RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Idea of a Relation Consider the mapping below;

A relation is a rule that help us to match two x a b c d
different sets. Among the two sets, the first set, ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
usually represented by x is called the domain y q r s t
and the second set, usually represented by y is As ordered pairs, we have (a, q), (b, r), (c, s)
called co – domain. and (d, t)

Consider the rule “is one – third of” for the Here, the first number is an element of the
domain {6, 12, 33, 45}, the co-domain is domain and the second number, the
obtained by planting the elements of the corresponding element in the range.
domain in the rule. Thus, the rule “is one –
third of” is mathematically expressed as : Exercises 4.1
y= x 1. If A = {10, 14, 12} and B = {2, 3, 4, 5}.
Draw an arrow diagram to show the relation
When x = 6, y = (6) = 2
“has as factor” from set A to set B. Also, write
When x = 12, y = (12) = 4 the relation as a set of ordered pairs of
When x = 33, y = (33) = 11 numbers.

When x = 45, y = (45) = 15 2. Given that set P = {8, 10, 14} ans Q = {4, 5,
Co domain = {2, 4, 11, 15} 7}. The relation from set P to set Q is “a factor
of”. Represent the above relation by using:
This is shown in the diagram below: i. an arrow diagram;
x y ii. ordered pairs.

( , ( , 3. Draw an arrow diagram to represent R,

where R = {(3, 2), (5, 2), (5, 4), (7, 2), (7, 4),
(7, 6).
x 6 12 33 45
OR 4. Let A = {2, 4, 7} and B = {1, 3} be a set and
y relation R = {(2, 1), (2, 3), (4, 1), (4, 3), (7, 1),
2 4 11 15
(7, 3)}, then draw an arrow diagram.
Relations as Ordered Pairs
In relations, each elements of the domain has a Range
corresponding element in the range. When each The domain of a relation is the set of x –
element in the domain is paired with its coordinates of the ordered pairs and the range
respective element of the range, we have of the relation is the set of y coordinates of the
ordered pairs: ordered pairs.
 y= x–5
x y Co- domain = {1, 3, 5, 15}
Domain is = {9, 12, 15}
( , ( , Let x represent the elements of the domain
From the rule, y = x – 5,
When x = 3, y = (9) – 5 = 1
Range
When x = 4, y = (12) – 5 = 3
The range is always a subset of the codomain.
When x = 6, y = (15) – 5 = 5
Worked Example The range of the relation is {1, 3, 5}
1. A relation is defined by the rule “the square
of the odd prime factors of 30”. Exercises 4.2
i. Represent this in the diagram, for the Determine the range;
codomain {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36} 1. Rule: “one – fifth decreased by twenty”
ii. From the diagram, find the range. Domain = * , , , +
2. Rule: “ ”
Solution Domain = * , , , , +
i. Odd prime factors of 30 = {2, 3, 5} 3. Rule: “three less than one – fourth”, Domain
Domain = {2, 3, 5} =* , , , +

“the square of the odd prime factors of 30”. Types of Relations

= {4, 9, 16} 1. One – to – one Relation
It is the type of relation in which each element
of the domain matches to only one element of
( + the co-domain. This is represented as in the
diagram below for the relation “is increased by
( ) four”
x y
ii. Range = {4, 9, 16}
( , ( ,
2. Find the range given the following;
8
Rule: „5 less than two - thirds of’
Domain = {multiples of 3 from 9 to 15}
2. One – to – many Relations
Co-domain = {factors of 15}
It is the type of relation in which one or more
element(s) of the domain matches to many
Solution
elements in the co-domain. This is
2. Rule = “5 less than two- thirds of”
diagrammatically represented as shown below 2. x y
for the relation “is square root of”;
( , ( +

. / ( ,
3. x y

3. Many – to – one Relation 8

. / ( ,
It is the type of relation in which more than one
element of the domain match to one element of
4. x y
the co-domain. This is represented in the
diagram below for the relation “is a product of”
x y : ; ( ,

( , . /
B. Identify the rule of relations;
1. x y
Domain Co-domain

( + ( +
4. Many – to – many Relations
It is the type of relation in which more than one
member of the domain match to many members 2. x y
of the co-domain as shown below for the
relation, “is less than” ( , ( ,

x y
3.
( + ( +
( , ( ,
Domain Co-domain 8

4.
Exercises 4.3
Identify the type of relation:
8
1. ( , ( ,
x y

( , ( ,
Finding the Domain and Co-domain domain. Draw a diagram of the relation.
Given the rule of a relation and the domain, the
co-domain can be found. Similarly, with a Solution
given rule and co-domain, the domain can also Rule =“is one-third of”
be found. Domain ={12, 15, 18, 24},
According to the rule, y = . /,
Likewise, given the rule and the co-domain, the
domain can as well be found. For example, if when x = 12, y = × 12 = 4,
the rule of a relation is given as “is 5 times of” when x = 15, y = × 15 = 5
and the co-domain is * , , , +, then it
when x = 18, y = × 18 = 6,
means that, 5 times a certain group of numbers
will give the respective elements of the co- when x = 24, y = × 24 = 7 ,
domain. The rule is mathematically expressed The co-domain = {4, 5, 6, 7} respectively.
as, y = 5x,⇒ x = x y

Put the elements of the codomain in x = to ( , ( ,

8
obtain the elements of the domain.
When y = 20, x = =4
3. The rule of a relation is “four exponent of”.
When y = 30, x = =6 If the domain = {1, 2, 3, 4}, find the co-domain
When y = 40, x = =8 and show the relation in a diagram.
When y = 50, x = = 10
Solution
The rule is “is four exponent of” : y = 4x
Domain = {4, 6, 8, 10} Domain is * , , , 8, , +.
Codomain = {20, 30, 40, 50} Let x represent the elements of the domain.
Rule : y = 4x,
This can be represented diagrammatically When x = 1, y = 4 = 4
as; When x = 2, y = 42 = 16
“5 times of” When x = 3, y = 43 = 64
x y When x = 4, y = 44 = 256

( , ( ,
8
( , ( ,

Worked Examples
1. The rule of a relation is “is one-third of”. Domain Co-domain
Given the domain, {12, 15, 18, 24}, find the co-
Exercises 4.4
1. The rule of a relation is “is four less than
twice”. Given the domain {5, 6, 7, 11, 13}, ( , . /
find the co-domain. Draw a diagram of the
relation. Function
2. Given the domain {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, find the
co-domain, if the rule of the relation is “five
more than thrice”. Represent the relation in a . / ( ,
diagram.
Not a function
3. Given the co domain {13, 14, 15, 17} for the
relation “is seven more than of”;
Function Notation
i. find the respective elements of the domain,
In mathematics, functions are often given by
ii. show the diagram of the relation
rules or equations to define the relationships
between two or more variables. For example,
4. The co-domain of a relation is {25, 49, 81,
the equation y = 2x defines the set of ordered
100}. If the rule of the relation is “is a square
pairs such that the y – value is twice the x –
of”, determine the domain of the relation, for
value.
all positive integers and draw a diagram of the
relation.
When a function is defined by an equation, a
function notation is used. For example, the
Functions
equation y = 2x can be written in function
A function is a special kind of relation in which
notation as: f(x) = 2x, where f is the name of the
each element of the domain matches to one and
function, x is an input from the domain of the
only one element of the co – domain. Thus,
function, and f(x) is the function value (y –
function f from set x to a set y is a
axis) corresponding to x.
correspondence that assigns to each element of
x, exactly one element of y. For example, to
f(x) is read as “f of x” or the “value of the
each book in the library, there corresponds a
function f at x”.
number of pages in the book and to each human
being there corresponds a birth date. The names of functions are often given by a
lowercase or uppercase letters, such as f, g, h, p,
Each correspondence in the above examples k and M.
involves two sets x and y.
 x denotes the set of books in the library Representation of Functions
and y, the number of pages. The element 1. Formulas (rule).
of x is the argument of f. The set y is the 2. Ordered pairs (x, y).
domain of the function. 3. Set builder notations. e.g. {x, y: x + y = 6}
Note: Solution
As ordered pairs, no two different pairs can f(x) = 3x + 7
have the same x coordinate. f(y) = 3y + 7
For one – to – one function;
Types of Function f(x) = f(y) ⇒ x = y
One – to– one Function 3x + 7 = 3y + 7
A one to one (injective) function f from set X to 3x = 3y
set Y is a function such that x in X is related to x=y
a different y in Y. The funcition is one – to – one.

In a one – to – one function, each member of

2. Show that the function f(x) = is one – to
the domain corresponds to just one member of
the range, and each member of the range one.
corresponds to just one member of the domain.
Functions that are one – to – one are called Solution
invertible functions. f(x) =
f(y) =
One to one simply means we never get the
same “y” value twice. For one – to – one function
f(x) = f(y) ⇒ x = y
Illustrative Examples =
The function below is one – one.
(x – 3) (y + 2) = (x + 2) (y – 3)
xy + 2x – 3y – 6 = xy – 3x + 2y – 6
2x – 3y = – 3x + 2y
( ,
2x + 3x = 3y + 2y
5x = 5y
( )
This function below is not one – one. x=y
The functuion is one- to – one.
( + . /
3. Why is f : R → R given by f(x) = x2 not a one
This is because as ordered pairs, we have: – to – one?
(1, a), (2, a), (3, b). “a” appears twice as y
Solution
value and that is a violation of the one – to –
f(x) = x2
one rule.
f(y) = y2
Proof of one - to - one functions
Worked Examples For one – to – one function;
1. If f : R →R is given by f(x) = 3x + 7, proof it f(x) = f(y) ⇒ x = y
is one to one. x2 = y2
x = y or x = - y at most one point. For example, the function
x = - y violates the definition of onoe – to – one whose graph is sketched below is not one – to –
function. Therefore f(x) = x2 is not one to one. one, since a ≠ b, but f(a) = f(b). The horizontal
line y = f(a), intersects the curve in more than
4. Given that A = {3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 3, 5, 6} one point, and as such y = f(x ) is not a one – to
Show that f : A → B for f (x) = 2x – 5 is a one – one function.
to one mapping. y
y= f(x)
Solution y = f(a)

A = {3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 3, 5, 6}

f (3) = 2(3) – 5 = 1
f (4) = 2(4) – 5 = 3 f(a) f(b)
f (5) = 2(5) – 5 = 5
x
a b
f(x) = 2x - 5
( + ( , Exercises 4.6
1. If f(x) = 3x + 2, proof graphically and
algebraically that f is one – to – one.
A B
As ordered pairs, the function can be expressed 2. If g(x) = x2 – 3, proof graphically and
as (3, 1), (4, 3), (5, 5). Since no y value appears algebraically that g is not one – to – one.
twice, the function, f(x) = 2x – 5 is a one – to –
one function. Onto Functions
A function f : X →Y is said to be onto
Exercises 4.5 (subjective) if for every y in Y, there is an x in
Determine whether f is one – to one. X such that f(x) = y. This can be restated as a
1. f(x) = 3x – 7 2. f(x) = 3 function f from a set X to a set Y is surjective
2
3. f(x) = x – 9 4. f(x) = x2 + 4 (or onto) if every element y in Y has a
5. f(x) = 2x3 – 4 6. f(x) = corresponding element x in X, such that f(x) = y

B. Determine whether f is one – to one. Generally, a function is onto when its image
1. f(x) = 3
2. f(x) = - x + 3x – 22 equals to its range, meaning all elements in the
co domain are used .i. e. f(X) = Y.
3. f(x) = √ 4. f(x) = √
5. f(x) = √ 5. f(x) = ( )
: ; ( +
Horizontal Line Test for One – to – one
A function f is one – to – one if and only if A Onto B
every horizontal line intersects the graph of f in
The fig I above represents a function that is 6.
onto because all elements in B are used.
( + ( ,
Co domain = (4, 2, 5) and Range = (4, 2, 5)
Co domain = Range
Increasing Function
A function is increasing when the y – value
4 5 increases as the x – value increases.
x
( )
A “Not onto” B
f(x2)
The fig II. above represents a function that is +
not unto because all elements in B are not used. f(x1)

Co domain = (4, 8, 2, 5, 1), Range = (4, 2, 5)

x
Co domain ≠ Range x1 x2
+
Exercises 4.7
Which of the following diagrams represents If we can‟t plot the graph to see whether it is
a one to one function or onto function or increasing or decreasing, then we need an
both? algebra test.
1.
( + . / For a function y = f(x);
When x1 < x2 then f(x1) ≤ f(x2), then the function
2. is an increasing function..
( + ( + When x1 < x2 then f(x1) < f(x2), then the function
is strictly increasing function.

3. A function that is increasing throughout its

: ; ( +
domain is one – to – one.
A function may also increase within a certain
4. interval.
( + ( , y
f(x)
5.

: ; ( ,
x
Interval
Decreasing Function 2. f is decreasing on I if f(a) > f(b) for all a < b
A function is decreasing when the y – value on I.
decreases as the x –value increases. 3. f is constant on I if f(a) = f(b) for all a and b
on I.
x

Note
1. A function is increasing on an interval if it
f(x1 f(x) goes “uphill” from left to right.
- 2. A function is decreasing on an interval if it
)f(x2
) goes “downhill” from left to right.
x1 x2 x
3. A function is constant on an interval if it is
+
“level” or “flat”.
For a function y = f(x);
When x1 < x2 then f(x1) ≥ f(x2), then the function Even Functions
is a decreasing function.. A function f is even if the graph of f is
symmetric with respect to the y – axis. This
When x1 < x2 then f(x1) > f(x2), then the function means the graph remains unchanged after
is strictly decreasing function. reflection about the y – axis.
A function that is decreasing throughout its
domain is one – to – one. f(x) = x2 is an example of an even function.
A function may also decrease within a certain
interval.

Constant Function
A constant function is a horizontal line.
y
Algebraically, f is even if and only if f(-x) = f(x)
C f(x) = C or f(x) – f(-x) = 0, for all x in the domain of f.
This test can also be done with numbers. If f(x)
and f(-x) gives the same value , then the
x x function is even.
2
Intervals over which a function is Increasing, Other examples of even functions are /x/, x4,
Decreasing or Constant. cos x, cosh (x)
Let I be an open interval in the domain of a
function, f. then; Odd Functions
1. f is increasing on I if f(a) < f(b) for all a < b A function, f is odd if the graph of f has
on I. rotational symmetry with respect to origin. This
means that its graph remains unchanged after
rotation of 1800 about the origin. Algebraically, Therefore, the function is even.
f is odd if and only if f(-x) =
-f(x) for all x in the domain of f. Method 3
f(x) = -3x2 + 4
f(x) = x3 is an example of an odd function. f(2) = -3(2)2 + 4 = -8
f(-2) = -3(-2)2 + 4 = -8
f(2) = f(-2) = -8
The function is even.

2. Determine algebraically whether f(x) = 2x3 –

4x is even, odd or neither.
Algebraically, f is odd if and only if f(-x) =
-f(x) or f(x) + f(-x) = 0, for all x in the domain of f. Solution
Method 1
This test can also be done with numbers. If f(x) f(x) = 2x3 – 4x
and f(-x) gives the same value, but opposite f(-x) = 2(-x3) – 4(-x)
signs then the function is odd. = -2x3 + 4x

Other examples of odd functions are x, x3, sin x, f(x) ≠ f(-x)

sinh (x) or any linear combination of these. 2x3 – 4x ≠ -2x3 + 4x
But all the signs switched. Therefore, f(x) is
Worked Examples odd.
1. Determine algebraically whether f(x) = -3x2 +
4 is even, odd or neither.
Method 2
f(x) + f(-x) = 0 is odd
Solution f(x) = 2x3 – 4x
Method 1 f(-x) = 2(-x3) – 4(-x)
f(x) = -3x2 + 4
= -2x3 + 4x
f(-x) = -3(-x)2 + 4
f(-x) = -3x2 + 4
f(x) + f(-x) = [2x3 – 4x] + [-2x3 + 4x] = 0
⇒ f(x) = f(-x) = -3x2 + 4
Therefore, f(x) is odd.
Therefore, the function is even.
Method 3
Method 2 f(x) = 2x3 – 4x
f(x) – f(-x) = 0 is even f(-3) = 2(-33) – 4(-3)
f(x) = -3x2 + 4 f(-3) = -54 + 12
f(-x) = -3(-x)2 + 4 f(-3) = - 42
= -3x2 + 4
f(x) – f(-x) = [-3x2 + 4] – [-3x2 + 4] = 0 f(3) = 2(33) – 4(3)
= 54 – 12 a. f(x) = 3x4 – 2x2 + 5
= 42 f(-x) = 3(-x)4 – 2(-x)2 + 5
= 3x4 – 2x2 + 5
f(3) + f(-3) = 42 – 42 = 0 ⇒ f(x) = f(-x) = 3x4 – 2x2 + 5
Therefore, f(x) is odd. Therefore, f(x) is even.

3. Determine algebraically whether f(x) = 2x3 - b. f(x) = 2x5 – 7x3 + 4x

3x2 – 4x + 4 is even, odd or neither. f(-x) = 2(-x)5 – 7(x)3 + 4(-x)
f(-x) = -2x5 + 7x3– 4x
Solution
f(x) = 2x3 -3x2 – 4x + 4 f(x) + f(-x) = [2x5 – 7x3 + 4x] + [-2x5 + 7x3 – 4x]
f(-x) = 2(-x)3 -3(-x)2 – 4(-x) + 4 =0
= -2x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 4 Therefore, f(x) = 2x5 – 7x3 + 4x is an odd
function.
f(x) ≠ f(-x)
2x3 -3x2 – 4x + 4 ≠ -2x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 4 c. f(x) = x3 – x2
So the function is not even. f(-x) = (-x3 ) – (-x)2
f(-x) = - x3 – x2
Comparing f(x) and f(-x), the signs are not Comparing f(x) and f(-x),
switched. Therefore the function is not odd. f(x) ≠ f(-x). Therefore , the function is not even.
Also, f(x) + f(-x) ≠ 0, therefore the function is
Method 3 not odd.
f(x) = 2x3 – 3x2 – 4x + 4
f(-2) = 2(-2)3 –3(-2)2 – 4(-2) + 4 Exercises 4.8
= -16 – 12 + 8 + 4 Determine algebraically whether f(x) is even,
= -16 odd or neither.
1. f(x) = 2. f(x) = x6 + x4 – x2
3 2
f(2) = 2(2) – 3(2) – 4(2) + 4 3. f(x)= x /x/ 4. f(x) = /x/ – 1
= 16 – 12– 8 + 4
= -32 5. f(x) = 6. f(x) =
f(x) is neither even nor odd.
B. Determine whether f is even, odd, or
4. Determine whether f(x) is even, odd or neither even nor odd.
neither. 1. f(x) = 5x3 +2x 6. f(x) = 7x5 – 4 x3
a. f(x) =3x4 – 2x2 + 5 2. f(x) = 8x3 +3x2 7. f(x) = 12
b. f(x) = 2x5 – 7x3 + 4x 3. f(x) = 3x + 2x – 5 8. f(x) = 3x2 – 5x + 1
4

c. f(x) = x3 – x2 4. f(x) = x3 – 9. f(x) √

5. f(x) = √
Solution
Linear Function Worked Examples
A function that can be written in the form: Determine if the function is linear, quadratic or
f(x) = mx + c is a linear function. constant.
1. The domain of every linear function is R. 1. f(x) = - 4 2. f(x) = x2 + 3x + 2
2. The range is also R. 3. f(x) = 7 – 2x 4. f(x) =
3. The graph is a straight line with gradient m
and y – intercept (0, c).
Solution
1. f(x) = - 4 is a constant function because it is
written in the form f(x) = c , where c = - 4

2. f(x) = x2 + 3x + 2 is a quadratic function

because it is of the form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c

3. f(x) = 7 – 2x is a linear function because it

Quadratic Function
is written in the form f(x) = mx + c. The
A function that can be written in the form:
function can also be written as f(x) = -2x + 7
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c , where a, b and c are
where m = -2 and c = 7.
constants and a ≠0 . The graph of a quadratic
function is in the shape of a parabola. The
4. f(x) = is a linear function because it is
leading coefficient, a, determines the direction
of the parabola. written in the form f(x) = mx + c. The function
can also be written as f(x) = x + where m =
If a > 0, the parabola opens upward. In normal and c = 1.
language, it is said to have a ∪ shaped curve or
a minimum curve. For example, f(x) = x2 Exercises 4.9
Determine if the function is linear, quadratic
If a < 0, the parabola opens downward. In or constant,
normal language, it is said to have an ∩ shaped 1. f(x) = -x2+ 4x + 12 2. f(x) = 2x2+ 3x + 11
curve or a maximum curve. For eg. f(x) = -x2 3. f(x) = - 3x – 7 4. f(x) = -x – 3
a<0 a>0 5. f(x) = -x2+ 4x + 12 6. f(x) =
Maximum curve Minimum curve
7. f(x) = + 8. f(x) = –3
9. f(x) = x + 10. f(x) = √

Constant Functions
1. The domain of every quadratic function is R. A constant function is a function f that is given
2. The range is [k, ) if a > 0 and (- , k] if by f(x) = c, where c is a constant (real number).
a < 0, where k is the y – coordinate of the 1. The domain of every constant function is R
vertex. 2. The range is a singleton: {c}
3. The graph is a horizontal line whose y – The principal square root function , denoted by
intercept (0, c). sqrt, is the function given by;
y Sqrt (x) = √
1. The domain of a square root function is [0,
C f(x) = C )
2. The range is also [0, ).

x x x Exponential Function
1 2 Let b be a positive real number different from
Polynomial Functions 1. The exponential function with base b,
A function f given by f(x) = anxn + an - 1 xn - 1 denoted by expb, is the function given by;
+… + a1x + a0, where a0, a1…an are constants expb (x) = bx
with an ≠ 0, is called a polynomial function of 1. The domain of every exponential function is R.
degree n. 2. The range of every exponential function is
(0, ).
If n = 0, f is a constant function. 3. The y – intercept of the graph of every
If n = 1, f is a linear function. exponential function is (0, 1). This is because
If n = 2, f is a quadratic function. b0 = 1.
1. The domain of every polynomial function is R.
2. The are three possibilities for the range Graphs of Function
a. if the degree is odd, then the range of f is R. Every graph represents a set of ordered pairs,
b. if the degree is even and positive, then; but not every graph is a graph of a function. For
i. ran(f) = [k, ) if an > 0; example, the circle below is not a graph of a
ii. ran(f) = (- , k] if an < 0; function.
where k is the y – coordinate of the lower point y

for case (i) or the highest point for case (ii), of 3

the graph, to be treated later. 2

1
Rational Functions x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
A rational function is a function f in the form; -1
( ) -2
f(x) = ;
( )
-3
where p and q are polynomial functions.
e.g. f(x) = This is because the ordered pairs (0, 3) and
(0, -3) on the graph have the same first
Square - root Function coordinate and different second coordinate.
The principal square root of x , denoted by √ , is
defined to be the positive square root of x. On the other hand, the graph below represents a
function.
 y
4.
y = 2x - 1
x

5.
y

This is because no two ordered pairs have the x

same x coordinate.

Identifying the Graph of a Function 6. y

The Vertical Line Test
If there is a vertical line that crosses a graph
twice (or more), then we have two points (or
x
more) with the same x coordinate and different
y coordinate and so the graph is not a graph of a
function. If every possible vertical line does not
cross the graph more than once, then the graph
is a graph of a function. Domain and Range of a Function
Consider a function defined by the equation
Worked Examples y = f(x). The domain of f is the set of all x –
Which of the following is a graph of a values that when substituted into the function,
function? produce a real number. The range of f is the set
y
1. of all y – values corresponding to the values of
x in the domain.

x
To find the domain of a function defined by
y = f(x);
y I. Exclude values of x that make the
2. denominator of a fraction zero.
x II. Exclude the value of x that makes a negative
value within the square root. That is to say that
y the number under a root sign must be positive.
3.
Worked Examples
x
Type 1 : Without root sign
1. Find the domain of the function and write
your answer in interval notation.
a. f(x) = b. h(x) = c. g(t) = t2 – 3t
Solution ii. g(x) =
a. The function will be undefined when the
x–2=0
denominator is zero.
x=2
2x – 1 = 0
When x = 2, g(x) ceases to exist.
2x = 1
Therefore, the domain of g(x) is all real
x= numbers except x = 2
Domain of f is {x : x R, x ≠ } Domain of g is {x : x R, x ≠ 2}

Interval notation : . , /∪. , / Type 2 : Domain of a Squqre Root Function

I. Set the expression inside the square root
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 greater than or equal to zero.
II. Solve the equation found in step I. In some
b. The function will be undefined when the cases, divide through by a negative number to
denominator is zero. reverse the direction of the inequality.
But the quantity x2 is greater than or equal to 0
for all real numbers x, and the number 9 is Worked Examples
positive. The denominator of the function, 1. Find the domain of the function k(t) = √
h(x) = can never be zero.
The domain is the set of all real numbers. Solution
Domain of h is {x : x R} 1. The function defined by k(t) = √ will
not be a real number when t + 4 is negative;
Interval notation : ( , ) hence the domain is the set of all t values that
make the radicand greater than or equal to
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 zero.
t+4≥0
c. The function defined by g(t) = t2 – 3t has no t≥-4
restrictions on its domain because any real Domain = {t : t R, t ≥ - 4 }
number substituted for t will produce a real Interval notation [- 4, ]
number. The domain is the set of all real
numbers. [
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
2. For each of the following functions, find its 2. Determine the domain of the function
domain. f(x) = - √
i. f(x) = x2 + 3 ii. g(x) =
Solution
Solution f(x) = - √
i. Since f(x) = x2 + 3 is defined for all real Set the inside greater than or equal to zero,
numbers x, the domain of f is R. -2x + 3 ≥ 0
-2x ≥ -3 Steps to find the Range of a Function
x≤ To find the range of a function f described by
the formula, where the domain is taken to be
Domain of f is {x : x R, x ≤ }
the natural domain;
1. Put y = f(x)
3. For the function h(x) = √ , find the 2. Solve x in terms of y.
domain. 3. The range of f is the set of all real y such that
x can be solved.
Solution
h(x) = √ Worked Examples
h(x) is defined if 1 + 5x ≥ 0; For each of the following functions, find its
1 + 5x ≥ 0 range.
5x ≥ - 1 1. f(x) = x2 + 2 3. h(x) = √
x≥ 2. g(x) = 4. f(x) =
Domain of h is {x : x R, x ≥ }
Solution
Interval notation = [ , )
1. f(x) = x2 + 2
Put y = f(x) = x2 + 2
Exercises 4.10
y = x2 + 2; (Solve for x)
A. Write the domain of the function.
x2 = y – 2
1. f(x) = 4. p(x) =
x=±√
2. f(x) = 5. h(x) = x + 6
Note that x can be solved if and only of
3. k(x) = 6. f(p) =
y – 2 ≥ 0.
y≥2
B. Write the domain in of each function. The range of f is {y R : y ≥ 2}
1. f(p) = 4. g(x) = √
2. f(x) = √ 5. f(x) = √ 2. g(x) =
3. f(t) = 2t2 + t – 1 6. h(t) = t3 + t – 1 Put y = g(x) =
y= (Solve for x)
C. Find the domain of each .
1. f(x) = x2 – 5 5. f(x) = x–2 =
√
2. f(x) = 6. f(x) = –√ x = +2

3. f(x) = 7. f(x) = +√ Note that x can only be solved if and only if

y≠0
4. f(x) = 8. f(x) = √ The range of g is {y R : y ≠ 0}
3. h(x) = √ Express the given function in vertex form by
Put y = h(x) = √ completing the square.
y=√ ,y≥0 (Solve for x)
f(x) = - 2x2 + 4x – 7
f(x) = – 2[(x2 – 2x + (1)2 – (1)2] – 7
y2 = 1 + 5x
f(x) = -2[(x2 – 1)2 – 1] – 7
5x = y2 – 1
f(x) = -2 (x – 1)2 + 2 – 7
x= f(x) = - 2(x – 1)2 – 5
The range of h is {y: y R}
4. f(x) = Now, the domain of the function is on all R.
This implies that (x – 1)2 is either zero or
Put y = f(x) =
positive (because of the square). Hence set :
y= (x – 1)2 ≥ 0
y(x2 + 1) = 2x + 1 (Solve for x)
yx2 + y = 2x + 1 Multiply both sides by -2;
yx2 – 2x + (y – 1) = 0 - 2 (x – 1)2 ≤ 0

Solving by quadratic formula; Add -5 to both sides of the inequality;

a = y , b = -2 and c = y - 1 - 2 (x – 1)2 – 5 ≤ - 5
√ f(x) ≤ - 5
x= Thus, the range of the function is (x : x R,
x=
( ) √( ) ( ) x ≤ - 5 ) or ( , )

√ ( )
x= Exercises 4.11
A. Find the range of the following.
√
x= 1. f(x) = x2 – 5 4. f(x) = 3 -
√
x= 2. f(x) = 5. f(x) =
√
√ 3. f(x) = 6. f(x) =
x=

Note that x can be solved if and only if B. Find the range defined by the following
1 – y2 – y ≥ 0. That is y2 – y – 1 ≥ 0 1. f(x) = x2 – 2x – 3
The range of f is {y R, y2 – y – 1 ≥ 0 or y ≥ 0} 2. f(x) = 2x2 – 10x + 19
3. f(x) = 2x2 +10x + 16
4. Find the range of the function defined by
f(x) = - 2x2 + 4x – 7 Evaluating a Function
A function may be evaluated at different values
Solution of x, by substituting x – values from the domain
f(x) = - 2x2 + 4x – 7 into the function. For example, to evaluate the
function defined by f(x) = 2x at x = 5, substitute 3. Given that f(x) = , find:
x = 5 into the function.
i. find f(2), f(- 4), f(x – 1)
ii. for what value of x is f(x) = 3?
f(x) = 2x
Solution
f(5) = 2(5) i. f(x) =
( )
f(5) = 10 f(2) = =

Worked Examples ( )
f(- 4) = = =7
1. Given the function defined by g(x) = x – 1,
find the function values; ( )
i. g(4) ii. g(-2) f(x – 1) = = =
( )

Solution ii. =3
i. g(x) = x – 1, 4x + 1 = 3(x + 2)
g(4) = (4) – 1, 4x + 1 = 3x + 6
=1 4x – 3x = 6 – 1
x=5
ii. g(-2) = (-2) – 1
4. Given that f(x) = (x – 1)2 (x + 3) – 30,
= -2 evaluate ;
i. f(3) ii f(4)
2. Given the functions defined by f(x) = x2 – 2x iii. Hence estimate the value of x for which f(x) = 0
and g(x) = 3x + 5, find the function values:
i. f(t) ii. g(w + 4) iii. f(-t) Solution
f(x) = (x – 1)2 (x + 3) – 30 , evaluate ;
Solution f(3) = (3 – 1)2 (3 + 3) – 30 ,
i. f(x) = x2 – 2x = 22 × 6 – 30
f(t) = t2 – 2t = 4 × 6 – 30
=-6
ii. g(x) = 3x + 5
g(w + 4) = 3(w + 4) + 5 f(4) = (4 – 1)2 (4 + 3) – 30 , evaluate ;
= 3w + 12 + 5 = 32 × 7 – 30
= 3w + 17 = 9 × 7 – 30
= 33
iii. f(x) = x2 – 2x
f(-t) = (-t)2 – 2(-t) f(x) = (x – 1)2 (x + 3) – 30
= t2 + 2t f(x) = 0
⇒ (x – 1)2 (x + 3) – 30 = 0 i. g(-x) ii. g(x + h)
(x – 1)2 (x + 3) = 30
(x – 1)2 = 30 or (x + 3) = 30 2. Given that f(x) = x2, express as simply as
x–1=±√ or x + 3 = 30 possible:
( ) ( )
x = 1 + √ or x = 1 – √ or x = 30 – 3 = 27 a. f(5 + h) b.

5. Let g(x) = x2 – 3x + 7. Find the following: 3. Given that f(x) = x2, find :
i. g(10) ii. g(a +1 ) iii. g(r2) i. f. / ii. f(5a) iii. f. /
( ) ( )
iv. g(x + h) v.
4. A. f(x) is defined by f(x) = 1 + – x. Write
Solution down the values of ;
g(x) = x2 – 3x + 7. i. f(1) ii. f(1.5) iii. f(2)
i. g(10) = 102 – 3(10) + 7 iv. Hence, estimate correct to one decimal
= 77 place, the value of x between 1 and 2 for which
f(x) = 0
ii. g(a +1 ) = (a + 1)2 – 3(a + 1) + 7
= (a + 1) (a + 1) – 3(a + 1) + 7
= a2 + 2a + 1 – 3a – 3 + 7 B. 1. Let f(x) = , find the following;
= a2 + 2a – 3a + 1 – 3 + 7 a. f(2) b. f(3.5) c. f(a + 1)
= a2 – a + 5 d. f(√ ) e. f(a2) f. f(a) + f(1)

iii. g(r2) = (r2)2 – 3r2 + 7 2. Let f(x) = and g(x) = √ . Find the
= r4 – 3r2 + 7
following:
iv. g(x + h) = (x + h)2 – 3(x + h) + 7 a. f(1) + g(1) d. f(a – 1) + g(a + 1)
= (x + h) (x + h) – 3(x + h) + 7 b. f(2)g(2) e. f(a2 + 1)g(a2 + 1)
( )
= x2 + 2xh + h2 – 3x – 3h + 7 c.
( )

( ) ( ) ( )
v. = 3. Let f(x) = x2 – 3x + 4. Find and simplify the
following:
= ( ) ( )
i. f(a + b ) ii.
= ( ) ( )
iii.
= 2xh + h – 3

Exercises 4.12 C. 1. Let f(x) = and g(x) = ,

A. 1. Given a function defined by g(x) = 4x – 3, find:
find the function values: i. f(1)g(1) ii. f(3) g(3)
iii. h(x) = f(x).g(x) iv. h(1) v. h(3)
2. Let f(x) = and f(x) = , find: This means 1.5 seconds after the ball was
dropped; it bounced back a height of 18 feet
i. f(1)g(1) ii. f(-2) g(-2)
from the ground.
iii. h(x) = f(x).g(x) iv. h(1) v. h(-2)
2. f(x) denotes the sum of all positive integers,
3. Let f(x) = and f(x) = , find: except x itself which divides exactly into x. For
( ) ( ) ( ) example, f(4) = 1 + 2 = 3. Find:
i. ( )
ii. ( )
iii. h(x) = ( )
i. f(6) ii. f (28) iii. f (29)
iv. the values of x for which h(x) is undefined.
Solution
4. Let f(x) = and f(x) = , find: i. f (6) = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6
( ) ( ) ( ) ii. f (28) = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14 = 28
i. ( )
ii. ( )
iii. h(x) = ( ) iii. f (29) = 1
iv. the values of x for which h(x) is undefined.
3. R(x) denotes the remainder when x is divided
Word Problems by 5. Given that k = 4, write down the value of:
Sometimes, a function may be stated and i. R(3k) ii. R(5k) iii. R(k2)
defined in words. Carefully identify the
function and work out for the required value. Solution
i. R(3k)
Worked Examples When k = 4, R(3×4) = R(12)
1. The height (in feet) of a ball that is dropped R(12) denotes the remainder when 12 is divided
from an 80 – ft building is given by; by 5. Hence, R(12) = R(3k) = 2
h(t) = -16t2 + 18, where t is the time in seconds
after the ball is dropped. ii. R(5k)
a. Find h(1) and h(1.5). when k = 4, R(5 × 4) = R(20)
b. Interpret the meaning of the function R(20) denotes the remainder when 20 is divided
values obtained in (a). by 5. Hence, R(20) = R(5k) = 0

Solution iii. R(k2) = R(42) = R(16)

a. h(t) = -16t2 + 18 By the definition;
h(1) = -16(1)2 + 18 = 2 R(k2) = 1
h(1.5) = -16(1.5)2 + 18 = -18
Exercises 4.13
b. h(1) = 2 A. 1. A ball is dropped form a 50 – m building.
This means 1 second after the ball was The height in meters after t seconds is given by
dropped; it reached a height of 2 feet from the h(t) = - 4.9t2 + 50.
building. a. Find h(1) and h(1.5).
h(1.5) = -18
 b. Interpret the meaning of the function
values obtained in (a). Terminology Function Value
Sum f + g (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
2. If Jimmy rides a bicycle at an average speed Difference f – g (f – g)(x) = f(x) – g(x)
of 11.5mph, the distance that he rides can be Product fg (fg)(x) = f(x)g(x)
( )
represented by d(t) = 11.5t, where t is the time Quotient . /(x) = , g(x) ≠ 0
( )
in hours.
a. Find d(1) and d(1.5). Note:
b. Interpret the meaning of the function 1. The domains of f + g, f – g and fg are the
values obtained in (a). intersection, I of the domains of f and g (that is,
the numbers that are common to both domains.
3. An object is thrown up and its height h(t) in
meters after t seconds is given by h(t) = 1 + 4t – 2. While it is true that (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x),
5t2. remember that f(a +b) ≠ f(a) + f(b)
a. When will the object hit the ground?
b. Find the maximum height obtained by Worked Examples
the object. 1. If f(x) =3x – 2 and g(x) = x2, find;
i. (f + g)(2) ii. (f – g)(2)
4. Michael walks an average of 5.9km/hr. The
iii. (fg)(2) iv. . / (2)
distance that he walks can be represented by
d(t) = 5.9t, where t is the time in hours.
a. Find d(1) and d(2) Solution
b. Interpret the meaning of the function If f(x) =3x – 2 and g(x) = x3,
values obtained in (a). i. (f + g)(2) = f(2) + g(2)
= [3(2) – 2] + [23]
B. 1. F(x) denotes the number of factors of a = 6 – 2 + 8 = 12
positive integer x, including 1 and x itself. For
example, 1, 2, 3, 6 are the factors of 6. Hence ii. (f – g)(2) = f(2) – g(2)
F(6) = 4. Write down any x, 10 < x < 100, for = [3(2) – 2] – [23]
which: i. F(x) = 2 ii. F(x) = 3 = 6–2–8=-4

2. R(x) denotes the remainder when x is divided iii. (fg)(2) = f(2) g(2)
by 7. Given that k = 9, write down the value of = [3(2) – 2] [23]
= (6 – 2)(8) = 32
i. R(3√ ) ii. R(8k) iii. R(2k2)
( ) ( )–
Operations on Functions iv. . / (2) = = = = =
( )
In general, if f and g are any functions, the
terminology and notations in the following 2. If f(x) = √ and g(x) = 3x + 1, find;
chart are used. i. (f + g)(2) ii. (f – g)(2) iii. (fg)(2)
iv. . / (2), and state the domain of the 4. . / (x), 5. (f + g)(3) 6. (f + g)(2)
respective functions. 7. (f-g)(-3) 8. (f-g)(-2) 9. (fg)(-1)
10. (fg)(-2) 11. . / (4) 12. . / (-2),
Solution
Consider f(x) = √ B. Find:
Domain = {x : -2 ≤ x 2} a. i. (f + g)(x) ii. (f – g)(x)
iii. (fg)(x) iv. (f/g)(x)
Consider g(x) = 3x + 1
Domain = {x : x R} b. the domain of f + g, f – g , and fg
c. the domain of f/g
The intersection of these domains is {x : -2 ≤ 1. f(x) = x2 + 2 , g(x) = 2x2 – 1
x 2}, which is the domain of (f + g)(2), 2. f(x) = x2 + x , g(x) = x2 – 3
(f – g)(2) and (fg)(2). 3. f(x) = √ , g(x) = √
4. f(x) = √ , g(x) = √
For the domain of , we exclude each number 5. f(x) = , g(x) =
x in -2 ≤ x 2 such that g(x) = 3x + 1 = 0
6. f(x) = , g(x) =
(namely x = . Thus we have the following;
i. (f + g)(x) Composite Function
= f(x) +g(x) The composite function f○g of two functions
=√ + (3x + 1), -2 ≤ x 2 f and g is defined by (f○g)(x) = f(g(x)).

ii. (f – g)(x) The domain of f○g is the set of all x in the

= f(x) – g(x) domain of g such that g(x) is in the domain of f.
=√ – (3 x + 1), -2 ≤ x 2 f○g
g
iii. (f g)(x) 
= f(x)g(x) x f

=√ (3 x + 1), -2 ≤ x 2 g(x)
Domain of g 
Domain of f
f(g(x))
√
iv. . / (x) = , -2 ≤ x 2 and x ≠ The diagram illustrates relationships among f, g
and f○g. Note that for x in the domain of g, first,
Exercises 4.14 find g(x) (which must be in the domain of f)
A. Let f(x) = 4x – 3 and g(x) = x2 – 2x. Find then, second, find f(g(x)).
the following:
For the composite function g○f, the order is
1. (f + g)(x) 2. (f – g)(x) 3. (f.g)(x)
reversed, first finding f(x) and second finding
g(f(x)). The domain of g○f is the set of all x in a. Find (f○g)(x) and the domain of f○g.
domain of f such that f(x) is in the domain of g. b. Find (g○f)(x) and the domain of g○f.
Since the notation g(x) is read “g of x” we c. Find (f○g)(2)
sometimes say that g is a function of x. For the
composite function f○g, the notation f(g(x) is Solution
read “f of g of x” and f is regarded as a function a. f(x) = x2 – 1 and g(x) = 3x + 5
of g(x). In this sense, a composite function is a (f○g)(x) = f(g(x))
function of a function, or more precisely, a = f(3x + 5)
function of another function‟s value. = (3x + 5)2 – 1
= (3x + 5) (3x+ 5) – 1
Worked Examples = 9x2 + 30x + 24
1. Let f(x) = 3x – 2 and g(x) = x2 + 2x. Find : Domain of f○g = {x : x R}
a. (g○f )(2) b. (f○g )(2) c. (g○f )(x) d. (f○g )(x)
b. (g○f)(x) = g(f(x))
Solution = g(x2 – 1)
a. (g○f )(2) = g(f(2)) = 3(x2 – 1) + 5
f(2) = 3(2) – 2 = 4 = 3x2 – 3 + 5
(g○f )(2) = g(f(2)) = 3x2 + 2
= g(4) Domain of g○f = {x : x R}
= 42 + 2(4)
= 24 c. Method 1
f(g(2))
b. (f○g )(2) = f(g(2)) First, find g(2)
g(2) = 22 + 2(2) = 8 g(2) = 3(2) + 5 = 11

(f○g )(2) = f(g(2)) = f(8) = 3(8) – 2 = 22 Second, find f(11)

f(g(2)) = f(11) = 112 – 1 = 120
c. (g○f )(x) = g(f(x))
= g(3x – 2)
Method 2
= (3x – 2)2 + 2(3x – 2)
(f○g)(x) = f(g(x))
= 9x2 – 12x + 4 + 6x – 4
= f(3x + 5)
= 9x2 – 6x
= (3x + 5)2 – 1
= (3x + 5) (3x+ 5) – 1
d. (f○g )(x) = f(g(x))
= 9x2 + 30x + 24
= f(x2 + 2x)
= 3(x2 + 2x) – 2 ⇒(f○g)(2) = f(g(2))
= 3x2 + 6x – 2 = 9(2)2 + 30(2) + 24
= 120
2. Let f(x) = x2 – 1 and g(x) = 3x + 5
3. Let f(x) = x2 – 16 and g(x) = √ ii. f ○ g = 6x + 1
a. Find (f○g)(x) and the domain of f○g. f ○g(7) = 6(7) + 1
b. Find (g○f)(x) and the domain of g○f. = 43

Solution 5. If f(x) = 3x + 1, g(x) = 4x – 3, find;

a. (f○g)(x) = f(g(x)) i. f(f(2)) ii. g(g(2))
= f(√ ) iii. Show that f(x + y) = f(x) + f (y) – 1 and that
g(f(x)) – f(g(x)) = 9
= (√ ) – 16
= x – 16
Solution
By definition, the domain of f○g is the domain
f(x) = 3x + 1, g(x) = 4x – 3
of g.
i. f(2) = 3(2) + 1 = 7
Therefore; domain of f○g = {x : x R, x is
f(f(2)) = f(7) = 3(7) + 1 = 22
nonnegative}
ii. g(2) = 4(2) – 3 = 5
b. (g○f)(x) = g(f(x))
g(g(2)) = g(5) = 4(5) – 3 = 17
= g(x2 – 16)
=√
iii. f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) – 1
By definition, the domain of g○f is the domain
Consider the L.H.S.
of g. Therefore;
f(x + y) = 3 (x + y) + 1
domain of g○f = {x : x R, x 4 or x - 4}
= 3x + 3y + 1
4. Two functions f and g are defined on the set of
Consider the R.H.S.;
real numbers by f : x → 2x + 3 and g : x →3x – 1
f(x) + f(y) – 1
i. Find the composite function of ;
(3x + 1) + (3y + 1) – 1
a. f○g b. g○f
3x + 3y + 1 + 1 – 1
ii. Find the image of 7 under the composite
3x + 3y + 1
function of f○g

Solution L.H.S. = R. H. S
f : x → 2x + 3 and g : x →3x – 1 . f(x + y) = f(x) + f (y) – 1 = 3x + 3y + 1
i. a. f ○ g = 2(3x – 1) + 3 g(f(x)) – f(g(x)) = 9
= 6x – 2 + 3 g(f(x)) = 4(3x + 1) – 3
= 6x + 1 = 12x + 4 – 3
= 12x + 1
b. g ○ f = 3(2x + 3) – 1
= 6x + 9 – 1 f(g(x)) = 3(4x – 3) + 1
= 6x + 8 = 12x – 9 + 1
= 12x – 8
g(f(x)) – f(g(x)) = (12x + 1 ) – (12x – 8) 8. Let F : R → R and G : R → R be given by :
= 12x – 12x +1 + 8 f(x) = sin x and g(x) = x2. Find g○f(x)
=9
Hence, g(f(x)) – f(g(x)) = 9 Solution
g○f(x) = g(f(x)).
6. f and g are the functions f : x → , = (sin x)2
= sin2 x
g : x → – 3 , write down :
i. f(-1) ii. g. / iii. gf(-1) iv. fg. / 9. Let f(x) = x + 1 and g(x) = √ . Find the
domain of g○f.
Solution
Solution
f:x→ , and g : x → – 3 ,
f(x) = x + 1 and g(x) = √ .
g(f(x)) = – 3;
⁄ g○f = √
( ( )) = x + 3 – 3 Where x + 1 ≥ 0;
( ( )) = x x ≥ -1
Domain = {x : x R, x ≥ -1}
f (g (x)) = = [-1, )
. /

f(g(x)) = =x Exercises 4.15

A. In each of the following find;
i. f(-1) = =
a. i. (f○g)(x) ii. (f○g)(-2)
ii. g. / = – 3 = 2 – 3 = -1 b. i. (g○f)(x) ii. (g○f)(3)
⁄
1. f(x) = 2x – 5 g(x) = 3x-1
iii. gf(-1) = - 1
2. f(x) = 5x + 2 g(x) = 6x + 7
iv. fg. / = 2
3. f(x) = 3x + 4 g(x) = 5x
4. f(x) = 3x – 1 g(x) = 4x2
7. If f : x → x + 4 and g : x → x2, find: 5. f(x) = 2x2+ 3x – 4 g(x) = 2x- 1
i. gf(x) ii. gf(-3) 6. f(x) = 5x – 7 g(x) = 3x2 – x + 2
7. f(x) = 4x g(x) = 2x3 – 5x
Solution 8. f(x) = x3 + 2x2 g(x) = 3x
If f : x → x + 4 and g : x → x2, find:
i. gf(x) = (x + 4)2 B. In each of the following find;
gf(x) = (x + 4) (x + 4 ) a. (f○g)(x) and the domain of f○g .
gf(x) = x2 + 8x + 16 b. (g○f)(x) and the domain of g○f .
1. f(x) = x2 – 3x g(x) = √
ii. gf(-3) = (-3)2 + 8(-3) + 16
2. f(x) = √ g(x) = x2 + 2x
gf(-3) = 9 – 24 + 16
3. f(x) = x2 – 4 g(x) = √
gf(-3) = 1
4. f(x) = -x2 + 1 g(x) = √ ii. If the domain is {x : 1 ≤ x ≤ 2}, find the
range.
C. In each of the following find;
a. (f○g)(x) and the domain of f○g . 2. Let f(x) = x2 and g(x) = 2x + 1. Find;
b. (g○f)(x) and the domain of g○f . i. (f○g)(x) ii. (g○f)(x)
1. f(x) = √ g(x) = √
Challenge Problems
2. f(x) = √ g(x) = √
For each of the following, find f(x) and g(x) ,
3. f(x) = √ g(x) = √
where g(x) is in the form xr with r ≠ 1 such that
4. f(x) = √ g(x) = √ (g○f)(x) equals the given expressions:
a. √ b.
D. In each of the following find;
a. (f○g)(x) and the domain of f○g .
b. (g○f)(x) and the domain of g○f . Composite Function Values from Tables
Special values of composite functions may
1. f(x) = g(x) =
sometimes be obtained from table as illustrated
2. f(x) = g(x) = x – 1 in the example below.
3. f(x) = x2 g(x) =
Worked Examples
4. f(x) = g(x) = 1. Several values of two functions f and g are
5. f(x) = g(x) = listed in the following tables.

6. f(x) = g(x) =
x 1 2 3 4
f(x) 3 4 2 1
E. Let f(x) = 2x – 3 and g(x) = x2 + 3x and
h(x) = . Find the following; x 1 2 3 4
1. (g○f)(1) 5. (f○f)(4) 9. (h○f)(5) g(x) 4 1 3 2
2. (f○g)(-2) 6. (g○h)(-1) 10. (f○h)(0)
3. (f○g)(1) 7. (h○g)(-1) 11. (g○h)(-1) Find:
4. (g○f)(-2) 8. (h○h)(3) 12. (f○g)(2.36) i. (f○g)(2) ii. (g○f)(2) iii. (f○f)(2) iv. (g○g)(2)

F. Let f(x) = 2x – 3 and g(x) = x2 + 3x and Solution

h(x) = . Find the following; From the tables,
i. (f○g)(2) = f(g(2)) = f(1) = 3
1. (g○f)(x) 2. (h○g)(x) 3. (h○f)(x) 4. (f○h)(x)
5. (g○g)(x) 6. (h○h)(x) 7. (f○f○f)(x) 8. (f○f)(x) ii. (g○f)(2) = g(f(2)) = g(4) = 2
iii. (f○f)(2) = f(f(2)) = f(4) = 1
G. 1. If f(x) = 2x – 1, g(x) = x2 – 1,
iv. (g○g)(2) = g(g(2)) = g(1) = 4
i. find g[f(x)]
Exercises 4.16 = 2(3x – 2) + 1
1. Several values of two functions f and g are = 6x – 4 + 1
listed in the following tables: = 6x – 3

x 5 6 7 8 (f○g)○h = 6(x + 5) – 3
f(x) 8 7 6 5 = 6x + 30 – 3
= 6x + 27
x 5 6 7 8
g(x) 7 8 6 5 Consider the R.H.S;
f○ (g○h)
Find:
g○h = g{h(x)}
i. (f○g)(6) iii. (f○f)(6)
= 3(x + 5) – 2
ii. (g○f)(6) iv. (g○g)(6)
= 3x + 15 – 2
= 3x + 13
2. Several values of two functions T and S
are listed in the following tables:
f○ (g○h) = 2(3x + 13 ) + 1
= 6x + 26 + 1
x 0 1 2 3
T(t) 2 3 1 0 = 6x + 27

x 0 1 2 3 Since L.H.S = R.H.S

S(x) 1 0 3 2 ⇒ (f○g)○h = f○ (g○h) = 6x + 27

Find: 2. Composition of functions is distributive on

1. (T○S)(1) 2. (T○T)(1) 3. (S○T)(1) 4. (S○S)(1) the left over addition. That is:
(f + g)○h = ( f○h) + (g○h)
Properties of Composite functions
1. Composition of functions is associative. That Worked Examples
is : (f○g)○h = f○ (g○h) Three functions are defined on the set of real
numbers by f(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = 3x – 2 and
Worked Examples h(x) = x + 5. Show that (f + g)○h =( f○h) + (g○h)
Three functions are defined on he set of real
numbers by f(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = 3x – 2 and Solution
h(x) = x + 5. Show that (f○g)○h = f○ (g○h) f(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = 3x – 2 and h (x) = x + 5

Solution Consider the L.H.S.;

f(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = 3x – 2 and h (x) = x + 5. (f + g)○h
(f○g)○h = f○ (g○h) (f + g) = (2x + 1) + (3x – 2)
Consider the L. H. S. = 2x + 3x + 1 – 2
f○g = f{(gx)} = 5x – 1
(f + g) ○ h = 5(x + 5) – 1
= 5x + 25 – 1
.
(f g)○h = 6(x + 5)2 – (x + 5) – 2

= 5x + 24 = 6(x + 5) (x + 5) – (x + 5) – 2
= 6(x2 + 10x + 25) – (x + 5) – 2
Consider the R.H.S; = 6x2 + 60x + 150 – x – 5 – 2
( f○h) + (g○h) = 6x2 + 59x + 143
f ○h = 2(x + 5) + 1
= 2x + 10 + 1 Consider the R. H. S;
= 2x + 11 ( f○h) . (g○h)
( f○h) = 2(x + 5) + 1
g○h = 3(x + 5) – 2 = 2x + 10 + 1
= 3x + 15 – 2 = 2x + 11
= 3x + 13
g○h = 3(x + 5) – 2
= 3x + 15 – 2
( f○h) + (g○h) = (2x + 11) + (3x + 13)
= 3x + 13
= 2x + 3x + 11 + 13
= 5x + 24 ( f○h) . (g○h) = (2x + 11) (3x + 13)
= 2x (3x + 13) + 11 (3x + 13)
Since L. H. S. = R. H. S; = 6x2 + 26x + 33x + 143
⇒(f + g)○h = ( f○h) + (g○h) = 5x + 24 = 6x2 + 59x + 143
Composition of functions is distributive on the left
over multiplication. That is; Since L.H.S. = R. H. S.
(f . g) ○ h = ( f ○ h) . (g ○ h)
. .
(f g)○h =( f○h) (g○h) = 6x2 + 59x + 143
Worked Examples
Three functions are defined on the set of real Decomposing a Composite Function
numbers by f(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = 3x – 2 and h(x) We can go the other way and break up a
= x + 5. Show that (f . g)○h =( f○h).(g○h) function into a composition of other functions.
This is called decomposing a function. For
Solution
f(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = 3x – 2 and h (x) = x + 5 example, in . / , the function can be
made from these two functions:
Consider the L.H.S.;
f(x) = g(x) = x2
(f . g)○h =
f . g = (2x + 1) (3x – 2) g○f (x) = g(f(x) = g . /=. / ,
= 2x(3x – 2) + 1(3x – 2)
= 6x2 – 4x + 3x – 2 Worked Examples
= 6x2 – x – 2 1. If f(x) = 2x – 3 and f(g(x) = 2x + 1, find g(x)
Solution Decompose f(x) as h(x) = 5 – x2 and g(x) = √
f(x) = 2x – 3, f(g(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = ? Thus, g(h(x) = g(5 – x2) = √
f ○g (x) = f(g(x)
But f(x) = 2x – 3 Exercises 4.17
A. 1. Decompose the following functions into
Substitute g(x) for x the forms g f;
⇒ f(g(x) = 2 g(x) – 3 a. 6x + 3 b. 4x2
2x + 1 = 2 g(x) – 3 2. If h(x) = f(g (x)) , find the decomposition of
2x + 1 + 3 = 2 g(x) h(x) = √
2x + 4 = 2 g(x)
g(x) = + 3. Find two possible decompositions of h(x) = √

g(x) = x + 2 4. Find f(x) and g(x) such that h(x) = f ○g (x)

and h (x) = (8 – 4x)2
2. Given f(x) = x2 + 1 and (g○f ) (x) = , find 5. If fog(x) = 16x + 7 and g(x) = 2x – 1. Find
f(x)
g(x).

Solution B. 1. Find g(x) if f(x) = x + and fog(x) = 3x + 1

(g○f ) (x) = g(f(x) =
2. Find two functions f and g such that fog (x) =
g(f(x) = ( )
h(x); h(x) = Ans f(x) = g(x) = x + 1
But f(x) = x2 + 1
g(f(x) = ( ) 3. Find two functions f and g such that h(x) can
be expressed as a function h(x) = 4x + x2; f – g
Substitute f(x) = x Ans: f(x) = x2, g(x) = - 4x

g(x) =
Functional Equations
⇒ g(x) = I. Identify the given functions.
II. Workout the composite functions at the
3. Write f(x) = √ as composition of two L.H.S and equate to the value at the R.H.S.
functions. III. Solve the equation to obtain the value of the
involving variable.
Solution
f(x) = √ Worked Examples
For g and h, f(x) = g(h)(x) 1. a. Given that f(x) = (x – 2) (x – 3), solve the
equation f(x) = 6.
Now look for a function inside f(x); b. Describe briefly the range of values of x for
5 – x2 and the square root function. which f(x) 0.
Solution 3. Given that f(x) = + and that f(5) = 8,
a. f(x) = (x – 2) (x – 3),
calculate the value of ; i. k ii. f(4)
f(x) = 6.
⇒(x – 2) (x – 3) = 6 Solution
x(x – 3) – 2 (x – 3) = 6
f(x) = +
x2 – 3x – 2x + 6 = 6
x2 – 5x + 6 – 6 = 0 f(5) = 8
x2 – 5x = 0 f(5) = +
x(x – 5) = 0 ⇒ + =8
⇒ x = 0 or x – 5 = 0
x = 0 or x = 5 + =8
(12) + (12) = (12) 8
b. f(x) = (x – 2) (x – 3),
3k + 4(6) = 96
f(x) 0
3k + 24 = 96
⇒(x – 2) (x – 3) 0
3k = 96 - 24
(x – 2) 0 or (x – 3) 0
3k = 72
x 2 or x 3
k=
2. The function f is given by f(x) = 3x2 and the k = 24
function g is given by g(x) = x – 4
i. Write down f{g(x)} ii. Put k = 24 in f(x) = +
ii. Write down g{f(x)}
f(x) = +
iii. Find the value of p if f{g(p)} = g{f(p)}
f(4) = + = + = = 11
Solution
i. f {g(x)} = 3(x – 4)2 Exercises 4.18
f {g(x)}= 3(x – 4) (x – 4) Solve the equation (f○g)(x) = 0
f {g(x)}= 3(x2 – 8x + 16) 1. f(x) = x2 – 2 g(x) = x + 3
f {g(x)}= 3x2 – 24x + 48 2
2. f(x) = x – x – 2 g(x) = 2x – 1
ii. g{f(x)} = 3x2 – 4
Inverse of a Function
iii. f{g(p)} = g{f(p)} The inverse of a one – to – one function f is the
3(p – 4)2 = 3p2 – 4 function , which is obtained from f by
3(p – 4) (p – 4) = 3p2 – 4 interchanging the coordinates of each ordered
3(p2 – 8p + 16) = 3p2 – 4 pair of f. For example given f = (2, 8), (3, 27)
3p2 – 24p + 48 = 3p2 – 4 (4, 64) the following is true:
- 24p = - 4 – 48 1. f is a function because no first (x) coordinates
- 24p = - 52 are the same.
p=
2. f is a one – to – one function because no Identifying Inverse Functions
second (y) coordinates are the same. Functions f and g are inverses of each other if
3. If f is a one – to – one function, then f is and only if:
invertible. (g○f)(x) = x for every number x in the domain
4. If f is invertible, then the coordinates of x of f and (f○g)(x) = x for every number x in the
and y can be interchanged to obtain the inverse domain of g.
of f. That is: = (8, 2), (27, 3), (64, 4)
Worked Examples
Worked Examples Determine whether the functions f and g are
Determine whether each function is invertible. inverses of each other.
If it is invertible, find the inverse. 1. f(x) = 3x and g(x) =
1. f = {(2, 4), (-2, 4), (3, 9)}
2. f(x) = 2x – 1 and g(x) = x + 1
2. g = 2. , / , . , / , . , /3
3. f(x) = x2 and g(x) = √
3. h = {(3, 5), (7, 9)}
Solution
Solution
1. f(x) = 3x and g(x) =
1. In f = {(2, 4), (-2, 4), (3, 9)}
{(2, 4) and (-2, 4) have the same y – coordinate. (g○f)(x) = g(f(x) = g(3x) = =x
Therefore f is not one- to – one and as such not
(f○g)(x) = f(g(x) =f. / 3× =x
invertible.
Therefore g = or (x) =
2. In g = 2. , / , . , / , . , /3, no y value is
the same.
2. f(x) = 2x – 1 and g(x) = x + 1
Therefore g is invertible and one – to – one.
(g○f)(x) = g(f(x)
= 2. , / , . , / , . , /3,
= g(2x – 1)
= (2x – 1) + 1
3. In h = {(3, 5), (7, 9)}, y values are not the
same. Therefore h is invertible and one – to – =x+
one. = {(5, 3), (9, 7)} Since (g○f)(x) ≠ x, the functions f and g are not
inverse of each other.
Exercises 4.19
Which of the following is invertible? 3. f(x) = x2and g(x) = √
1. f = {(-3, 3), (-2, 2), (0, 0), (2, 2)} (g○f)(x) = g(f(x)
2. f = {(1, 1), (2, 8), (3, 27)} = g(x2) = √ = /x/
3. f = {(16, 4), (9, 3), (0, 0)} The functions f and g are not inverses of each
4. f = {(0, 5), (5, 0), (6, 0)} other. Note f(x) = x2 has no inverse.
5. f = {(-1, 1), (-3, 81), (3, 81)}
Exercises 4.20 ⇒ y = 2x + 1
A. Determine whether the following pair of x = 2y + 1 ( Interchange x and y)
functions are inverses of each other. x = 2y + 1 (Solve for y)
1. f(x) = 2x – 10 and g(x) = x + 5 x – 1 = 2y
=y
2. f(x) = 3x + 7 and g(x) =
y=
3. f(x) = and g(x) =
4. f(x) = and g(x) = ⁄ (x) =
5. f(x) = 3x – 2 and g(x) =
2. If f(x) = , find (x)
B. Proof that f and g are inverse functions of
each other. Solution
1. f(x) = + 5, x ≤ 0 g(x) = - √ ,x≥5 f(x) =
2. f(x) = - + 3, x ≥ 0 g(x) = √ ,x≤3 Let f(x) = y
3. f(x) = – 4, x ≤ 0 g(x) = √ , ⇒y=
x= (Interchange x and y and solve for y)
Switch – and – solve Strategy x(y – 3) = y + 1
If an invertible function is defined by a xy – 3x = y + 1
formula, then the inverse function must undo or xy – y = 3x + 1
reverse what the function does. Because the y(x – 1) = 3x + 1
inverse function interchanges the roles of x and
y=
y, we interchange the x and y in the formula and
then solve the new formula for y to undo what (x) =
the original function did.
3. If f : x → 3x + 2, find;
The switch – and – solve strategy for finding i. f(1) ii. f(- 4)
is as follow. iii. determine the inverse function
1. Replace f(x) by y.
2. Interchange x and y. Solution
3. Solve the equation for y. i. f : x → 3x + 2
4. Replace y by (x). f(1) = 3(1) + 2 = 5

Worked Examples ii. f(- 4) = 3(-4) + 2 = -10

1. Find the inverses of h(x) = 2x + 1
iii. Let y = 3x + 2
Solution x = 3y + 2 (Interchange x and y and solve for y)
h(x) = 2x + 1 3y = x – 2
Let y = h(x)
y= Inverse of a Function with Even Exponent
Worked Example
=
Find the inverse of the function f(x)= (x – 3)2
for x ≥ 3
4. If f(x) = 3x + 1, g(x) = 4x – 3, find;
i. f(f(2)) ii. g(g(2)) iii. (x) iv. (-10) Solution
f(x)= (x – 3)2
Solution y = (x – 3)2
f(x) = 3x + 1, g(x) = 4x – 3 x = (y – 3)2 (Interchange x and y and solve for y)
i. f(2) = 3(2) + 1 = 7
√ =y–3
f(f(2)) = f(7) = 3(7) + 1 = 22
y–3=√
ii. g(2) = 4(2) – 3 = 5 y=3+√
g(g(2)) = g(5) = 4(5) – 3 = 17 =3+√

iii. f(x) = 3x + 1 Exercises 4.22

Let y = 3x + 1 Find the inverse of each function.
x = 3y + 1 (Interchange x and y and solve for y) 1. f(x)= (x – 2)2 for x ≥ 2
2
3y = x – 1 2. f(x)= (x + 5) for x ≥ -5
2
3. f(x)= x + 3 for x ≥ 0
y= 2
4. f(x)= x – 5 for x ≥ 0
= 5. f(x) = √
6. f(x) = √
iv. (- 10) = =
Challenge problems
Exercises 4.21 Find the inverse of each function.
A. Determine for each function. 1. f(x)= x2 – 6x, x≥3
2
1. f(x) = 2. f(x) = 2. f(x)= x – 4x+3, x≤2
3. f(x)= ( )
3. f(x) = 4. f(x) =
4. f(x)= √ , 0≤x≤2
5. f(x) = 6. f(x) =
7. f(x) = 8. f(x) = Type 2
If two functions are inverses of each other, then
9. f(x) = 10. f(x) =
their composite function is always x ( if x is the
involving variable). (f○f 1)(x) = x
B. Find the inverse of each function
1. f(x) = √ 2. f(x) = √ Worked Examples
3. f(x) = √ 4. f(x) = √ 1. Show that (f○g)(x) = x for each pair of
5. f(x) = √ 6. f(x) = √ + 1 functions.
a. f(x) = 2x – 1 and g(x) = 1.f(x) = g(x) =
⁄
b. f(x) = x3 + 5 and g(x) = ( ) 2. f(x) = g(x) =

Solution 3. f(x) = g(x) =

⁄
a.(f○g)(x) = f( ( )) 4. f(x) = 2x3 g(x) = . /
f( ( )) = f. /=2. /–1 =x+1–1=x
Graph of f and
b. (f○g)(x) = f( ( )) If a point (a,b) is on the graph of a function f,
⁄
(f○g)(x) = f(( ) ) then (b, a) must be on the graph of (x). The
⁄
(f○g)(x) = f(( ) )+5 points (a, b) and (b, a) lie on opposite sides of
(f○g)(x) = x – 5 + 5 the diagonal line y = x and are the same
(f○g)(x) = x distance from it. For this reasons, the graphs of
f and (x) are symmetric with respect to the
3. Determine algebraically whether f(x) = 3x – 2 line y = x.
and g(x) = x + 2 are inverses of each other.
For example, consider f(x) = x2 for x 0 and
Solution (x) = √ . Their graphs are shown below:
f(x) = 3x – 2 and g(x) = x + 2 y
(f○g)(x) = f( ( )) y=x

= f. / 5
4 f
(b, a)
=3. / 2 3 (a, b)
=x+6–2 2
=x+4 1
Since the answer is not x, f(x) and g(x) are not x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
inverses of each other
-2

Exercises 4.23 y
A. Show that (f○g)(x) = x and (g○f)(x) = x for
y=x
each pair of functions. 2 5
f(x) = x ,
1. f(x) = 3x + 5 and g(x) = x≥ 0 4
3
2. f(x) = 3x – 7 and g(x) =
2
3. f(x) = x3 – 9 and g(x) = √ 1 f--1(x) = √
4. f(x) = x3 + 1 and g(x) = √ x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
B. Determine whether f(x) and g(x) are -2
inverses of each other.
Exercises 4.21 Solution
A. Find the inverse of each function and f(x – 1) = 2x + 3
sketch graph of f and on the same pair of Let y = x – 1
axes.
Inverse of y ,
1. f(x) = 2x + 3 4. f(x) = x2+ 3 for x ≥ 0 x= y–1
2. f(x) = -3x + 2 5. f(x) = √ y=x+1 (Interchange x and y)
3. f(x) = x2– 1 for x ≥ 0 6. f(x) = √ y=x+1 (Solve for y )

f (x) = f (x + 1)
B. For each pair of functions, find: = 2(x + 1) + 3
( ○ f)(x) = 2x + 2 + 3
1. f(x) = x3 – 1 and (x) = √ = 2x + 5

2. f(x) =2x3+1 and (x) = √ 2. If f(2x + 1) = 6x + 2,

i. what is f(x) ?
3. f(x) = x3 – 3 and (x) = 2x + 6 ii. find x when f(x) = 2
4. f(x) =3x – 9 and (x) = x + 3

Solution
C. For each pair of functions, find: i. f(2x + 1) = 6x + 2
( ○ f)(x)

1. f(x) = + 2 and = Let y = 2x + 1

To find inverse of y
2. f(x) = 4 – and = x = 2y + 1
x – 1 = 2y
3. f(x) = and =
y=
4. f(x) = and =
f (x) = f . /
The Parent Function from a Transformed
= 6. /+2
Function
= 3 (x – 1) + 2
The function f(x – 1) is a direct transformation
= 3x – 3 + 2
of the parent function f(x) = 3x – 1

To find the parent function, f(x) from the ii. f (x) = 3x – 1

transformed function f(x + a), find the inverse f (2) = 3 (2) – 1
of (x + a) and substitute in the function given =5
by f(x + a)
Exercises
1. Given f(2x – 1) = 8x2 – 3x + 2, find f(x)
Worked Examples
1. If f(x – 1) = 2x + 3, find f(x) 2. If f(x + 2) = 2x + 1, find f(x)
3. Given the function f(x) = 2x – 3, find g(x) = Solution
f(x + 1) + f(x – 1) Ans 4x - 6 In y = 2x2 – 8x + 3, a = 2 and b = – 8
( )
At the turning point, x = – =– =4
Quadratic Function
A function is a function f given by f(x) = ax2 +
bx + c , where a, b and c are constants and a ≠0 Put x = 4 in y = 2x2 – 8x + 3
y = 2(4)2 – 8(4) + 3
The graph is a parabola which opens up if a > 0 y=3
and downward if a < 0 At the turning point of 2x2 – 8x + 3 = 0,
a<0 a>0 x = 4 and y = 3
Maximum curve Minimum curve
Graphical Solution of Quadratic Function
The graph of f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0, a > 0 is a
parabola of U – shape and the graph of ax2 + bx
+ c, a < 0 is a parabola of ∩ – shape. The points
The Minimum and Maximum Points at which the parabola cuts the x – axis is the
The vertex of a parabola is the point of roots of the function or the truth set or the
intersection of the line of symmetry and the solution set or the zeros of the function.
parabola itself. The vertex is the turning point:
y
either maximum (highest) or minimum (lowest)

Line of symmetry
4
point of the parabola. ax2 + bx + c
When the parabola is U – shaped, it is said to =0
have a minimum or least turning pointand x
-m n
when it is ∩ – shaped, it is said to have a
Minimum point
maximum or greatest turning point.
Fig. I

Values of x and y at the Turning Point From the diagram above (Fig. I), the intercept
For all equations of the form: on the x – axis is -m and n. Therefore the truth
y = ax2 + bx + c, a , at the turning point, set is x = - m or x = n
y
x=–
To get the value of y at the turning point, Maximum point
Line of symmetry

substitute x = – in y = ax2 + bx + c. The

f x
value of y obtained is called the maximum or e
minimum value, depending on the nature of the 8-ax2 + bx +2 c = 0
parabola.
Fig. II

Worked Examples From the diagram above (Fig. II), the intercept
1. What is the value of x and y at the turning on the x – axis is -e and f. Therefore the truth
point of y = 2x2 – 8x + 3 set is x = e or x = f
Drawing the Graph of f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0, to have no roots or no zeros as shown below;
To draw the graph of f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 y
I. Prepare a table of values for a given range of
values of x. x
II. Plot the points (x, y) on a graph sheet, using
a given or a convenience scale;
III. Join the points to make a free hand sketch
of the required parabola/curve; In both diagrams, the functions have no roots

The Roots or Zeros of Quadratic Function Equation of Axes or Line of Symmetry

The roots of a quadratic function is the value(s) Parabolas can be described as being
of x for which the function, f(x) = 0. The roots symmetrical, meaning that a line can be drawn
of the quadratic function are also called the through a parabola, to divide it into two equal
zeros of the function. parts, creating mirror images of each other. The
straight line bisecting the parabola is called a
From the graph, the roots of a function is line of symmetry. For all quadratic equations
determine with cognizance to the nature of the of the form, y = ax2 + bx +c, a ≠ 0, the line of
parabola in relation to the x – axis;
symmetry has the equation, x = –
I. Whether U or ∩ – shaped, the points at which
the parabola cuts the x – axis is the roots or
The Minimum and Maximum Points
zeros of the equation as shown below.
y The vertex of a parabola is the point of
intersection of the line of symmetry and the
parabola itself. The vertex is the turning point:
x either maximum (highest) or minimum (lowest)
a b point of the parabola.

When the parabola is ∩ – shaped, it is said to

The zeros or truth set of the function is x = a
have a minimum or least turning point and
or x = b
when it is ∩ – shaped, it is said to have a
maximum or greatest turning point.
a b
x Expressing the Quadratic Function f(x) = ax2
+ bx + c in the from f(x) = a(x - h)2 + k,
The standard form for the quadratic function
The zeros or truth set of the function is x = a
f(x) = ax2 + bx+ c is f(x) = a(x + h)2 + k,.
or x = b
The standard form is obtained by completing
II. Whether ∪ or ∩ – shaped, if the parabola the square of the quadratic function.
does not cut the x – axis, the equation is said
In the standard form; f(x) = a(x – h)2 + k,. 3. Complete the square in f(x) = -2x2 + 6x – 1.
1. The vertex is at (-h, k) Hence, find the maximum or minimum value of
2. The maximum value is k, if a is negative. the function.
3. The minimum value is k, if a is positive
Solution
Worked Example f(x) = -2x2 + 6x – 1
1. For the quadratic function, f(x) = 2x2 + 6x + f(x) = -2(x2 – 3x) – 1
5, find the vertex and maximum or minimum f(x) = -2[x2 – 3x + . / –. / ]– 1
value.
f(x) = -2[x2 – 3x + . / – ]–1
Solution
f(x) = - 2[. / – ]–1
f(x) = 2x2 + 6x + 5
f(x) = 2(x2 + 3x) +5 ( Factorize 2 out;) f(x) = -2. / + –1

Complete the square of the bracket; f(x) = -2. / +

f(x) = 2[x2 + 3x + . / – . / ] + 5 ⇒ The vertex (h, k) is at the point . , /

f(x) = 2[x2 + 3x + . / – ] + 5 . / The minimum value k, is

f(x) = 2[. / – ]+5 Exercises 4.24

f(x) = 2. / – +5 ( *
A. Find the vertices of the parabola formed
by the following functions.
f(x) = 2. / + 1. f(x) = x2 + 4x + 2 2. f(x) = 2 + x – x2
3. f(x) = -2x2 – 6x 4. f(x) = -3x2 – x + 1
⇒ The vertex (h, k) is at the point. , /
5. f(x) = x2 – 16x + 10 6. f(x) = 6x2 + 6x + 15
The minimum value k, is 7. f(x) = -x2 + 5x + 6 8. f(x) = 3 – 6x + 10x2

2. Find the vertex and maximum or minimum B. i. Complete the square in the following,
value of the function f(x) = -2x2 + 4x + 1 ii. find the maximum or minimum value of
the function,
Solution iii. sketch the graph of the function f
f(x) = -2x2 + 4x + 1 1. f(x) = x2 – 6x + 8
f(x) = -2(x2 – 2x) + 1 2. f(x) = x2 + 16x – 36
f(x) = -2[(x2 – 2x + ( ) – ( ) ] + 1 3. f(x) = (x – 4)(x + 2)
f(x) = -2[( ) –1]+1 4. f(x) = (3 – x)(x – 5)
f(x) = -2( ) +2 +1 5. f(x) = (x – 1)(x + 2) (-1)
f(x) = -2( ) +3
The vertex is at the point (1, 3) and the Quadratic Equations
minimum value is 3. Any equation that can be written in the form:
y = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are constants IV. At this point, the implication is that either x
and a ≠ 0 is called a quadratic equation. + n = 0 or x + m = 0
x = − n or x = − m
The values of x that satisfy a quadratic equation
Therefore, the truth set or solution set of the
is called the truth set or solution set or the
roots of the quadratic equation. equation is * or +

The truth set or solution set or the root of the Worked Examples
1. Find the truth set of x2 – x − 6 = 0
quadratic equation is found by using any of the
following methods.
Solution
1. Factorization
x2 – x − 6 = 0,
2. Completing the square
x2 + 2x – 3x – 6 = 0
3. The quadratic formula
(x2 + 2x) – (3x – 6) = 0
4. Graphical method
x (x + 2) – 3(x + 2) = 0
Method of factorization (x + 2) (x – 3) = 0
This method makes use of the idea of the x + 2 = 0 or x – 3 = 0
product of real number. x = – 2 or x = 3
Let a and b be real numbers. If ab = 0 ⇔ a = 0 Truth set = * or +
or b = 0
2. Solve x2 − 13x + 36 = 0
Equations the form: x2 + b x + c = 0 , Solution
To solve quadratic equations of the form: x2 – 9x – 4x + 36 = 0
x2 + b x + c = 0 , (x2 – 9x) − (4x + 36) = 0
I. Find two factors of the constant term, c, that x ( x − 9 ) – 4( x − 9) = 0
sum up to the coefficient of x, as illustrated (x – 4) (x – 9) = 0
below = (x − 4) = 0 or (x − 9) = 0
x2 + b x + c = 0… …….. (1) x = 4 or x = 9
The truth set = {x : x = 4 or x = 9}

m + n mn 3. Solve 2x2 + 5x − 3 = 0
II. Substitute mx + nx = bx in eqn (1) to obtain
four terms as: Solution
x2 + mx + nx + mn = 0 2x2 + 5x – 3 = 0
2x2 – x + 6 x – 3 = 0
III. Group the terms and factorize completely as (2x2 – x) + (6x – 3) = 0
shown below; x (2x – 1 ) + 3 (2 x – 1 ) = 0
(x2 + mx) + (nx + mn) = 0 (2 x – 1) = 0 or x = - 3
x(x + m) + n(x + m) = 0 2x = 1 or x = -3
(x + n) (x + m) = 0.
x = or x = − 3
The truth set = 2 or 3 Solution
Comparing the statements
Solving Related Problems ( ) = 25 + + and
Worked Examples ( ) = + 2ab + , it is seen that:
i. = 25
1. Write the equation x – 11 + = 0 in the form
a=√
ax2 + bx + c = 0, and hence find the truth set
a = 5x
Solution
ii. 2ab = 70x
x – 11 + = 0 (Multiply through by x)
But a = 5x
x2 – 11x + 24 = 0 2(5x)b = 70x
(x – 3) (x – 8) = 0 10bx = 70x
x – 3 = 0 or x – 8 = 0 b = 7 so = = 49
x = 3 or x = 8 Therefore, the complete statement is
( ) = 25 + + 49
2. If (p, q) is the truth set of the equation
x2 + 10x = 96, evaluate (p + q) 2. Copy and complete the statement

Solution ( ) = – +
x2 + 10x = 96
x2 + 10x – 96 = 0 Solution
x2 + 16x – 6x – 96 = 0 Comparing the statements:
(x2 + 16x) – (6x – 96) = 0 ( ) = – + and
x(x + 16) – 6( x + 16) = 0 ( ) = – 2ab + it is seen that
(x – 6) (x + 16) = 0
i. ( ) =( )
x – 6 = 0 or x + 16 = 0
x = 6 or x = -16 Therefore a = and =
Truth set (6, -16) = (p, q)
⇒( p + q ) = 6 + (-16) = - 10 ii. – 2ab = – x, but a =

Method of Completing the Square – 2( ) b = – x

The method of completing the square depends – b = –1
on the identities: b = 1, so =1
1. ( ) = + 2ab + Therefore the complete statement is:
2. ( ) = – 2ab + ( ) = – +1

Worked Examples
3. If m, n Z, find m and n such that
1. Complete the squares in the following;
x2 + 12x + m = ( )
( ) = 25 + +
Solution IV. Complete the squares at the left side of the
Comparing the statements:
equation to get . / =–c+. /
x2 + 12x + m = ( ) and
2 V. Introduce a square root sign on both sides of
a + 2ab + = ( )
2 2
i. x + 12x + m = a + 2ab + the equation i.e. . /= √ . /
Therefore a = x
6. Make x the subject of the equation
ii. 2ab = 12x, but a = x x= √ . /
2bx = 12x
Find the value or values of x that satisfies the
b=6
equation.
But b = n and =m
6 = n and =m Worked Examples
1. Find the truth set of x2 + 8x + 15 = 0
By substitution,
x2 + 12x + m = ( ) Solution
2
= x + 12x + 36 = ( ) x2 + 8x + 15 = 0
Therefore m = 36 and n = 6 x2 + 8x = – 15
x2 + 8x + . / = – 15 + . /
Exercises 4.25
1. The truth set of the equation ax2 + bx = 4 is x2 + 8x + = – 15 +
{-3, 2}. Find the numerical values of the ( ) = – 15 + 16
constants a and b. ( ) =1
x+4= √
Solving Quadratic Equations by Method of x = – 4 + √ or x = – 4 – √
Completing Squares x = – 4 + 1 or x = – 4 – 1
A. Quadratic equations of the form: x = – 3 or x = – 5
x2 + b x + c = 0 Truth set = * or +
To complete the squares of quadratic equations
of the form: x2 + bx + c = 0 B. Quadratic equations of the form:
I. Transpose the constant, c, to the right side of ax2 + b x + c = 0, a > 1
the equation to assume the opposite sign i.e. x2 To complete the squares of quadratic equations
+ bx = – c of the form: ax2 + bx + c = 0,
II. Divide the coefficient of x (number attached i. Transpose the constant, c, to the right side of
to x) by 2. i.e. the equation to assume the opposite sign
i.e. ax2 + bx = – c
III. Square to get . / and add . / to both ii. Divide through the equation by a, which is
sides of the equation the coefficient of ,
i.e. x2 + bx + . / = – c + . / i.e. + =–
⇒ x2 + =– x=–
iii. Find of i.e. × = x=– or x = –

iv. Square to get . / and add . / to both x= or x =

sides of the equation. x=– or x = –
i.e. x2 + +. / = –c+. / x = – 1 or x = –
v. Complete the squares at the left side of the Truth set = 2 or – 3
equation to get;
. / =–c+. / 2. Find the truth set of 3x2 + 2x – 5 = 0
vi. Introduce the square root sign on both sides
Solution
of the equation;
3x2 + 2x – 5 = 0
i.e.. /= √– c . / , 3x2 + 2x = 5

vii. Make x the subject to get the value or x2 + =

values of x that satisfies the equation; x2 + +. / = +. /
x=– √– c . / x2 + +. / = +. /

Worked Examples . / = +
1. Find the truth set of 3x2 + 8x + 5 = 0 . / =

Solution x+ = √
3x2 + 8x + 5 = 0
3x2 + 8x = – 5 x+ =

x2 + =– x=–

x2 + +. / = – +. / x=– or x = –
x= or x = –
x2 + +. / = – +. /
x = 1 or x = –
2
x + +. / = – +. /
Truth set = 2 – 3
. / =– +
Exercises 4.26
. / =
A. Complete the squares in the following;
x+ = √ 1. ( ) = + x+9
2. ( ) = – +
x+ = 3. ( ) = – +
4. ( ) = – + quadratic equations which cannot readily be
5. ( ) = – +4 solved by factorization. In other words, to solve
6. ( ) = – + the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
I. Attempt to factorize the quadratic expression
B. Solve by completing the square; on the left - hand side.
1. x2 + 7x – 3 = 0 4. x2 + 9x + 20 = 0 II. If factorization is not possible, use the
√
2. 10 + 3x – 2 = 0 5. x2 + 4x – 21 = 0 formula: x =
3. 4x2 – 6x – 1= 0 6. 3x2 + 12x + 6 = 0
Note
The Quadratic Formula b2 – 4ac is called the discriminant of ax2+ bx + c
The quadratic formula is derived from the 1. If b2 – 4ac > 0 , then the equation has two
quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 as follows: distinct solutions.
In ax2 + bx + c = 0 2. If b2 – 4ac = 0, then the equation has one
I. Subtract c from both sides; solution.
ax2 + bx = – c 3. If b2 – 4ac < 0 , then the equation has no
II. Divide through by a; (real) solutions.
+ . /x = – . /
Worked Examples
III. Add . / to both sides of the equation; 1. Find the truth set of 2x2 – 9x + 10 = 0

+ . /x + . / = . / – . / Solution
2x2 – 9x + 10 = 0 and ax2 + bx + c = 0
+ . /x + . / = –
compared, a = 2, b = -9 and c = 10
√
IV. Factorize the left – hand side; Substitute in x =
√( ) ( )( )
. / = x= ( )
√
x+ = √. / ( * x=
√
√( ) x=
x+ = 4 5

√( )
x=
x=–
x= or x =
So if ax2 + bx + c = 0, then
x= or x =
√
x= x = or x = 2
Truth set = {x : x = or x = 2}
Using the Quadratic Formula
√
The formula x = is used to solve 2. Solve the quadratic equation x2 + 2x + 3 = 0
Solution B. Solve with the quadratic formula.
x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 1. 20x2 – 81x = - 40
a = 1, b = 2 and c = 3 2. 18x2 – 55x + 8 = -1
Substitute in b2 – 4ac 3. x2 – 26x = 60
22 – 4 (1) (3) 4. 6x2 – 66x – 9 = 79
-8<0 5. 6x2 + 17x – 88 = 0
This means that the equation has no roots.
C. Solve the following equations.
3. Find the value(s) of k such that the equation 1. 4x – 4x2 = 0 2. 2 + x – 3x2 = 0
x2 + kx + (k + 3) = 0 has only one solution. 3. 4x(x – 4) = x – 15 4. x2 – 2√ x + 2 = 0
5. x2 – 2√ x + 3 = 0 6. x3 – 7x2 + 3x = 0
Solution
If b2 – 4ac = 0, then the equation has one Word Problems
solution. In solving word problems involving quadratic
From x2 + kx + (k + 3) = 0 equations, write the mathematical equation for
a = 1, b = k, c = (k + 3) the problem and solve it, taking note of the fact
k2 – 4 (1) (k + 3) = 0 that the problem does not end with solving the
k2 – 4(k + 3) = 0 quadratic equation. You should therefore go
k2 – 4k – 12 = 0 (Solving by quadratic formula) back to the word problem and answer the
a = 1, b = - 4 and c = -12 question it demands.
√
Substitute in x =
Worked Examples
( ) √( ) ( )( )
x= 1. The sum of two numbers is 18. The sum of
( )
√ the squares of the numbers is 194. Find the
x=
numbers.
√
x=
x= or x = Solution
Let x be the number
x= or x =
Then the other number is (18 – x).
x = 6 or x = - 2 Sum of squares = x2 + (18 – x)2.
Truth set = {x : x = 6 or x = - 2} But this is given as 194
x2 + (18 – x )2 = 194
Exercises 4.27 x2 + x2 – 36x + 324 = 194
A. Solve with the quadratic formula 2x2 − 36x + 130 = 0
1. 24x2 + 108x + 120 = 0 x2 − 18x + 65 = 0
2. x2 + 13x –7 = 15 x2 – 5x – 13x + 5 = 0
3. 18x2 + 61x = 50 (x2 − 5x) – (13x + 65) = 0
4. x2 + 30x = -132 x ( x − 5) – 13 ( x − 5 ) = 0
5. x2 + x – 72 = 0 (x −13) (x − 5) = 0
x − 13 = 0 or x – 5 = 0 its length. If the area is 42cm2, find the
x = 13 or x = 5 breadth.
Therefore, the numbers are 5 and 13.
Solution
2. A certain rectangle has perimeter of 48cm Let the breadth be x cm. It means that the
and area of 128cm2. Find the length and breadth length is (x +1)cm
of the rectangle.
But area = length × Breadth
Solution 42cm2 = x (x + 1)
Let the length be L cm and breadth be B 42cm2 = x (x + 1)
P = 2(L + B) „ 41= x2 + x
But P = 48 x2 + x − 42 = 0
⇒ 2(L + B) = 48 x2 + 7 x – 6 x − 42 = 0
L+B= (x2 + 7x) – (6 x – 42) = 0
x( x + 7) – 6 ( x + 7) = 0
L + B = 24cm
(x – 6) (x + 7) = 0
⇒B = 24 – L……….(1)
x – 6 = 0 or x + 7 = 0
But area of rectangle x = 6 or x = -7
= L × B = 128cm2 Since the breadth of a rectangle cannot be
L × B = 128cm2…….(2) negative, the breadth of the rectangle is 6cm.

Put eqn (1) into eqn (2); 4. The present ages of a man and his son are 44
⇒L(24 – L) = 128cm2 and 13 years. How many years ago was the
24L – L2 = 128 product of their ages 140?
L2 – 24 L + 128 = 0
Solution
L2 − 8L – 16L + 128 = 0
Let the number of years ago be x
(L2 − 8L) – (16L+ 128) = 0 (44 – x ) (13 – x ) = 140
L(L – 8) – 16 (L – 8) = 0 44(13 – x ) – x (13 – x ) = 140
(L – 16) (L – 8) = 0 572 – 44x – 13x + x2 = 140
L − 16 = 0 or L− 8 = 0 x2 – 57x + 572 = 140
L = 16 or L = 8 x2 – 57x + 572 – 140 = 0
x2 – 57x + 432 = 0
When L =16, B = 24 – 16 = 8 Now, a = 1, b = -57 and c = 432
When L = 8, B = 24 – 8 = 16 √
Substitute in x =
Therefore, the length and breadth of the
( ) √( ) – ( )( )
rectangle are 16cm and 8cm respectively.
Substitute in x = ( )

3. The breadth of a rectangle is 1cm less than √ –

x=
 √ – x = -1.5 11.06 or x = -1.5 11.06
x=
x = 9.56 or x = -12.56
√
x= Therefore the original speed is 9.56km/h
x=
Exercises 4.28
x= or x =
1. The sum of a number and its reciprocal is .
x = 48 or x = 9
Since the ages must be positive number of Find all such numbers.
years, x = 9 years ago.
2. The sum of two numbers is 23 and their
5. A man cycles 20 km from C to B. If he product is 132. Find the two numbers
increases his speed by 3 km/h, he saves 30
minutes on the journey. Find his original speed 3. Find two numbers such that their product is
in km/h. 104 and their sum is 21.

Solution 4. Find two consecutive positive integers whose

Let x km/h be the original speed product is 168.

Time taken for the journey at this speed is hr

5. The sum of a number and its reciprocal is .
Time taken for the journey at this increased Find all such numbers.
speed would be = . / hours.
6. The area of a rectangle is 84cm2. If the
Thus, we have – =
length is 5cm greater than the width, find the
20(x + 3) – 20(x) = x (x + 3) (
( )
* length of the rectangle.
20x + 60 – 20x =
7. 18 added to the square of a number is equal
x2 + 3x – 120 = 0
to eleven times the number. Find the number.
⇒ a = 1, b = 3 and c = -120
√ 8. My brother‟s age is 7 less than mine. If I
Substitute in x =
square his age and subtract one, I get the same
√ ( )( )
x= results as when I multiply my age by 5. How
√
old am I?
x=
√ B. 1. A plot of land for sale has a width of x m
x=
and a length that is 8 ft less than its width . A
√
x= farmer will only purchase the land if its
x= measues 240 m2. What value of x will cause the
farmer to buy the land?
x = -1.5 11.06
2. The length of a rectangle is 5 cm more than x = and x =
twicw a number. The width is 4 cm less than x – and x –
the same number. If the area of the rectangle is (x – ) (x – ) = 0
15, find the number. x2 – x – x + =0
2
x – ( + )x + =0
3. Find two consecutive positive integers such x2 – ( + )x + = x2 + x + = 0.
that the square of the first decreased by 17
Equating the coefficient of x and the constant
equals 4 times the second.
terms:
4. If the measure of one side of a square is + = and =
increased by 2 cm and the measure of the The quadratic equation can be written:
adjacent side is decreased by 2 cm, the area of
the resulting rectangle is 32 cm2. Find the x2 – ( + )x+ =0
measure of one side of the original square.
OR
Challenge Problems x2 - (sum of roots)x + (product of roots) = 0
1. A number on base ten has two digits, the
second one being two more than the first. The
number itself is 22 more than the product of its This can be used to obtain a new quadratic
digits. Find the number. equation whose roots are known or are given as
functions of and .
2. Due to the fault, the speed of train was
reduced by 10km/h over a journey of 100km. Proofs
The journey took 20 minutes longer. Find the 1. + = =
usual speed of the train.
A
2. α2 + β2
3. What value must be
⇒( ) = α2 + β2 + 2αβ
chosen for x so that < 2x+
B 2 x+8
is a right angle?
α2 + β2 = ( ) – 2αβ
B x C

Sum and Product of the Roots of a Quadratic 3. + = ( )

Equation
The quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c can be ( )
4. + = =
written as : x2 + x + = 0.
The roots of this equation are usually denoted
5. ( ) =( )( )
by and . 2 2
⇒( ) = α + β – 2α β
Now we can write down a quadratic equation
But α + β2 = (
2
) – 2αβ
with roots and
⇒( ) =( ) – 2αβ - 2α β = √
=( ) – 4αβ = √
= (α + β2) – 2α β
2
/α– /=√

6. = √( )
vi. + = ( )
But ( )=( ) –2α β
– . /
α = √( ) = = = 32
. / ⁄
α = √( )

vii. α3 + β3
7. α3 + β3
=( ) (α2 – αβ + β2)
=( ) (α2 – αβ + β2)
=( ) [(α2 + β2) - αβ]
=( ) [(α2 + β2) – αβ]
= (3)[(8) – ]
Worked Examples = (3)(7.5)
1. If α and β are the roots of the equation = 22.5
2x2 – 6x + 1 = 0, find the value of :
i. α + β ii. α β iii. α2 + β2 2. One root of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is
iv. α3 β + α β3 v. /α – β/ vi. + five times the other. Show that 5b2 = 36ac, a ≠ 0

vii. α3 + β3 Solution
Let the roots be α and 5α
Solution ax2 + bx + c = 0
2x2 – 6x + 1 = 0
2
x2 + x + = 0 (let coefficient of x2 equal to 1)
x – 3x + = 0
α + 5α = and (α ) (5α) =
i. α + β = 3
6α = ……….(1)
ii. α β = 5α2 = ……….(2)

iii. α2 + β2 = ( ) –2αβ α is in both equations and not in the solution

=( ) –2. /=9–1=8 required. Therefore, get α on its own from eqn
(1) and substitute in eqn (2)

iv. α3 β + α β3 = α β(α2 + β2 ) From 6α = ……….(1)

= (8) = 4 α=

v. α = √( ) Put α = in eqn (2)

5α2 =
= √( ) . /
 3 3
5. / = iv. + v. + vi. +
vii. (1 + ) + (1 + )
5. /=
viii. . /. /
= (Cross product)
5ab2 = 36a2c ( Divide through by a)
3. The roots of the quadratic equation 2x2 +
5b2 = 36ac
6x + 3 = 0 are α and β. Find the value of:
i. α ii. iii. 3 + 3 iv. 2 + 2
3. If α and β are the roots of the equation;
B. 1. One root of the equation 2x2 + bx + c = 0
x2 – px + q = 0, show that :
2 is three times the other root. Show that 3b2 =
i. + 2 = p2 – 2q
32c.
ii. (α )2 = p2 – 4q
2. Given that one root of the equation 2x2 – 12 x
Solution + k = 0 is twice the other root, find the value of k.
i. x2 – px + q = 0
= p and αβ = q 3. One root of the equation x2 – px + q = 0 is
twice the other. Show that 2p2 = 9q.
α2 + β2 = ( ) – 2αβ
2 2
α +β = – 2q 4. The equation x2 – 2px + q = 0 has roots α and
α + 2. Verify that p2 = q + 1
ii. ( ) =( ) – 2αβ –2α β
=( ) – 4αβ 5. The equation x2 – 12x + k = 0 has roots α and
2
= p – 4q α2. Find two possible values of k.

Exercises 4.30 6. The equation x2 – ax + 16 = 0 has roots α and

1. If α and β are the roots of the equation: α3 find the two possible values of a.
x2 – 2x + 5 = 0, find the value of :
i. α ii. Challenge Problems
2 2
iii. α + iv. 2 + 2 1. One root of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is
v. α3 + 3 vi. (α )2 three times the other show that 3b2 = 16ac
vii. 3 + 3 viii. ( 2 – )( 2 – )
ix. + x. + 2. One root of the equation px2 + qx + r = 0 is
four times the other. Show that 4q2 – 25pr = 0
xi. xii. – –
3. For what values of k is the roots of x2 – 4(k +
2. If α and β are the roots of the equation: 1) x + (k2 – k + 7) = 0 equal to three times the
x2 – 4x – 3 = 0, find the value of : other.
i. 3 + 3 ii. α2 β2 iii. 2 + 2
4. i. The quadratic equation x2 + (2k + 2)x + (2k = = =
⁄
+ 5) = 0 has roots α and β. Express in terms of
Substitute in:
k,α + β b. αβ c. 2α2β + 2αβ2
x2 – (sum of roots)x + (product of roots) = 0
ii. The equation x2 – px + q = 0 has roots 2α +
αβ and 2β + βα, = x2 – x+ =0
2
a. Show that p = 6 = 2x – 5x + 3 = 0
b. Express q in terms of k.
c. Find the values of k for which q = 0. ii. α2, β2
Sum of roots;
Forming Quadratic Equations ⇒( ) = α2 + β2 + 2αβ
A. Forming a Rational Roots α2 + β2 = ( ) – 2αβ
When forming a quadratic equation given the
= . / – 2. / = – =
roots;
1. Identify the roots of the equation.
2. Find the sum of the roots and the product of Product of roots;
the roots respectively. α2 β2 = ( ) =. / =
3. Then respectively substitute in:
x2 – (sum of roots)x + (product of roots) = 0 to
Substitute in:
obtain the quadratic equation.
x2 – (sum of roots)x + (product of roots) = 0
x2 – x+ =0
Worked Examples
1. If the roots of 3x2 – 5x + 2 = 0 are α and β, = 9x2 – 13x + 4 = 0
form equations whose roots are The equation is 9x2 – 13x + 4 = 0
i. , ii. α2 , β2 iii. + , +
3 3
iii. + , +
iv. +1, +1 v. ,
Sum of roots;
= + + +
Solution
3x2 – 5x + 2 = 0 = + + +
2
x – x+ =0 = + +
α = and = ⁄
= + = + =
⁄
i. ,
Sum of roots;
Product of roots;
⁄
= + = = = ⁄
= . /. /

= . / . /
Product of roots;
= + + + αβ = +
( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
+1 =
( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
= + 1 + 1 + αβ

= + αβ + 2 x2 – (sum of roots) x + (product of roots) = 0

x2 – x+ =0
2
By substitution, 4x – 21x + 26 = 0
= + +2 = + +2 = The equation is 4x2 – 21x + 26 = 0
⁄
Substitute in: v. 3, 3
x2 – (sum of roots) x + (product of roots) = 0 Sum of roots;
x2 – x+ =0 3
+ 3
2
= 6x – 25x + 25 = 0 =( ) (α2 – αβ + β2)
The equation is 6x2 – 25x + 25 = 0 =( ) [(α2 + β2) – αβ]
=( ) [( ) – αβ]
iv. + 1, +1 =( ) [( ) ]
=( ) [( ) ]
Sum of roots; = [. / – 3. / ]
+1+ +1 = . /
= + +2 =
= ( )
+2 =
( )
= +2
( ) Product of roots;
( ⁄ ) . / 3 3
= +2 =( ) =. / =
. /

= Substitute in;
x2 – (sum of roots) x + (product of roots) = 0
Product of roots; x2 – x+ =0
. /. / 27x2 – 35x + 8 = 0
The equation is 27x2 – 35x + 8 = 0
= . / . /

=( + + +1 3. If α and β are the roots of the equation:

)
ax2 + bx + c = 0, obtain in terms of a, b and c ,
=( )
+ ( )
+1 the values of :
( )
=( + +1 i. + ii.
) ( )
Solution x2 – (sum of roots) x + (product of roots) = 0
i. ax2 + bx + c = 0 x2 – 2√ + 1 = 0
= , =
⁄ 2. Find the quadratic equation whose one root is
+ = = =
⁄ 3 + 2√

ii. = √( ) Solution
Sum of roots;
= √. ⁄ /
(3 + 2√ ) + (3 – 2√ )
3 + 2√ + 3 – 2√ = 6
= √. ⁄ /

= √ Product of roots ;
(3 + 2√ ) (3 – 2√ )
B. Forming from an Irrational root –( √ )
In a quadratic, irrational and imaginary roots 9 – (4) (3)
occur in conjugate pairs. Thus, if a root of a 9 – 12 = - 4
quadratic equation is given as: Substitute in;
1. a – b √ , then the other root is a + b √ x2 – (sum of roots) x + (product of roots) = 0
2. a + i, then the other root is a – i x2 – 6 x – 4 = 0

Find the sum of roots and the product of roots 3. Determine the quadratic equation whose one
and substitute in : root is - 4 – √
x2 – (sum of roots)x + (product of roots) = 0
Solution
Worked Examples Sum of roots;
1. Form an equation with roots √ + 2, √ – 2, = (- 4 – √ ) + (- 4 + √ )
=-4–√ –4+√
Solution =-8
Let = √ + 2, and = √ - 2,
+ =√ +2+ √ –2 Product of roots ;
= 2√ = (- 4 – √ ) (- 4 + √ )
= ( ) – (√ )
= (√ ) (√ – ) = 16 – 6
= √ (√ – ) (√ – ) = 10
Substitute in;
= 5 – 2√ + 2√ – 4
x2 – (sum of roots) x + (product of roots) = 0
=1
x2 + 8x + 10 = 0
Substitute in;
4. Find the quadratic equation with real Solution
coefficients which -2 + i as a root (i = √ )? x= and x = 3
x – = 0 or x – 3 = 0
Solution
-2 + i and -2 – i 3x – 2 = 0 or x – 3 = 0
Sum of roots; (3x – 2)(x – 3) = 0
= (-2 + i ) +( -2 – i ) 3x(x – 3) – 2(x – 3) = 0
= -2 + i – 2 – i 3x2 – 9x – 2x + 6 = 0
=-4 3x2 – 11x + 6 = 0
x2 – x+ =0
Product of roots;
= (-2 + i )(-2 – i ) Comparing x2 + ax + b = 0 and x2 – x+ =0
= (-2)2 – (i)2
⇒ax = - and b =
= 4 – (-1)
=5 a=- and b = 2
Substitute in;
x2 – (sum of roots) x + (product of roots) = 0 2. The roots of the equation 2x2 + 6x + 3 = 0 are
x2 + 4 x + 5 = 0 and . Find the values of:
i. + ii. iii. 3 + 3 iv. 2 + 2
Exercises 4.31 The roots of the equation 2x2 + px + q = 0 are
1. What is the quadratic equation that has 2 + and 2 + . Find the values of p and q.
one of the following as its root;
1. 5 + √ 2. 4 + √ 3. 4 – 5i Solution
4. -2 – √ 5. 3 – 4 √ 6. √ From 2x2 + 6x + 3 = 0
7. 3 √ 8. 5 √ 9. - 4 3 √ x2 + x + = 0
i. + = - =-3
Two Unknowns from the Roots of an equation
Steps:
1. Identify the given equation as equation (1). ii. =
2. Form a new equation from the given roots as
equation (2) iii. 3 +3 =3( + )
3. Compare equations (1) and (2) to obtain the = 3( - 3 ) = - 9
value of the unknowns.
2 2
iv. + = ( + )2 - 2
Worked Examples = (-3)2 – 2. / = 9 – 3 = 6
1. If the root of the equation is x2 + ax + b = 0
are x = and x = 3, find the values of a and b. From 2x2 + px + q = 0
x2 + x + = 0
Roots are 2 + and 2 + From x2 – 3x + = 0;
Sum of roots = Sum of roots = 3
=2 + +2 + Products of roots =
=2 + +2 +
From the roots; ( )and ( )
=3 +3
Sum of roots
= 3( + )
=( )+( )
⇒ 3( + )= = +
3( - 3) = = + –4
-9=
⇒ + –4=3
- 18 = - p
+ =3+4
p = 18
+ =7
Products of roots =
b. From x2 – 3x + = 0;
(2 + ) (2 + )
= 2 (2 + ) + (2 + ) Products of roots =
=4 +2 2+2 2 + From the roots; ( )and ( )
= 4 + 2( 2 + 2) +
Product of roots
By substitution, =( )( )
= 4. / + 2(6) +. / = ( ) ( )
= –2 -2 +4
= + 12 +
= +4–2 -2
= = +4–2( + )
⇒ = ⇒ +4–2( + )=
q = 39
But + =7
3. The roots of a quadratic equation 2x2 – 6x +
+ 4 – 2 (7) =
5 = 0 are ( ) and ( )
i. Find the value of: + 4 – 14 =
a. α b. – 10 =
ii. Form a quadratic equation, with integer
= + 10
coefficient, with roots and .
=
Solution Substitute in:
i. a. 2x2 – 6x + 5 = 0 x2 – (sum of roots)x + (product of roots) = 0
x2 – 3x + = 0 x2 – 7x + =0
The equation is 2x2 – 14x + 25 = 0 Substitute in:
x2 – (sum of roots)x + (product of roots) = 0
3. If α and are the roots of the equation: x2 – x– =0
3x2 – x – 5 = 0, form the equation whose roots
The equation is 15x2 – 13x – 169 = 0
are 2α – , 2 – .
Exercises 4.32
Solution A. If α and are the roots of the equation:
3x2 – x – 5 = 0, 2
x – 4x – 3 = 0, form a quadratic equation,
x2 – – = 0, with integer coefficient, whose roots are:
i. 2 , 2 ii. α2, β2
+ = and =
iii. α + 3, β + 3 iv. 3α + 1, 3β + 1
v. α – 1, β – 1 vi. ,
From the given roots 2α – , 2 –
Sum of roots; vii. , viii. (1 – ), (1– )

2α – +2 –
Nature of Root of a Quadratic Equation
2 +2 – – Consider the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c =
2 +2 –. / 0, a ≠ 0. The roots of the equation are given
√
2( + ) – . / by: x=

By substitution; The value of the expression (b2 – 4ac) will

⁄ determine the nature of the roots of the
2. / – ( ⁄
*= – = equation and it‟s called the discriminant of
the equation. The three diagram below of the
Product of roots; curve y = ax2 + bx + c, (a > 0) shows the three
. – /. – / possible cases;

. – /– . – / y
4 – – +

4 –2–2 +
  x

By substitution‟ Two distinct real roots

= 4. /–2–2+ = –4– =- b2 – 4ac > 0

⁄
 y (-8 k)2 – 4(5k + 1)(3k) ≥ 0
(64k 2 ) – 4(15k 2 + 3k) ≥ 0
64k 2 – 60k 2 – 12 k ≥ 0
4k 2 – 12k ≥ 0
k 2 – 3k ≥ 0
 x
Two equal roots
Let k 2 – 3k = 0 (replace ≥ with =)
b2 – 4ac = 0 k(k – 3) = 0
k = 0 or k -3 = 0
y k = 0 or k = 3
Test 1, between the roots in k2 - 3k ≥ 0

1 3
x
No real roots (1)2 – 3(1) ≥ 0
-2 ≥ 0 False
b2 – 4ac < 0
Therefore, the solution is not between 0 and 3
Solution is k ≤ 0 or k ≥ 3.
Note:
For real roots, we combine the first two
2. Show that the roots of the equation,
conditions:
(k – 2)x2 – (2 – 3k )x + 2k = 0 are always real,
k R
If b2 – 4ac ≥ 0, the roots are real.
Two equal roots are also called “repeated
Solution
roots”.
(k – 2)x2 – (2 – 3k )x + 2k = 0
a = (k – 2), b = (2 – 3k), c = 2k
You can also make use of the fact that (any real
b2 – 4ac = (2 – 3k)2 – 4(k – 2) (2k)
number)2 ≥ 0.
= (4 – 12k + 9k2 – 4(2k2 – 4k)
= 4 – 12k + 9k2 – 8k2 + 16k
Worked Examples
= k2 + 4k + 4
1. Find the value of k for which the equation
= (k + 2) (k + 2)
(5k + 1)x2 –8kx + 3k = 0 has real roots.
= (k + 2)2

Solution
(k + 2)2 cannot be negative, as it is a square, for
(5k + 1)x2 – 8 k x + 3k = 0
any value of k R.
a = (5 k + 1), b = -8, c = 3 k
Therefore, b2 – 4ac ≥ 0 and so the roots are
always real.
Condition for real roots is;
b2 – 4ac ≥ 0
Exercises 4.33 B. Find the value (s), or range of values, of k
A. In each cas e calculate b2 – 4ac and for which each of the following equations
describe the nature of the roots as either: has:
a. Real 2. Equal 3. No real roots. a. equal roots b. real roots c. no real roots
1. x2 – kx + 1 = 0
Nature 2. 8x2 – kx + 2 = 0
Equation b – 4ac
2
of roots 3. k x2 + (2k + 1)x + k = 0
1 x2 – 2x – 8 = 0 4. (k + 3)x2 + (6 – 2 k)x + (k – 1) = 0
2 x2 – 10x + 25 = 0 5. k x2 + kx + (k – 1) = 0
3 2x2 + 3x + 6 = 0 6. 4x2 + 2(k + 1)x + k2 = 0
4 (p -3) x2 + (2p – 1)
x + (p + 2) = 0 Challenge problems
5 (t + 1) x2 + (2t + 3) 1. Verify that the roots of the equation;
x + (t + 2) = 0 x2 – 3x = q2 – 2 are real for all q R.
6 x2 + 2px + p = 0
7 x2 + qx + q2 = 0 2. Verify that the roots of the equation:
8 x2 – 3x + (2 – k2) = 0 x2 – (a + b)x + (ab – c2 ) = 0 are real for all a,
9 x2 – 2(k – 1)x + (k – b, c R.
1)2 = 0
1 px2 + (p + 1)x + 1 3. Show that the roots of the equation:
0 =0 x2 – (2p + 5)x + 2 (2p + 3 ) = 0 are real for all
values of p R. Verify that one of the roots is
independent of p and the other is not