of the motor shaft vary with time? The speed will not immediately assume the full-speed value but will only attain that speed after some time, Consider another situation. A hydraulic system is used to open a valve which allows water into a tank to restore the water level to that required. How will the water level vary with time? The water level will not immediately assume the required level but will only attain that level after some time. This chapter, and chapters 9, 10 and 11, are about determining how systems behave with time when subject to some disturbance. In order to understand the behaviour of systems, math- ematical models are needed. These mathematical models are equations which describe the relationship between the input and output of a system. They can be used to enable forecasts to be made of the behaviour of a system under specific conditions. The ‘basis for any mathematical model is provided by the fundamental physical laws that govern the behaviour of the system. In this chapter a range of systems will be considered, including mech- anical, electrical, thermal and fluid examples. Like a child building houses, cars, cranes, etc., from a number of basic building blocks, systems can be made up from a range of building blocks, Each building block is considered to have a single property or function. Thus to take a simple example, an electrical circuit system may be made up from building blocks which rep- resent the behaviour of resistors, capacitors and inductors. The resistor building block is assumed to have purely the property of resistance, the capacitor purely that of capacitance and the inductor purely that of inductance. By combining these building blocks in different ways a variety of electrical circuit systems can be built up and the overall input-output relationships obtained for the system by combining in an appropriate way the relationships for the building blocks. Thus a mathematical model 129130 MECHATRONICS 8,2 Mechanical system building blocks Force F change length x Input, F Output, x “ Spring Fig. 81 Spring Pid Forog x Ji Change in Position Input, F Output, x Dashpot Fig. 2.2 Dashpot for the system can be obtained. A system built up in this Way ig called a lumped parameter system. This is because eh parameter, i.e. property or function, is considered independent, There are similarities in the behaviour of building blocks tised in mechanical, electrical, thermal and fluid systems. This chapter i about the basic building blocks and their combination to produce ‘mathematical models for physical, real, systems. Chapter 9 looks at more complex models. ‘A. more detailed discussion will be found in Dynamic Modelling and Control of Engineering Systems by J. Lowen Shearer and Bohdan T. Kulakowski (Macmillan 1990) The models used to represent mechanical systems have the basic building blocks of springs, dashpots and masses. Springs represent the stiffness of a system, dashpots the forces opposing motion, i. frictional or damping effects, and masses the inertia or resistance to acceleration. The mechanical system does not have to be really made up of springs, dashpots and masses but have the properties of stiffness, damping and inertia, All these building blocks can be considered to have a force as an input and a displacement as an output. The stiffness of a spring is described by the relation between the forces F used to extend or compress a spring and the resulting extension or compression x (figure 8.1). In the case of a spring where the extension or compression is proportional to the applied forces, ie. a linear spring, Fke where & is a constant. The bigger the value of & the greater the forces have to be to stretch or compress the spring and so the greater the stiffness. The object applying the force to stretch the spring is also acted on by a force, the force being that exerted by the stretched spring (Newton’s third law). This force will be in the ‘opposite direction and equal in size to the force used to stretch the spring, i. kx, The dashpot building block represents the type of forces experienced when we endeavour to push an object through a fluid or move an object against frictional forces. The faster the object is pushed the greater becomes the opposing forces. The dashpot which is used pictorially to represent these damping forces which slow down moving objects consists of a piston moving in a closed cylinder (figure 8.2). Movement of the piston requires the fluic one side of the piston to flow through or past the piston. This flow produces a resistive force. In the ideal case, the damping ofBASIC SYSTEMMODELS 131 resistive force F is proportional to the velocity » of the piston. Thus Foe i where c is a constant, The larger the value of c the greater the damping force at a particular velocity. Since velocity is the rate of change of displacement x of the piston, i.e. v = dv/de, then Fee dt ‘Thus the relationship between the displacement x of the piston, ie. the output, and the force as the input is a relationship depending on the rate of change of the output. Acceleration The mass building block (figure 8.3) exhibi the property that the bigger the mass the greater the force required to give it a 7 specific acceleration, The relationship between the force F and the x! acceleration a is (Newton’s second law) F = ma, where the Change in constant of proportionality between the force and the acceleration displacement is the constant called the mass m, Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, i.e. dv/df, and velocity v is the rate of change of displacement x, ie. v= dx/d/. Thus Input, Output, x me} Mass + 8.3 Mass 2 ma =m 8 = py Srl) _ F=ma =m = mix Energy is needed to stretch the spring, accelerate the mass ‘and move the piston in the dashpot. However, in the case of the spring and the mass we can get the energy back but with the dashpot we cannot. The spring when stretched stores energy, the i energy being released when the spring springs back to its original i length, The energy stored when there is an extension x is Yk? } Since F = ke this can be written as ' 1 Pak There is also energy stored in the mass when it is moving with a velocity v, the energy being referred to as kinetic energy, and released when it stops moving. t f { I | B= vt However, there is no energy stored in the dashpot. It does not return to its original position when there is no force input. The dashpot dissipates energy rather than storing it, the power P | dissipated depending on the velocity v and being given by132, MECHATRONICS P=er | 8.2.1 Rotational systems The spring, dashpot and mass are the basic building blocks for ‘mechanical systems where forces and straight fine displacements are involved without any rotation, If there is rotation then the equivalent three building blocks are a torsional spring, a rotary damper and the moment of inertia, ie. the inertia of a rotating mass. With such building blocks the inputs are torque and the outputs angle rotated. With a torsional spring the angle @ rotated} is proportional to the torque 7: Hence T= With the rotary damper a disc is rotated in a fluid and the resistive torque 7 is proportional to the angular velocity @, and since angular velocity is the rate at which angle changes, i.e. d0/dt, T=cn=c8 co = The moment of inertia building block exhibits the property that the greater the moment of inertia J the greater the torque needed to produce an angular acceleration «.. T=Io Thus, since angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity, ie. do/dt, and angular velocity is the rate of change of angular displacement, then pe 180. (Bld) Pela a The torsional spring and the rotating mass store energy; the otary damper just dissipates energy. The energy stored by a torsional spring when twisted through an angle @ is “4k0* and since T= 19 this can be written as 7 2k E The energy stored by a mass rotating with an angular velocity @ is the kinetic energy E, where E= Jo?Force due y tosping SCS a 1 wy Force due x Displacement to dashpot Spring a Output, x = dashpot- mi mass systom Fig. 8.4 Spring-dashpot-mass system BASIC SYSTEM MODELS 133 Table 8.1 Mechanical building blocks ON Building block Describing Energy stored or equation power dissipated Translational Spring Dashpot Mass Rotational Spring Rotational damper ‘Moment of inertia ‘The power P dissipated by the rotatory damper when rotating with an angular velocity a is Paco" Table 8.1 summarises the equations defining the character istics of the mechanical building blocks when there is, in'the case Of straight line displacements (termed translational), a force input F and a displacement x output and, in the case of rotation, a torque T’and angular displacement . 8.2.2 Buil jing up a mechanical system ‘Many systems can be considered to be essentially a mass, a spring and dashpot combined in the way shown in figure 8.4. To evaluate the relationship between the force and displacement for the system the procedure to be adopted is to consider just one mass, and just the forces acting on that body. A diagram of the mass and just the forces acting on it is called a free-body diagram, When several forces act concurrently on a body, their single equivalent resultant can be found by vector addition, If the forces are all acting along the same line or parallel lines, this means that the resultant or net force acting on the block is the algebraic sum. Thus for the mass in figure 8.4, if we consider just the forces acting on that block then the net force applied to the mass is the applied force F' minus the134 MECHATRONICS [ours sstacoment Mass Ground Input, force fa) ‘Suspension ft Road ) Fig. 8.5 Mathematical models: (a) a machine mounted on the ground, (b) the wheel of a car moving along a road force resulting from the stretching or compressing of the spring and minus the force from the damper. Thus Net force applied to mass m = F — ke ~ cv where v is the velocity with which the piston in the dashpot, and hence the mass, is moving. This net force is the force applied tp the mass to cause it to accelerate. Thus Net force applied to mass = ma Hence foc ¢ HE Pokano or, when rearranged, dx , ode mage S +ke=F This equation, called a differential equation, describes the relationship between the input of force F to the system and the output of displacement x. It is a second-order differential equ-‘ion, a first-order differential equation would only have dx/dt ‘There are many systems which can be built up from suitable combinations of the spring, dashpot and mass building blocks Figure 8.5(a) shows the model for a machine mounted on the ground and could be used as a basis for studying the effects of ground disturbances on the displacements of a machine bed Figure 8.5(b) shows a model for the wheel and its suspension fora car or truck and can be used for the study of the behaviour that could be expected of the vehicle when driven over a rough road and hence as a basis for the design of the vehicle suspension. The procedure to be adopted for the analysis of such models is just the same as outlined above for the simple spring-dashpot~mass model. A free-body diagram is drawn for each mass in the system, such diagrams showing each mass independently and just the forces acting on it. Then for each mass the resultant of the forces acting on it is then equated to the product of the mass and the acceleration of the mass. Similar models can be constructed for rotating systems, To evaluate the relationship between the torque and angular displace- ment for the system the procedure to be adopted is to consider just ‘one rotational mass block, and just the torques acting on thal body. When several torques act on a body simultaneously ei single equivalent resultant can be found by addition in whicn the direction of the torques is taken into account, Thus a systemAngular displacement 6 Mm ‘ i\ VY Torque \ T 4 Shaft } + @ Fig. 8.6 Rotating a mass on the end of a shaft: (a) physical situations, (b) the building block model 4 ky 15S Mase Fr ky jE, x Displacement Fig. 87 Example BASIC SYSTEM MODELS 135 Torsional resistance Torsional resistance (0) involving a torque being used to rotate a mass on the end of @ shaft (figure 8.6(a)) can be considered to be represented by the rotational building blocks shown in figure 8.6(b). This is a compar- able situation to that analysed above (figure 8.4) for linear dis- placements and yields a similar equation 128... ig. 7 de dr To illustrate the above, consider the development of the equations in the following examples Derive the differential equation describing the relationship between the input of the force F and the output of displacement x for the system shown in figure 8,7 The net force applied to the mass is F minus the resisting forces exerted by each of the springs, Since these are k,x and kx, then Net force = F- kx — kx Since the net force causes the mass to accelerate, then ax Net force = mL a Hence 2 moa tthe F Derive the differential equation describing the motion of the ‘mass m, in figure 8.8 when a force F is applied The first step is to consider just the mass m, and the forces acting on it (figure 8.9). These are the forces exerted by the two springs. The force exerted by the lower spring is as a result of that spring being stretched. The amount itis stretched is (x, ~x,). Thus136 MECHATRONICS my xf fe ey \, Fig. 8.8 Example Force exerted by upper spring] t m Force exerted by lower spring Fig. 8.9 Example 8.3 Electrical system building blocks the force is k(x, ~ x,). The force exerted by the upper spring j due to it being stretched by (x, ~ x,) and so is &,(x, — x). Thus ty net force acting on the mass is Net force = ke, —x,) — hy ~ x) This net force will cause the mass to have an acceleration. Hence ax ae (62 ~¥1) ~ kas — x2) But the force causing the extension of the lower spring is F. Thus FHkQ-x) Hence the equation can be written as a a th@s—m)=F ‘A motor is used to rotate a load. Devise a model and obtai the differential equation for it The model used can be that described by figure 8.6(a) an thus the model is that described by figure 8.6(b). The differenti equation is thus £0, 49 4 49 - 12 +eBsio-7 The basic building blocks of electrical systems are inductor capacitors and resistors. For an inductor the potential difference across it at any instant depends on the rate of change of currer (difat) through it api vel where L is the inductance. The direction of the potential differenc is in the opposite direction to the potential difference used to driv the current through the inductor, hence the term back e.m.f. Th equation can be rearranged to give tfvarBASIC SYSTEM MODELS 137 For a capacitor, the potential difference across it depends on the charge q on the capacitor plates at the instant concerned, ved c where C is the capacitance. Since the current / to or from the capacitor is the rate at which charge moves to or from the capacitor plates, ie. i = dg/dt, then the total charge q on the plates is given by qz= fiat and so » cJiat Alternatively, since v= q/C then For a resistor, the potential difference v across it at any instant depends on the current j through it v=Ri where R is the resistance. Both the inductor and capacitor store energy which can then be released at a later time. A resistor does not store energy but just dissipates it. The energy stored by an inductor when there is a current iis E= "LF The energy stored by a capacitor when there is a potential difference v across itis E="cy The power P dissipated by a resistor when there is a potential difference v across itis138 MECHATRONICS } Fig. 8.10 Node analysis Table 8.2 Electrical building blocks Building block Describing Energy stored or ~ equation Power dissipate, Inductor Capacitor Resistor i Paiva Table 8.2 summarises the equations defining the charac- teristics of the electrical building blocks when the input is current and the output is potential difference, Compare them with the equations given in table 8.1 for the mechanical system building blocks. 8.3.1 Building up a model for an electrical system The equations describing how the electrical building blocks can be combined are Kirchhoff's laws. These can be expressed as: Law 1: the total current flowing towards a junction is equal to the total current flowing from that junction, i.e. the algebraic sum of the currents at the junction is zero. Law 2: in a closed circuit or loop, the algebraic sum of the poten- tial differences across each part of the circuit is equal to the applied emf. A convenient way of using law 1 is called node analysis since the law is applied to each principal node of a circuit, a node being ¢ point of connection or junction between building blocks or elements and a principal node being one where three or mort branches of the circuit meet. A convenient way of using law 2 is called mesh analysis since the law is applied to each mesh, a mest being a closed path or loop which contains no other loop. To illustrate the use of these two methods of analysis tc generate relationships, consider the circuit shown in figure 8.10 All the components are resistors for this illustrative example. Wit! node analysis a principal node, point A on the figure, is picked ant the voltage at the node given a value v, with reference tc mi other principal node that has been picked as the reference. 1 thi: case it is convenient to pick node B as the reference, We thetFig. 8.11 Mesh analysis Applied 4 i fe voltage Fig. 8.12. Resistor-capacitor system BASIC SYSTEM MODELS 139 consider all the currents entering and leaving node A and thus, according the Kirchhoff’s first law, The current entering through R, is i, and since the potential difference across R, is (v, ~ v), then i,R, = v4 — v. The current through R, is i, and since the potential difference across R, is v, then i,R, = v,. The current i, passes through R, in series with R, and there is a potential difference of v, across the combination. Hence i,(R, + R,) = vq. Thus equating the currents gives V=VA_ YA, YA Rr Ra Rs +Re To illustrate the use of mesh analysis for the circuit in figure 8.10 we assume there are currents circulating in each mesh in the way shown in figure 8.11. Then Kirchhoff’s second law is applied to each mesh. Thus for the mesh with current i, circulating, since the current through R, is i, and that through R, is (i, -i,), then DR, Similarly for the mesh with current i, circulating, since there is no source of em, then veaRtG- O=1R, + OR, + ~ 1)R, We thus have two simultaneous equations which can be solved to obtain the two mesh currents and hence the currents through each branch of the circuit. In general, when the number of nodes in a circuit is less than the number of meshes it is easier to employ nodal analysis. Now consider a simple electrical system consisting of a resistor and capacitor in series, as shown in figure 8.12. Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the circuit loop gives v= Vet Ye where vp is the potential difference across the resistor and v, that across the capacitor. Since it is just a single loop the current 7 through all the circuit elements will be the same. If the output from the circuit is the potential difference across the capacitor, vo, then since v, = iR and i = C(dvoldt), v= RCE +6 This gives the relationship between the output v, and the input v140 MECHATRONICS Applies vokage Vt om Fig. 8.13 Resistor-inductor- capacitor system tC Fig. 8.14 Example and is a first order differential equation. Figure 8.13 shows a resistor—inductor~capacitor system, Kirchhoff’s second law is applied to this circuit loop, v tht Ve where vy is the potential difference across the resistor, ¥, the across the inductor and v, that across the capacitor, Since there, just a single loop the current i will be the same through all cireuy’ elements, If the output from the circuit is the potential differen, across the capacitor, v,, then since v, = iR and v, = L(di/dé) V=IR+LE +6 But i= C(dv,/ai) and so d@vcldt) __.d?ve dt de di di Hence 7 i 4 arc 4 7c4 ve ERCP +L CE + ¥e This is a second-order differential equation output, the potential difference across the inductor of v,, and the input v for the circuit shown in figure 8.14 Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the circuit loop, ‘ i To illustrate the above, consider the relationship between the { ! vot vy where vq is the potential difference across the resistor R and ¥, _ that across the inductor, Since vy = i v=iR+y, Since pyar then RvateuFig. 8.15 Example BASIC SYSTEM MODELS 144 As another example, consider the relationship between the output, the potential difference v; across the capacitor, and the input v for the circuit shown in figure 8.15 Using nodal analysis, node B is taken as the reference node and node A taken to be at a potential of v, relative to B. Applying Kirchhoff’s law 1 to node A gives ati, But dvs Joaarse® ROL But v= v,. Hence, with some rearrangement, dye veRC tye B [year The same answer could have been obtained by mesh analysis. 8.3.2 Electrical and mechanical analogies The building blocks for electrical and mechanical systems have many similarities. For example, the electrical resistor does not store energy but dissipates it with the current i through the resistor being given by i = v/R, where R is a constant, and the power P dissipated by P= IR. ‘The mechanical analogue of the resistor is the dashpot. It also does not store energy but dissipates it with the force F being related to the velocity v by F = cv, where c is a constant, and the power P dissipated by P = cv*. Both these sets of equations have similar forms. Comparing them, and taking the current as being analogous to the force, then the potential difference is analogous to the velocity and the dashpot constant ¢ to the reciprocal of the resistance, i.e. (I/R). These analogies between current and force, potential difference and velocity, hold for the other building blocks with the spring being analogous to442 MECHATRONICS The analogy between current and force is the one most often | used. However, another set of analogies can be drawn between potential difference and force. 8.4 Fluid system building In fluid flow systems there are three basic building blocks which blocks can be considered to be the equivalent of electrical resistance, capacitance and inductance, For such systems (figure 8.16) the | Input, Fluid system | Output. input, the equivalent of the electrical current, is the volumettic rate Volumetric | Dullding block [pressure of flow g, and the output, the equivalent of electrical potential rate of flow ditference difference, is pressure difference (p, - p,). Fluid systems can be considered to fall into two categories: hydraulic, where the fluid ig a liquid and is deemed to be incompressible; and pneumatic, where it is a gas which can be compressed and consequently show a density change Hydraulic resistance is the resistance to flow which occurs as a result of a liquid flowing through valves or changes in a pipe t diameter (figure 8.17). The relationship between the volume rate PAR —>P1 Sem) of flow of liquid g through the resistance element and the resulting ase pressure difference (p, ~ p,) is Fig. 8.16 Example Fig. 8.17 Hydraulic resistance a examples pi P.= Rg where R is a constant called the hydraulic resistance. The bigger the resistance the bigger the pressure difference for a given rate of flow. This equation, like that for the electrical resistance and Ohm’s law, assumes a linear relationship. Such hydrat © resistances occur with orderly flow through capillary tubes and porous plugs but non-linear resistances occur with flow through sharp-edged orifices or if flow is turbulent. Hydraulic capacitance is the term used to describe energy storage with a liquid where it is stored in the form of potential energy. A height of liquid in a container (figure 8.18), i.e. a so- called pressure head, is one form of such a storage. For such a capacitance, the rate of change of volume V in the container, ie. Vat, is equal to the difference between the volumetric rate at aq, bleh quid enters the container g, and the rate at which it leaves i Fig. 8.18 Hydraulic capacitance wv anna But Y= Ah, where A is the cross-sectional area of the container and h the height of liquid in it. Hence dh) dh But the pressure difference between the input and output .. P,Cross-section area A Fig. 8.19 Hydraulic inertance BASIC SYSTEM MODELS 143 where p = hpg with p being the liquid density and g the acceleration due to gravity. Thus, if the liquid is assumed to be incompressible, ie. its density does not change with pressure, _ 4 S@leg) _ A dp BA y= 08 ay The hydraulic capacitance C is defined as being aA C= oe Thus =c2 a-naCy Integration of this equation gives p=4fa —q2) dt Hydraulic inertance is the equivalent of inductance in electrical systems or a spring in mechanical systems. To accelerate a fluid and so increase its velocity a force is required. Consider a block of liquid of mass m (figure 8.19). The net force acting on the liquid is F-F,=pA-PA=@, pA where (p, ~ p,) is the pressure difference and A the cross-sectional area, This net force causes the mass to accelerate with an acceleration a, and so @~p)A=ma But a is the rate of change of velocity dv/dé, hence @1-p2yd =m But the mass of liquid concerned has a volume of AZ, where L is the length of the block of liquid or the distance between the points in the liquid where the pressures p, and p, are measured. If the liquid has a density p then m= ALp and so 1p = Ato144 MECHATRONICS But the volume rate of flow q = Av, hence 1 -p2)A =Lp a where the hydraulic inertance / is defined as. Lp 14 With pneumatic systems the three basic building blocks are, as with hydraulic systems, resistance, capacitance and inertance, 3 However, gases differ from liquids in being compressible, ie. a” change in pressure causes a change in volume and hence density. Pneumatic resistance R is defined in terms of the mass rate of flow ‘in (note that the dot above the m is used to indicate that the symbol refers to the mass rate of flow and not just the mass) and the pressure difference (p, ~ p,) as P.~ P= Rin Pneumatic capacitance C is due to the compressibility of gas, and is comparable to the way in which the compression. . spring stores energy. If there is a mass rate of flow 7, entering a con- tainer of volume V and a mass rate of flow of 7, leaving it, then the rate at which the mass in the container is changing is (in — tna). Tf the gas in the container has a density p then the rate of change of mass in the container is der) dt Rate of change of mass in containei But, because a gas can be compressed, both p and can vary with | time, Hence yb Rate of change of mass in container = p Since (dV/dt) = (Vidp)(dp/at) and, for an ideal gas, pV = mRT with consequently p = (m/V)RT = pRT and dp/ds = (/RT)(dp/dt), then ale alt rate of change of mass in container =p + * se| BASIC SYSTEMMODELS 145 where R is the gas constant and T the temperature, assumed to be constant, on the Kelvin scale. Thus a Be ining = (ph The pneumatic capacitance due to the change in volume of the container C, is defined as C= and the pneumatic capacitance due to the compress gas C, as Hence . 4 fi tn = (C40) PB or 1 pimp = oA Jlen ~rnadar Pneumatic inertance is due to the pressure drop necessary to accelerate a block of gas. According to Newton’s second law the net force is ma = d(mv)/dt. Since the force is provided: by the pressure difference (p, ~ p,), then if A is the cross-sectional area of the block of gas being accelerated d(nv) de (@1-p2)A But m, the mass of the gas being accelerated, is pLA with p being the gas density and Z the length of the block of gas being accelerated, But the volume rate of flow q = Av, where v is the velocity. Thus mv = pLad= plq and so @1~pry4 =1 200146 MECHATRONICS, Table 8.3 Hydraulic and pneumatic building blocks Building blocks Describing equation Energy stored or ~ power dissipate, rer asian Hydraulic Inertance 1 (cp: ~ps)ae bahi¢ Capacitance E=1cp-p,P Resistance P=}1-ps)? Pneumatic Inertance in=t fer-pyat B= jm? Capacitance n=CWP=P) = Levy, ps)? aw Resistance P= hop) But f= pq and so Pi-pa= PrePa at with the pneumatic inertance / being Table 8.3 shows the basic characteristics of the fluid building blocks, both hydraulic and pneumatic. For hydraulics the volume- tric rate of flow and for pneumatics the mass rate of flow are analogous to the electrical current in an electric system, For both hydraulics and pneumatics the pressure difference is analogous to the potential difference in electrical systems. Compare the table with table 8.2. Hydraulic and pneumatic inertance and capacitance are both energy storage elements; hydraulic and pneumatic resistance are both energy dissipators. 8.4.1 Building up a model for a fluid system Figure 8.20 shows a simple hydraulic system, a liquid entering .d leaving a container. Such a system can be considered to consist of—h. ps expe Fig. 8.20 A fluid system Constriction Area A resistance R =, yeh x Displacement Fig. 8.21 A pneumatic system BASIC SYSTEM MODELS 147 ‘a capacitor, the liquid in the container, with a resistor, the valve, Inertance can be neglected since flow rates change only very slowly. For the capacitor we can write =c2 N- nace The rate at which liquid leaves the container g, equals the rate at which it leaves the valve, Thus for the resistor PP. = Ra The pressure difference (p, ~ p,) is the pressure due to the height of liquid in the container and is thus equal to hpg. Thus sub- stituting for q, in the first equation gives Apg n-"R and, since C= Alpg, This equation describes how the height of liquid in the container depends on the rate of input of liquid into the container. A bellows is an example of a simple pneumatic system (figure 8.21), Resistance is provided by a constriction which restricts the rate of flow of gas into the bellows and capacitance is provided by the bellows itself. Inertance can be neglected since the flow rate changes only slowly. ‘The mass flow rate 7 into the bellows is given by P.~P2= Rin where p; is the pressure prior to the constriction and p, the pres- sure after the constriction, i.e. the pressure in the bellows. All the gas that flows into the bellows remains in the bellows, there being no exit from the bellows. The capacitance of the bellows is given by But fn, is the mass flow rate zm given by the equation for the resistance and since there is no exit of gas from the bellows 7, is zero. Thus dp2 = Cit Cay148 =MECHATRONICS Fig. 8.22 Example Hence: g pPi=RCi +02) PP +p This equation describes how the pressure in the bellows p, varies with time when there is an input of a pressure p, The bellows expands or contracts as a result of pressure changes inside it. Bellows are just a form of spring and so we can write F = he for the relationship between the force F causing an expansion or contraction and the resulting displacement x, where is the spring constant for the bellows. But the force F depends on the pressure p,, with p, = F/A where A is the cross-sectional area of the bellows. Thus p,4 = F = kx. Hence substituting for p, in the above equation gives pi=RC +Cayh By Hy This equation, a first-order differential equation, describes how the extension or contraction x of the bellows changes with time when there is an input of a pressure p,. The pneumatic capacitance due to the change in volume of the container C, is p dV/dp, and since = Ax, C, is pA dx/dp,, But for the bellows p,A = kx, thus =pA—az__ PAP C= PA C;, the pneumatic capacitance due to the compressibility of the air, is VIRT= AWiRT. The following illustrates how, for the hydraulic system shown in figure 8.22, relationships can be derived which describe how the heights of the liquids in the two containers will change with time, With this model inertance is neglected Container 1 is a capacitor and thus =c,2 D-Hars | lle Area A, Aiea Ay iBASIC SYSTEMMODELS 149 where p = h,pg and C, =A, /pg and so -g =A 1-H AT The rate at which liquid leaves the container q, equals the rate at which it leaves the valve R,. Thus for the resistor, Pi Pr = Rid ‘The pressures are h,pg and h,pg. Thus (hy ~ hype = Ride Using the value of g, given by this equation and substituting it into the earlier equation gives This equation describes how the height of the liquid in container 1 depends on the input rate of flow. For container 2 a similar set of equations can be derived. Thus for the capacitor C, g-43= Cry where p= h,pg and C, = A,/pg and so The rate at which liquid leaves the container q, equals the rate at which it leaves the valve R,, Thus for the resistor, Pr -0= Rigs This assumes that the liquid exits into the atmosphere. Thus, using the value of g, given by this equation and substituting it into the earlier equation gives npg _hnpg _ 4 din PR, “dt Substituting for g, in this equation using the value given by the equation derived for the first container gives150 MECHATRONICS 8.5 Thermal system building blocks Gu-m)pg Iape _ 4 dn Ri Ry? de This equation describes how the height of liquid in containe: changes. There are only two basic building blocks for thermal system resistance and capacitance, There is a net flow of heat betwe two points if there is a temperature difference between them electrical equivalent of this is that there is only a net curren between two points if there is a potential difference v betwe them, the relationship between the current and potential differen being i = wR, where R is the electrical resistance between t points. A similar relationship can be used to define therm resistance R. If q is the rate of flow of heat and (7, ~ T) ¢ temperature difference, then -B-N “TR The value of the resistance depends on the mode of heat transfe In the case of conduction through a solid, for unidirection conduction Ti-Tr = Ak where A is the cross-sectional area of the material through whi the heat is being conducted and Z the length of material betwei the points at which the temperatures are 7, and 7, kis the therm conductivity. Hence, with this mode of heat transfer, -£ Rk When the mode of heat transfer is convection, as with liquids at ‘gases, then q=AWT,~T)) where A is the surface area across which there is the temperatuy difference and h is the coefficient of heat transfer. Thus, with th mode of heat transfer, 1 Roh Thermal capacitance is a measure of the store of interni | BASIC SYSTEMMODELS 151 energy in a system, Thus, if the rate of flow of heat into a system is 4g, and the rate of flow out is q,, then Rate of change of internal energy = 4, ~ 4, ‘An increase in internal energy means an increase in temperature. Since Internal energy change = me x change in temperature where m is the mass and c the specific heat capacity, then Rate of change of internal energy = me x rate of change of temperature Thus agra mest where d7/dt is the rate of change of temperature. This equation can be written as =car N-2=CF where Cis the thermal capacitance and so C= me, Table 8.5 gives a summary of the thermal building blocks. Table 8.4 Thermal building blocks Building block Describing ‘Energy stored equation Capacitance w-q=col Baer Resistance 8.5.1 Building up a model for a thermal system Consider a thermometer at temperature 7 which has just been inserted into a liquid at temperature 7, (figure 8.23). If the thermal resistance to heat flow from the liquid to the thermometer is R then, T-T R152 MECHATRONICS t® “s Fig. 8.24 Example Where q is the net rate of heat flow from liquid to thermomete| The thermal capacitance C of the thermometer is given bw the equation ' =cal i a-n=c# i Since there is only a net flow of heat from the liquid to the therm. meter, q, =9 and q,= 0. Thus =cat OE Substituting this value of g in the earlier equation gives a7 _T-T aR Rearranging this equation gives ReTa rer, This equation, a first-order differential equation, describes how the temperature indicated by the thermometer 7 will vary with time when the thermometer is inserted into a hot liquid. In the above thermal system the parameters have ven considered to be lumped. This means, for example, that there has been assumed to be just one temperature for the thermometer and just one for the liquid, i. the temperatures are only functions of ie and not position within a body. To illustrate the above consider figure 8.24 which shows a thermal system consisting of an electric fire in a room. The fire emits heat at the rate g, and the room loses heat at the rate g, Assuming that the air in the room is at a uniform temperature T and that there is no heat storage in the walls of the room, derive an equation describing how the room temperature will change with time. If the air in the room has a thermal capacity C then -q=cil n-n ACE If the temperature inside the room is 7’ and that outside the room T, then =I-To naz where R is the resistivity of the walls. Substituting for g, givesBASIC SYSTEM MODELS 153 i i Hence rests T=Rqi4+To Problems 1 Derive an equation relating the input, force F, with the output, displacement x, for the systems described by figure 8.25 4 | ¢ | Mass F ~F fa) Displacement x. Fig. 8.25 Problem 1 (0) 2 Propose a model for a stepped shaft (i.e. a shaft where there is a change in diameter) used to rotate a mass and derive an equation relating the input torque and the angular rotation, You may neglect damping, c 3 Derive the relationship between the output, the potential 4h difference across the resistor R of v,, and the input v for the ff» circuit shown in figure 8.26 which has a resistor in series with vt Al] va a capacitor. 4 Derive the relationship between the output, the potential difference across the resistor R of v,, and the input v for the Fig. 8.28 Problem 3 series LCR circuit shown in figure 8.27 vi al ys Derive the relationship between the output, the potential difference across the capacitor C of ve, and the input v for the circuit shown in figure 8.28 Displacement x Fig. 8.27 Problem 4 AC Fig, 8.28 Problem 5154 MECHATRONICS Fig. 8.29 Problem 6 Fig. 8.30 Problem 8 Fig. 8.31 Problem 10 6 Derive the relationship between the height /, and time for thy hydraulic system shown in figure 8,29. Neglect inertance. 4 Constant Area A, 4 head . | supply ; hy Aree) 4 = nf | 4 >< 1 } 7 Ahot object, capacitance C, and temperature T cools in a large 2 room at temperature 7,, If the thermal system has a resistance | R derive an equation describing how the temperature of the hot object changes with time and give an electrical analogue of the system, 8 Figure 8.30 shows a thermal system involving two compart ments, with one containing a heater, If the temperature of the compartment containing the heater is 7,, the temperature of the other compartment 7; and the temperature surrounding the compartments 7, develop equations describing how the temperatures 7, and 7, will vary with time, All the walls of the containers have the same resistance and negligible capacity The two containers have the same capacity C. 9 Derive the differential equation relating the pressure input > a diaphragm actuator (as in figure 5.18) to the displaceme x of the stem 10 Derive the differential equation for a motor driving a load through a gear system (figure 8.31) which relates the angular displacement of the load with time. Motor [-E Gear ration mal!