Instructional Material

ECEN 30034
Electronics Circuits Analysis and
Design
Compiled By:
Ma. Elena Noriega
Faculty
Electronics Engineering Department
COURSE TITLE : Electronics System Analysis and Design
COURSE CODE : ECEN 30034
CREDIT UNITS : 4 units
COURSE : ECEN 30014
PREREQUISITE
COURSE : The course deals with introduction to AC analysis of BJT and FET
DESCRIPTION Amplifier , the model involve in analyses of the circuit, frequency
consideration of amplifiers, operational amplifiers, compound
configuration, and classes of Power Amplifiers and its applications.

Institutional Learning Program Outcomes Course Outcomes

Outcomes
1. Creative and Critical Ability to apply knowledge of Apply the basic concept
Thinking mathematics ability to apply learned in Basic
Graduates use their physical, life and information Electronics1 and Basic
imaginative as well as a science; and engineering Electronics 2.
rational thinking abilities to sciences appropriate to field of
life situations in order push practice. Explain the basic concept of
boundaries, realize Ability to design and conduct atomic theory and apply it to
possibilities, and deepen their experiments, as well as to the atomic structure of
interdisciplinary and general analyze and interpret data. Conductor, Insulator and
understanding of the world. Ability to identify, formulate Semiconductor materials.
and solve engineering Compare characteristics of
problems. intrinsic and extrinsic
2. Effective semiconductor materials
Communication
Graduates are proficient in Ability to effectively Discuss the construction,
the four macro skills in communicate orally and basic operation,
communication (reading, in writing using the characteristics and
writing, listening, and English and configuration of
speaking) and are able to use Filipino language. semiconductor diodes,
these skills in solving bipolar junction transistors
problems. Making decisions, and field effect transistors.
and articulating thoughts Ability to work effectively in
when engaging with people in multi-disciplinary and Discuss the basic structure,
various circumstances. multicultural teams. operation and characteristic
 curve of bipolar junction
3. Strong Service transistor and field effect
Orientation transistor.
Graduates exemplify the Ability to apply professional
potentialities of an efficient, and ethical Analyze diode and
well-rounded and responsible responsibility. transistor circuits
professional deeply Ability to identify the impact of application and solve circuit
committed to service engineering solution in a characteristics using
excellence. global, economic, different techniques and
Environmental and societal theorem used..
4. Community context.
Engagement Design different
Graduates take an active role Ability to use the techniques, configurations, DC biasing
in the promotion and skills and modern engineering and practical application of
fulfillment of various tools necessary Transistor and assemble
advocacies (educational, For engineering practice. the designed circuit
social and environmental) for application
the advancement of
community welfare. Recognize the need for and
an ability to engage in life - Design combinational
long learning. circuits an application of
5. Adeptness in the diodes, bipolar transistor,
Responsible Use of field effect transistors.
Technology Evaluate and compare
Graduates demonstrate circuit characteristics based
optimized use of digital Ability to recognize, formulate from theory.
learning abilities, including and solve engineering
technical and numerical problems.
skills.

6. Passion to Lifelong Recognition of professional,

Learning social and ethical
Graduates are enabled to responsibility.
perform and function in the
society by taking Understanding the effects of
responsibility in their quest to engineering solutions in
know more about the world comprehensive text.
through lifelong learning. Design a system, components
or process to meet desired
7. High Level of needs within realistic
Leadership and constraints such as economic,
Organizational Skills environmental, social,
Graduates are developed to political, ethical health and
become the best safety manufacturability and
professionals in their sustainability in accordance
respective disciplines by with the standards.
manifesting the appropriate Ability to identify the impact
skills and leaderships of engineering solution in a
qualities. global, economic,
environmental context
8. Sense of Personal and
Professional Ethics
Graduates show desirable
attitudes and behavior either
in their personal and
professional circumstances.

9. Sense of National and

Global Responsiveness
Graduates’ deep sense of
national compliments the need
to live in a global village where
one’s culture and other people
culture are respected.

Course Plan

Week Topic Learning Methodolo Resource Assessment

Outcomes gy s
Introduction to course • Explain the Orientation Student
1 contents, activities and policies and Handbook Seatwork for
requirements. standards Review of Policies and
use in syllabus, Departme Guidelines
evaluating learning nt/ implemented
classroom activities Laboratory by
performanc and Policies Department
e, assessment and and
Guidelines Laboratory as
• Discuss the Manual. well as those
syllabus in Student
contents Syllabus Handbook
and
requirement
s needed
for theory
and
laboratory
activities.
2-4 BJT Small Signal • Discuss the Discussion Boylestad Quiz
Analysis steps in and
Introduction to obtaining Recitation Nashelsky Assignment
transistor model Ac .
Re model circuit equivalent Laboratory Electronic Laboratory
Hybrid Parameters circuit of a Experiment s Devices Accomplishm
Model Circuit certain s and Circuit ent Report
BJT common emitter, schematic Theory
common base, diagram Research
common collector and and explain David Bell. Papers
feedback amplifier different Solid
models State
used Pulse
• Define Circuits
parameter
used in Horrowitz
each model and Hill.
circuits and The Art of
determine Electronic
each using s
graphical
analysis Savent
• Discuss and
amplifier Roden.
configuratio Electronic
n and apply s Circuit
each model Design
•
• Solve Robert
circuits Grob.
problems Basic
applying Electronic
models s
used in AC
analysis ECE
Laboratory
Manual
Trainers

5-6 FET Small Signal • Discuss Discussion Boylestad Quiz

Analysis. different and
FET common amplifier Recitation Nashelsky Assignment
source amplifier configuratio .
configuration n of FET Laboratory Electronic Laboratory
FET common gate and apply Experiment s Devices Accomplishm
amplifier models s and Circuit ent Report
configuration used. Theory
FET source follower • Solve Research
circuit Voltage Papers
 gain, David Bell.
current Solid
gain, output State
and input Pulse
resistances Circuits
• Discuss the
application Horrowitz
of FET and Hill.
amplifiers The Art of
• Assemble a Electronic
simple s
amplifier
circuits Savent
and
Roden.
Electronic
s Circuit
Design

Robert
Grob.
Basic
Electronic
s

ECE
Laboratory
Manual
Trainers

7-9 BJT and FET • Understand Discussion Boylestad Quiz

Frequency Logarithms and
Consideration • Know Recitation Nashelsky Assignment
Logarithms Decibel .
Decibel gain Laboratory Electronic Laboratory
Frequency Response • Solve Experiment s Devices Accomplishm
of BJT and FET problems s and Circuit ent Report
regarding Theory
frequency Research
response of David Bell. Papers
BJT and Solid
FET. State
Pulse
Circuits

Horrowitz
and Hill.
 The Art of
Electronic
s

Savent
and
Roden.
Electronic
s Circuit
Design

Robert
Grob.
Basic
Electronic
s

ECE
Laboratory
Manual
Trainers

10-12 Compound • Discuss Boylestad Quiz

Configuration effect of Discussion and
Cascaded system connecting Nashelsky Assignment
Cascode Connection two Recitation .
Differential Amplifier amplifers in Electronic Laboratory
Darlington Pair the circuit Laboratory s Devices Accomplishm
Feedback Amplifier on voltage Experiment and Circuit ent Report
Constant Current gain, s Theory
Source current gain Research
Current Mirror input David Bell. Papers
impedance Solid
s and State
output Pulse
impedance. Circuits
• Explain
Cascading Horrowitz
system and Hill.
• Discuss The Art of
cascode Electronic
connection s
and derive
formulas for Savent
transistor and
characterist Roden.
ics Electronic
• Discuss s Circuit
Darlington Design
connection
 and Robert
formulas Grob.
involve in Basic
computatio Electronic
n of circuit s
characterist
ics ECE
Laboratory
Manual
Trainers

13 Midterm Examination

14-15 Operational Amplifier • Discuss Discussion Boylestad Quiz

Basic and Applications basic of and
Basic of Operational operational Recitation Nashelsky Assignment
Amplifier such as block amplifier, .
diagram, and terms the block Laboratory Electronic Laboratory
used for the device diagram, Experiment s Devices Accomplishm
Operational Amplifier pin s and Circuit ent Report
application as Inverting configuratio Theory
Amplifier, NonInverting ns and Research
Amplifier, Summing specificatio David Bell. Papers
Amplifier, Integrator ns as a Solid
and Differentiator guide and State
Circuit and other tool in Pulse
applications. designing Circuits
circuit
application. Horrowitz
• Solve and Hill.
problems The Art of
regarding Electronic
application s
of
operational Savent
amplifiers and
• Design Roden.
circuit Electronic
application s Circuit
of Design
operational
amplifier Robert
and Grob.
assemble Basic
the circuit Electronic
s

ECE
Laboratory
Manual
Trainers
16-17 Power Amplifier • Discuss Discussion Boylestad Quiz
Series Fed Class A Basic and
amplifier Concept of Recitation Nashelsky Assignment
Class B Amplifier Power .
Class AB Amplifier Amplifier Laboratory Electronic Laboratory
Class C Amplifier • Analyze Experiment s Devices Accomplishm
Class D amplifier and study s and Circuit ent Report
different Theory
classes of Research
power David Bell. Papers
amplifier Solid
• Discuss State
amplifier Pulse
distortions Circuits
and gain
• Solve Horrowitz
problems and Hill.
regarding The Art of
efficiency, Electronic
output s
power and
gain. Savent
• Discuss and
applications Roden.
of Power Electronic
amplifiers in s Circuit
a system. Design

Robert
Grob.
Basic
Electronic
s

ECE
Laboratory
Manual
Trainers

18 Final
Examination/Departme
ntal Examination
Suggested Readings and References
 Basic Electronics By Robert Grob, Electronics Devices and Circuit Theory by Boylestad and
Nashelsky, Solid State Pulse Circuits by David Bell, The Art of Electronics by Horrowitz abd
Hill
Electronics Circuit Design by Savent and Roden, ECE Laboratory Manual Trainers,
Powerpoint Presentation.

Course Grading System

See Student Handbook

GRADE PERCENTAGE EQUIVALENT

1.0 97-100 EXCELLENT
1.25 94-96 EXCELLENT
1.5 91-93 VERY GOOD
1.75 88-90 VERY GOOD
2.0 85-87 GOOD
2.25 82-84 GOOD
2.5 79-81 SATISFACTORY
2.75 76-78 SATISFACTORY
3.0 75 PASSING
4.0 65-74 CONDITIONAL
5.0 FAILURE
INC INCOMPLETE
W WITHDRAWN

9.2 A grade of “4.0” is conditional and shall be given only during the midterm grading period.
No final grade of “4.0” shall be given.
9.3 Incomplete (“INC”) is temporarily given to a student who may qualify for passing but had
not complied with all requirements of the subject. Such requirements must be satisfied within
one year from the end of the term; otherwise, the grade automatically becomes a “5.0”.
9.4 “ Withdrawn” is given if the students voluntarily drops a subject and corresponding files a
dropping form at any time not less than two weeks before the final examination after the
period the faculty member may only give a passing of failing grade. Withdrawn is also given
when the faculty member drops the student from his roll for having exceeded the allowable
number of absences.
9.5 A student who has received a passing grade in a subject shall not be allowed to take
another examination for purpose of improving his grade.

Professor Grading System : Class Participation such as attendance, Seat works, Board
works, Laboratory Exercise, Researches, Extension activity is 70% of the Total Grade and
Examinations as Midterm, Final and Departmental Examination is 30% of the total Grade.

Classroom Policy
 For Attendance a grace period of 15 minutes will be given to every student who comes late in
class before he/she is considered as late. Three consecutive absences in class will be
considered as withdrawn/dropped in the subject. Cheating, plagiarism and other forms of
intellectual dishonesty are absolutely prohibited under the PUP Rules and Regulations, in the
events of infractions, PUP students will be discharge from the Colleges

Consultation Time
10 hrs consultation time per week or as may be needed by student concerned.

Prepared By:

Engr. Ma. Elena Noriega

ECE Faculty ECE Faculty

Recommending Approval: Approved:

Engr. GEOFFREY T. SALVADOR Dr. REMEDIOS G. ADO

ECE Faculty & Chairperson Dean, College of Engineering

(The portion for signatures must be placed on a separate page)

SAMPLE SIGNATORY FORMAT

Prepared by: Enhanced by: Reviewed by:

[Link]. [Link].
__________________, MEM __________________, MEM
Assoc. Prof.
Department/Academic
Ma. Elena Faculty Member from the Program Head
Noriega, MEMBER Branches or Satellite Campuses
Note: with signature and
Faculty Member Note: with signature date of signing
from the Main and date of signing
Campus
Note: with
signature and
date of signing
 ECEN 30034

Electronics Devices and Circuits

Small Signal Analysis of

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Module 1

Compiled By:

Ma. Elena Noriega

The Module Objectives:

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

• Know the basic concept of Small Signal Analysis of transistor

• Define circuits characteristics such as gain, input resistance and output resistance
• Assemble an amplifier circuit using and solve circuit characteristics

The Overview:

One function of a bipolar junction transistor is to strengthen an AC signal connected to the input
terminal. And we referring to this function of a transistor as an amplifier. A small signal amplifier
is known as a voltage amplifier. Let us say we 10mV signal connected to the input stage of the
circuit would give us an output of 500mV, meaning the signal is increase 50 times that of the input
signal. This increase was achieved by an amplifier. If you need to drive a certain device like
sensor which requires a higher voltage and your input signal is not enough to drive it you need an
amplifier to attain the required voltage that is in order to put this sensor in operations. This is now
the use of an amplifier. An amplifier is characterized by its input resistance, output resistance
and its gain. To know the effect of small signal fed to the input of an amplifier circuit what you
need to do is to transform the circuit into what we called model.

The Course Materials:

Small signal analysis of transistor is about an application of an AC signal to the transistor and
determine circuit characteristics such as input resistance, output resistance, voltage gain, current
gain and power gain. The approach to an AC analysis is through the use of what we called model.
And what is model? A model is a combination of circuit elements properly chosen that best
approximate the actual behavior of a semiconductor device under its operating conditions. There
are two models use nowadays. Namely re model and Hybrid model.

re model was based from an ordinary diode where in the input resistance of the equivalent model
represents the dynamic resistance of the diode seen at the base terminal of the transistor which is
a PN junction, that is resistance re = 0.026/ID. This re is equal to a change in voltage of a diode
over a change in current of the diode. At the output terminal a current source is connected across
the internal resistance ro. This ro in some cases was treated with an infinite resistance and
replaced by an open circuit. Shown below is a common base and an equivalent circuit.

The Equivalent re Model of a common base amplifier configuration

For a Common emitter:

The equivalent re model of a common emitter amplifier configuration is compose of resistor Bre seen in
the input terminal and a current source in parallel with resistor ro at the output terminal.

The hybrid model is a model use in ac analysis of bipolar transistor. The characteristics of the circuits can
be obtained using the four hybrid parameters and defined by using the given equation below. Hybrid
means a combination of V and I in a given equation.
Vi = hi Ii + hrVo

Io = hfIi + hovo

Using equation Vi and setting Ii to zero

hr = Vi/Vo reverse transfer voltage ratio

if Vo is set to zero

hi = Vi/Ii input impedance of the circuit

using equation Io and setting Ii to zero

ho = Io/Vo output admittance of the circuit

If Vo is set to zero

hf = Io/Ii forward transfer current ratio

Equivalent Hybrid Model

Approximate and Complete:

Two Port system is an electrical network wherein current entering one terminal is same
current leaving the other terminal. Two port means a two pair of wires. This network is
characterized by Vi, Vo, Ii and Io. Shown below is a two port network.
Equivalent Hybrid Model:
Equivalent re model of a common emitter stabilize bias:

Activities/Assessment:

1. Define in your in words AC analysis of Bipolar Transistor

2. Derive the equation for voltage gain Av and current gain Ai for a common
collector amplifier circuit
3. Draw the re model and hybrid model of the following circuits:
• Collector Feedback Circuit
• Darlington Pair Circuit
• Differential Amplifier circuit
4. Solve at least 5 circuits problems regarding AC analysis of BJT

Field Effect Transistor Small Signal Analysis

Module 2

Compiled By:

Ma. Elena Noriega

Module Objectives:

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

• Define the Small Signal Analysis of Field Effect Transistor

• Understand the Models used in AC Analysis of Field Effect Transistor

• Know important parameters

• Analyze and solve circuit characteristics by mathematical solution

The Overview:

The small signal analysis of Field effect transistor is knowing the effect of AC signal that
is being connected to the device. Learn what models are used in order to determine
transistors characteristic like voltage gain Av, current gain Ai, input resistance Ri, and the
output resistance Ro. What are important parameters involve with circuits models such
as transconductance gm, drain source resistance rds, output admittance yos, and
forward admittance at source terminal yfs.

Using shockley´s formula we can determine all of these parameters.

The Course Materials:

Field Effect Transistor is a voltage control device with a small gate voltage it can control
the output current that is the drain current. Due to high input characteristics of this device,
the AC equivalent model of this transistor as compare with BJT is somewhat simpler. The
FET has a transconductance gm factor comparing with BJT an amplification factor of β.
The FET is used as a linear amplifier or a as a device in digital logic circuits. Below is a
circuit model of FET

The gate to source voltage VGS controls the drain to source current of the channel. This
is using the shockley´s equation that:
𝑉𝐺𝑆
ID = IDSS (1 − )2
𝑉𝑃

The change in drain current ID will result from a change in Gate to Source Voltage VGS
can be determined using the transconductance factor gm
𝛥𝐼𝐷
gm =
𝛥𝑉𝐺𝑆
Mathematical definition of gm:
𝛥𝐼𝐷 𝑑𝐼𝐷 𝑑 𝑉𝐺𝑆
gm = = = IDSS (1 - )2
𝛥𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑑𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑑𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑉𝑃

2𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝐺𝑆
gm = (1− )
𝑉𝑃 𝑉𝑃

When VGS = 0
2𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝐺𝑆
gm = (1− )
𝑉𝑃 𝑉𝑃

2𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆
gm = = gmo
𝑉𝑃

where: gm = transconductance of FET

IDSS = drain-source saturation current

VP = Pinch off voltage

gmo = transconductance when VGS = 0

On specification sheet gm is provided with yfs where y is admittance of signifies

Forward transfer parameters and s reveals it is connected to source

gm = yfs

Impact of ID on gm

𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝐼𝐷
1− =√
𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆

𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝐼𝐷
gm= gmo ( 1 − ) = gm √
𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆

If ID =IDSS

𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆
gm = gmo√ = 𝑔𝑚𝑜
𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆

If ID = IDSS/2

𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆/2
gm = gmo√ = gmo√2 = 0.707gmo
𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆
If ID = IDSS/4

𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆/4
Gm = gmo√ = gmo/2 = 0.5gmo
𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆

FET Input Impedance Zi

The input impedance of FET is sufficiently large to assume that the input terminals
approximately an open circuit. In equation form,

Zi (FET) =∞

For JFET a practical value of 109 (1000Mohms) is typical, while a value of 1015 ohms is
typical for MOSFETS.

FET Output Impedance Zo

The output impedance of FET is similar in magnitude to conventional BJTs. On

specification sheets, the output impedance appears as yos with units of µS. For JFET yos
has a range of 10 to 50 µS or 20K ohms to 100K ohms. In equation form

Zo (FET) = rd = 1/yos
𝛥𝑉𝐷𝑆
rd = |VGS = constant
𝛥𝐼𝐷

FET Ac Equivalent circuit

With yfs = 3.8mS, yoS = 20µ S sketching the model

gm = yfs = [Link] and rd = 1/yoS = 1/20µS = 50K ohms

FET Fixed Bias:

For Fixed bias configuration a fix source is being connected to the device and an

inclusion of capacitors that separate the DC biasing arrangement from applied signal
source. The capacitor for AC analysis is replaced by a short circuit. All Dc sources are
replaced by a short circuit also. The equivalent model for FET is being

reflected to the AC equivalent network.

Zi = RG

Zo = 𝑅𝐷𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑑

Solving Vo:

Vo = - gmVgs (𝑅𝐷𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑑)

Vi = Vgs

Vo = -gmVi (RDIIrd)

Av = Vo/Vi = -gm (RDIIrd)

JFET Self Bias Circuit:

Bypassed RS:

This circuit requires only one DC source for operation. The capacitors for AC analysis
assume short circuit.

𝑍𝑖 = 𝑅𝐺

Zo = 𝑅𝐷𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑑

Solving Vo:

Vo = - gmVgs (𝑅𝐷𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑑)

Vi = Vgs

Vo = -gmVi (RDIIrd)

Av = Vo/Vi = -gm (RDIIrd)

Un bypassed RS:

In this circuit Cs is removed from the circuit then RS is part of AC equivalent circuit.
AC Analysis of the circuit:

Zi = RG

Zo = RD

For AV:

Vo = ID RD

= -gmVgs RD

from input terminal

Vi = Vgs + ID RS

= Vgs + gmVgs RS

Vi = Vgs (1 + gmRS)

AV = Vo/ Vi

AV = - gmRD/ (1 + gm RS)

Inclusion of rd:
AC Analysis of Voltage Divider JFET:

Zi = R1 || R2

Zo = rd || RD

For rd ≥ 10RD

Zo ≅ RD

AV:

Vgs = Vi

Vo = -gm Vgs (RD||rd)

= -gm Vi (RD || rd)

Then

AV = Vo/Vi = -gm (RD || rd)

AV ≅ −𝑔𝑚𝑅𝐷 𝑖𝑓 𝑟𝑑 ≥ 10𝑅𝐷
Activities/Assessments:

1. Discuss the different types of FET Amplifier Configuration and give their
differences
2. Define in your own words small signal analysis of FET and give emphasis in
voltage gain, current gain, input resistance and output resistance.
3. For a voltage divider common source amplifier configuration with RD Rl and rd in
the output terminal, RG1 and RG2 in the input terminal derive the formula for Av
voltage gain and Ai current gain of the circuit.
4. Solve 5 circuits problem for JFET, DMOSFET and EMOSFET.

BJT and FET Frequency Response

Module 3

Compiled By:

Ma. Elena Noriega

The Module Objectives:

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

• Understand Logarithms

• Learn Decibel Gain

• Know frequency response of BJT and FET

• Analyze and solve circuit regarding effect of frequencies in a circuit.

The Overview:

The behavior of amplifier is affected by frequency of signal. This characteristic is what we called
frequency response. This is one of the most important property of amplifiers. In a frequency range that
the amplifier has been designed for, they must deliver a constant and acceptable level of gain. The
frequency response depends on the components and how the amplifier is designed. The frequency range
in which this amplifier will operate can be called the mid-range. At frequency above and below this mid-
range, capacitance and inductance will affect the gain of amplifier. At low frequencies capacitors lower
the gain. With regards to high frequencies stray capacitances of active devices lower the gain. If we are
to cascade amplifiers gain will be affected by the frequencies. In this module we will study the effect of
frequency on gain of the circuit.

The Course Materials:

Logarithms: A logarithm is the power to which a number must be raised in order to get some other
number.

a = 𝑏𝑋 , 𝑋= log𝑏 𝑎

Variables a,b,x are the same in each equation If a is determined by taking the base b to the x power, the
same x will result if the log of a is taken to the base of b.
log 2 8 = 3 because 23 = 8 or

or 𝑙𝑜𝑔 100 = 2 because 102 = 100

Write log followed by base number as a subscript. The most common logarithms are base 10 logarithms
and natural logarithms. They have special notation. A base ten log is written:

log

And a base ten logarithmic equation is usually written in the form:

log a = r

A natural logarithm is written:

ln

And the natural logarithmic equation is written in the form:

ln a = r

Natural Logarithm:

Logarithms with a base of e are called natural logarithms. e is a very special number approximately equal
to 2.718

Logarithm Rule:

• 𝑏 𝑟 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 log 𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑟

• log 0 is undefined

• log 1 = 0

• log (P*Q) =log P + log Q

• log (P/Q) = log P – log Q

• log (𝑃𝑡 ) = t * log P

• 10(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎) = a (in case of natural logarithms 𝑒 ln 𝑎 =a

• log10𝑟 = r (in case of natural logarithms ln𝑒 𝑟 = r

• log (1/r) = - log a

Log scales: the use of log scales can significantly expand the range of variation of a given variables
on a graph. Most graph paper available is a semi log or double log (log-log) variety. The term semi
indicates that only one of the two scales is a log scale while double log scale means both scales are
log scale.
Plot response curve of Low pass filter

Decibel: This is a unit used to measure intensity of sound or power level of an electrical signal by
comparing it with the given level on a logarithmic scale. The term bel was derived from surname of
Alexander Graham Bell. For standardization, the bel (B) was defined by the equation below relating
power levels

G = log10 𝑃2/𝑃1 (bel)

Decibel (db) was defined such that 10 decibels = 1bel

GdB = 10 log10 𝑃2/𝑃1 (dB)

𝑃2
GdbBm = 10 log10 1𝑚𝑊 | 600
 𝑉22
𝑅1 𝑉2 2
GdB = 10 log10 𝑃2/𝑃1 = 10 log10 𝑉12
= 10log10 ( )
𝑉1
𝑅1

GdB = 20 log V2/V1

For cascading system:

|AVT| = |AV1| |AV2| |AV3|.|Avn|

applying logarithmic relationship:

Gv = 20 log AVT = 20 log AV1 + 20 log AV2 + 20 log AV3 +…. + 20 log AVn

GdBT = GdB1 + GdB2 + GdB3 + + GdBn (dB)

Problem: The input power to the device is 10000W at a voltage of 1000V. The output power is 500W
while the output impedance is 20 ohms.

(a) Determine power gain in decibels

(b) Determine voltage gain in decibels

(c) Explain why parts (a) and (b) agree or disagree

Solution:
500
(a) GdB = 10 log10 𝑃2/𝑃1 = 10 log10 = −10 log10 20 = -13.01dB
10𝐾

√𝑃𝑅 √500(20)
(b) GV = 20 log V2/V1 = 20 log = 20 log = -20dB
1000 1000

(c) Ri = 𝑉𝑖 2 /Pi = (1𝐾)2 /10KW = 100 ≠ Ro = 20 ohms

General Frequency Considerations: The frequency of applied signal have an effect on the response
curve of a single or cascaded amplifier. At low frequency we can no longer replaced capacitances by
short circuit because of an increase in reactance of coupling and bypass capacitors.. The frequency
dependent of parameters of a small signal equivalent circuits and the stray capacitive elements of an
active device and network will limit the high frequency response of the system. An increase in the
number of stages of a cascaded system will also limit the gain as shown in the response curve
Midband power output at mid frequencies
𝑉𝑜2 Avmid Vi
Pomid = | |= | |2
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑜

At the half power frequencies

0.707Avmid Vi Avmid Vi
PoHPF =| |2 = 0.5| |2
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑜

And PoHPF = 0.5Pomid

The bandwidth (passband) of each system f1 and f2

Bandwidth (BW) = f2 – f1

At half power frequency:

Level is 0.707 = 1/√2

AV/ AVmid = 20 log AV/AVmid

Low Frequency Analysis of bode plot: Bode plot display phasors graphically, gain in decibels and
phase in degrees are plotted against the frequency in Hertz. The horizontal scale is logarithmic and
vertical scales are linear.
If gain equation is written as
𝑅 1 1 1
Av = = 𝑋𝐶 = 1 = 1
𝑅 −𝑗𝑋𝐶 1−𝑗 1−𝑗 1−𝑗
𝑅 𝜔𝑅𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶

1
using f1 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

1
Av = 𝑓1
1−𝑗( )
𝑓

In magnitude and phase angle form

1 𝑓1
Av = <𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑓1 𝑓
√1+( )2
𝑓

magnitude phase angle Vo leads Vi

_________ ___________________

For magnitude when f = f1

1
Av = = 0.707 = -3dB
√2

In logarithmic form the gain in dB is

1
Av = 20 log 𝑓1 2
√1+( )
𝑓

𝑓1 1/2
AvdB= -20log {1 + ( )2 }
𝑓

𝑓1
AvdB = -10 log {1 + ( )2 }
𝑓
Ii = I1 + I2
(Vi – Vo )
Vi/Zi = Vi/ Ri +
𝑋𝐶1

(Vi – AvVi )
= Vi/Ri +
𝑋𝐶𝑓

1
1/Zi = 1/Ri + 𝑋𝑐𝑓
1−𝐴𝑣

Xcf 1
= = Xcm
1−𝐴𝑣 𝑤(1−𝐴𝑣)𝐶𝑓

--------------

CM

1/Zi = 1/Ri + 1/Xcm

The miller effect input capacitance is

CMi = (1- AV) Cf shows that

For any inverting amplifier the input capacitance

Will be increased by a miller effect capacitance sensitive to gain of the amplifier and interelectrode
(parasitic) capacitance between the input and output terminals of the active device
High Frequency Response BJT Amplifier:

In a high frequency region RC circuit with increase in frequencies the reactance Xc will decrease in
magnitude resulting in a shorting effect across the output and decrease in gain. Av is
1
Av = 𝑓
1+𝑗 ( )
𝑓2

The parasitic capacitances Cbe, Cbc,Cce of transistor have been included with wiring capacitances Cwi
and Cwo. Shown a network below.
hfe or Beta Variation:

Variation of parameter hfe or Beta in a small signal analysis of a network is related by the equation given
below in terms of frequency:
ℎ𝑓𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑑
hfe = 𝑓
1+𝑗 ( )
𝑓𝛽

undefined f𝛽 is a parameter set in hybrid 𝜋 𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑟 Giacolete model used in high frequency region.
Below is an example of hybrid 𝜋 network.
With this hybrid 𝜋 network rbb include base contact, base bulk and base spreading resistance. First
actual connection to the base, second includes resistance from external terminal to active region and the
last is the actual resistance of active base region. Resistance rbe, rce, rbc are resistance between each
terminal when in active region. Same for capacitances Cbe and Cbc; in terms of these parameters
𝑔𝑏𝑒
fB or fhfe = , gm =hfemid gbe
2𝜋 ( 𝑐𝑏𝑒+𝑐𝑏𝑐)

𝑔𝑚
fB =1/hfemid (
2𝜋 ( 𝑐𝑏𝑒+𝑐𝑏𝑐)

𝛽𝑚𝑖𝑑
gm = hfemid gbe = 1/rbe ≅ hfemid/hie = = 1/re
𝛽𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑒

Using approximations:

C’be ≅ Cbe, Cb’c ≅ Cbc

1
fB = fB is a function of bias condition
2𝜋𝐵𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑒 (𝐶𝑏𝑒+𝐶𝑏𝑐)

For common base ∝

fB = f∝ (1 −∝ )

A quantity call gain bandwidth product is defined for transistor by condition

ℎ𝑓𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑑
𝑓 =1
1+𝑗 ( )
𝑓2
Equation for FET High Frequency Response of Amplifier:

Input:
1
fHi = , 𝑅𝑇𝐻𝑖 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔||𝑅𝐺
2𝜋𝑅𝑇𝐻𝑖 𝐶𝑖

Ci = Cwi + Cgs + CMi, CMi = (1-Av) Cgd

Output:
1
fHo = , RTHo =RD||RL||ro
2𝜋𝑅𝑇𝐻𝑜 𝐶𝑜

1
Co = Cwo + Cds + CMo, CMo = (1 - ) Cgd
𝐴𝑣

Read:

• BJT and JFET Frequency Response

By: Robert Bolyestad

Louis Nashelsky

Watch: [Link]

• BJT High Frequency and Low frequency response

• FET High Frequency and Low Frequency response

• Multi Stage Frequency Effects

The Activities and Assessment:

1. Define The following:

• Decibel

• Logarithm

• Low frequency response of amplifier

• High Frequency Response of an amplifier

2. Differentiate the frequency response curve of the following:

• RC Coupled Amplifier

• Transformer Coupled Amplifier

• Direct Coupled Amplifier

3. Discuss Miller Effect Capacitance

4. Solve problems regarding the following:

• Low Frequency Response BJT amplifier

• High Frequency Response BJT Amplifier

• Low Frequency Response FET Amplifier

• High Frequency Response FET Amplifier

 Compound Configuration

Module 4

Compiled By:

Ma. Elena Noriega

The Overview:

Compound Configuration is a combinational circuit that is made up of one amplifier

circuit that is being connected to another stage amplifier circuit or other circuits aside
from amplifiers. The connection is made by the use of electronics devices such as
capacitor, resistor, transformer or even without the use of these components that is
said to be directly connected to the other stage. We have to be familiar with what we
called cascaded amplifier, cascode connection, direct coupled amplifier, transformer
coupled amplifier and etc. The reason why we have to connect such amplifier to
another stage amplifiers is to obtain a high gain characteristic. In this module we will
analyze how the circuit works and how we will compute the overall gain of the circuit
using different circuit models or techniques in solving circuit problems. We will apply
the methods we obtained from the previous topics in our analysis of the amplifier
circuits.

The Module Objectives:

After successful completion of this module,

You should be able to:

• Define compound configuration

• Understand the operation of the circuits
• Know its applications
• Analyze and solve circuits circuit characteristics

The Course Materials:

Compound configuration or we called multistage amplifiers is a connection of one amplifier to another

stage amplifier by the used of components such as resistor and capacitors. This circuit is called an RC
coupled amplifier. The connection of this amplifiers is what we called cascading system. Resistor and
capacitor here act as a coupling device. The use of this coupling device is to transfer voltage or current
to the next stage amplifier. The capacitor in this circuits blocks the DC and allows the flow of AC.
The overall voltage gain of the circuit is:

AVT = AV1. AV2

Where:

AV1 is the voltage gain of the first stage

AV2 it the voltage gain of the second stage

For Example:

If AV1 = 3, and AV2 = 4 then

AVT = AV1. AV2

= 3.4

AVT = 12

We know that AV1 = Vo1/Vi1 and AV2 = Vo2/Vi2

By equation:

AVT = AV1.AV2

=Vo1/Vi1. Vo2/Vi2, Vo1 = Vi2

AVT = Vo1/Vi1. Vo2/Vo1

AVT = Vo2/Vi1

Meaning the output voltage measured at the output of the second stage is

Vo2 = AVT Vi1

Vo2 = 12 Vi1 if Vi1 = 2mV then

Vo2 = 12 (2 mv)

Vo2 = 14mV
 • Transformer Coupling uses a transformer to couple one stage amplifier to other stage amplifier
the voltage transfer is dependent on the Turn Ratio Equation of the transformer.

Np/Ns = Vs/Vp

Np/Ns = Is/Ip

Where:

Np= Number of turns of the primary winding

Ns= Number of turns of the secondary winding

Vp = Voltage of the primary

Vs= Voltage of the secondary

Ip= Current of the primary

Is= Current of the secondary

 • Direct coupling the output of the 1st stage is being coupled directly to the

the next stage amplifier.

The role of capacitors in the circuit:

Cin is use to couple the input signal to the base of transistor if not present therefore the input signal will
be in parallel with resistor at input and will change the bias voltage at the input terminal hence the Cin
allows the flow of the input signal to the circuit without affecting the bias voltage of the circuit.

Ce is the Emitter Bypass capacitor this is connected in parallel with the resistor at the emitter terminal.
This Ce offers low impedance path to the amplified AC signal. If not connected voltage across RE will be
feedback to the input and will reduce the output voltage

CC is the coupling capacitor connect in between the stages of amplifier prevents DC interference
between stages and control operating point from shifting. This is also use to block DC components since
capacitor blocks DC and allows the

flow of AC.

• RC Coupled Amplifier: The circuit is composed of two common emitter amplifier stages which is
coupled by a Resistor and capacitor. The output at the second stage is in phase with the input. If
an even numbers of amplifiers are cascaded the output is in phase with the input and for odd
numbers of amplifier cascaded we can expect the output is out of phase with the input signal. In
cascadingsystems we can expect that the output voltage will increase since we know that the
overall gain of the circuit is equal to the product of each gain.
RC coupled Amplifiers

Advantage of RC coupled Amplifier:

• Cheap and economical since it uses only resistor and capacitor as

coupling device

• Offers constant gain for a wide range of frequency

Disadvantages:

• Not good for low frequency amplification

• Low voltage and power gain since the effective load resistance is reduce because to the input
resistance to next stage is low.

• Moisture sensitivity making them noisy when time elapses.

• Narrow bandwidth comparing it to FET.

Application:

• RF Communications

• Public address system as pre amplifiers

• Controllers

• Radio and TV Receiver as small signal amplifiers

Transformer Coupled Amplifier

Direct Coupled Amplifiers:

The amplifiers are coupled directly to each other with no coupling device is use. The signal is connected
to the base of transistor T1 and the output form collector is directly connected to T2 which is a common
collector circuit. As seen in the figure the output of T2 is at RC and again connected to the base of
transistor T3 which is a common emitter amplifier configuration.
Advantages:

• The circuit is simple since less components used

• It is less expensive due to no coupling devices

Disadvantages:

• Limited for low frequency amplification

• Operating point is shifted due to temperature variation

Applications:

• Low Frequency Amplifiers

• Low Current Amplifiers

Other Compound Circuits:

Differential Amplifier

The circuit is a differential amplifier by the name implies it amplifies the difference of the two inputs signal V1 and
V2 connected at the base of each transistor. The output signal is taken from collector of both transistors. A
constant current source is connected across the emitter terminal for increasing the common mode rejection ratio
of the circuit. That is the ability of the circuit to reject unwanted signal.
 • Double Ended Input Operation:

The base terminal of transistor Q1 and transistor Q2 are supplied with input signal of opposite polarity.
The operation of the circuit can be best explained by using superposition theorem. If we are to consider
first input signal at Q1 wherein Q2 is grounded the resulting output signal for both collector terminals of
transistors is the same when we analyze the single ended input operation. Now considering input signal
at Q2 in which the Q1 is grounded this will produce an out of phase signal in the collector terminal of Q2
which is positive going signal since Q2 input is negative. This will also produce negative voltage drop
across the upper portion of RE and positive voltage at lower portion that is connected to the base of Q1.
This will result to an output signal of same phase with the input signal at base of Q2. the resultant output
signal produce for collector terminal of Q1
 • Common Mode Operation:

Here the base terminal of both transistors were connected to a single signal source meaning supplied by
same polarity signal. This result to an output signal at the collector terminal which is opposite with each
other and tends to cancel. This operation is also applied to what we called common mode rejection ratio
for cancellation of unwanted signal.

Advantages:

• Differential Amplifiers has noise property cancellation

• It can reduce external interference

• Nature of this amplifier is linear

• It helps to increase CMRR further helps for avoiding unwanted signal

Disadvantages:

• Complexity of circuit

• Proper biasing is needed

Applications:

• Audio Amplifier for accurate and noiseless volume control

• Audio and Video Processing

• Automatic Gain Control Circuit

• Amplitude Modulator

• Negative Feedback Circuit

• Motor Control

• High Pass Filter Circuit

• Darlington Pair:
This circuit is use for increasing current gain of the circuit. It is also called super Beta circuit.

Advantages:

• Offers high current gain

• Also offers high input resistance

Disadvantages:

• Slow switching speed

• Limited bandwidth

• High overall base emitter voltage

• High saturation voltage leads to power dissipations

Application:

• Current Amplifiers

• Motor Controllers

• Display Drivers

• Touch and Light sensors

• Solenoid controls

• Cascode Connection:
A cascode circuit is a common emitter amplifier connected to a common

base amplifier. This circuit has a high gain, moderate input impedance , high output impedance and high
bandwidth.

Advantages:

• The Bandwidth is high because of elimination of miller effect

• The overall gain is high

Disadvantages:

• Due to presence of transistor it requires a high amount of voltage supply

Application:

• 4 Channel car Amplifier

• RF Tuner

• Amplitude Modulation Techniques

 • Current Mirror Circuit:

• A current mirror is a circuit that reflects a current through one active device by controlling the
current in another device of the circuit, making the output current constant regardless of loading.
Ideal current mirror is also an ideal inverting current that reverses direction. This circuit is use to
provide bias current and active loads to the circuits. This circuit is also referred to as Current
Controlled Current Source of CCCS.

Constant Current Source:

A circuit which provides a constant current to the load even there is variation in
READ:

Compound configuration

Watch:
Activities/Assessments:

1. Define in your own words the following:

• RC Coupled Amplifier

• Darlington Pair

• Differential Amplifier

• Constant Current Source

• Cascode Connection

2. Discuss the three mode of operation of Differential Amplifier

3. Draw a simple Current mirror and give the equation of I reference use the following devices:

• BJT Transistors

• Field Effect Transistors

4. Make a table for the advantages, disadvantages and application of the following circuits:

• Darlington pair

• Differential Amplifier

• Cascode connection
 Operational Amplifier Basics

Module 6

Compiled By:

Ma. Elena Noriega

The Overview:

An Operational Amplifier is a high gain amplifier design to perform mathematical operation such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. It is a DC coupled high gain amplifier in which a
feedback element is added such as resistor, capacitor, diodes and other elements in order to control the
overall response of the circuit. An operational amplifier is made up of differential amplifier directly coupled
to another differential amplifier, a constant current source a DC level shifter and the output stage which is
a push-pull amplifier. Operational Amplifiers can be used as an Inverting Amplifier, a

NonInverting Amplifier, a Summing Amplifier an Integrator Differentiator and Subtractor.

Module Objectives:

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

• Define Operational Amplifier

• Understand the construction and operation of the circuit.

• Know its circuits application

• Analyze and solve problems regarding the operational amplifier circuits.

The Course Materials:

An Operational Amplifier is an integrated circuit design to perform mathematical operation such as

addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. It is a high gain amplifier in which a feedback element is
added in order to control the overall response of the circuit. The ideal characteristics of an operational
amplifiers are the following:

• Open Loop gain = ∞

• Input Impedance = ∞

• Input offset voltage = 0

• Output voltage range = ∞

 • Bandwidth = ∞

• Phase shift =0

• Slew rate = ∞

• Output impedance = 0

• Noise = 0

• Common Mode Rejection Ratio = ∞

Definition of terms:

• Operating power supply range is the range of operable power supply voltage at Pin of op amp.

• Common mode input voltage range is the range of voltage of a signal that maybe applied to the
input pins in which the op amp will work within that specified range

• Gain Bandwidth Product this specifies the maximum frequency that the op amp can amplify a
signal to. The maximum frequency varies with the factor you can use to amplify the signal

• Input Offset Voltage is the conversion of the error voltage generated at the output to an input
value when the input voltage is 0V.

• Open Loop Gain is a measure of gain achieved when there is no feedback implemented in the
circuit

• Input impedance is measure at the negative and positive input terminal of the op amp

• Output Impedance the measure output impedance of the op amp ideally equal to zero.
The block diagram shows that in the input terminal of the operational amplifier is a noninverting terminal.
If a positive input signal is applied wherein the other input terminal is grounded, we can expect that at the
output terminal of an OP Amp is the same phase of the input signal which is also a positive signal. With
regards to the other input terminal known as an inverting terminal a positive input signal applied while the
noninverting terminal is grounded result to the inverse of the input signal that is out of phase with the
input signal.

The first stage is a dual input balanced output differential amplifier use to strengthen the difference of the
two input signals. The output terminal of the first stage is directly connected to the second stage which is
also another differential amplifier to further amplify the signal. A DC level shifting stage consist of emitter
follower circuit also known as a common collector circuit with a constant current source is use to cancel
built up in dc voltages as the signal travel from one stage to another stage. This built up in dc voltages are
due to the voltage drop across the base-emitter terminal of transistors if not cancelled it will result to a
nonzero output signal measured at the output terminal of OP Amp even when the input signal is set to
zero

The use of a constant current source circuit is to increase the common mode rejection ratio of the op
amps in order to reject unwanted signal that may cause distortion to the circuit. At the output stage is
complementary push-pull amplifier which increases the output voltage swing of the signal and increases
the current supplying

capability of the op amp. The op amp is powered by a dual polarity power supply as seen with +Vcc and
– Vee.

Mode of operation of Operational amplifier:

Single –Ended Input

Double –Ended (Differential) Input:

The first circuit with a single input Vd results in an amplified output signal that is in phase with the input.
While the second circuit with two separate input signal V1 and V2 are applied results to the difference of
signal being V1 – V2

Double Ended Output:

The Op Amp can also be operated with opposite outputs. An input applied to either

Input will result in outputs from both output terminals, these outputs being opposite in polarity. The
difference output is Vo1 – Vo2 which is also referred to as floating signal since neither output terminal is a
ground ( reference ) terminal
Common Mode Operation:

When the same signals are applied to both inputs, common mode operation result. The same signal of
same phase that result to a Zero output signal meaning they cancel with each other. Practically a small
output signal.

Differential and Common Mode operation:

The Important features of both inputs.

a differential amplifier is that the circuits ability to amplify Signals of opposite polarity at the inputs while
only slightly amplifying signals that are common to both inputs. The amplification of opposite signals is
much greater than that of a common input signals, the circuit provides a common mode rejection ratio
CMRR that is the ability of Op Amp to reject unwanted signals. The following formulas are important to
remember:

Differential inputs:

𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉𝑖1 − 𝑉𝑖2

Common Mode inputs:

1
𝑉𝑐 = ( 𝑉𝑖1 − 𝑉𝑖2 )
2

𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑑 𝑉𝑑 + 𝐴𝑐 𝑉𝑐

Where:

Vd = difference voltage

Vc = common voltage

Ad = differential gain of amplifier

Ac = common mode gain of amplifier

Opposite polarity inputs:

𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉𝑖1 − 𝑉𝑖2 = 𝑉𝑠 − (−𝑉𝑠) = 2𝑉𝑠

For common voltage:

1 1
𝑉𝑐 = (𝑉𝑖1 + 𝑉𝑖2 ) = ( 𝑉𝑠 + (−𝑉𝑠) ) = 0
2 2
The output Voltage is:

𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑑𝑉𝑑 + 𝐴𝑐𝑉𝑐 = 𝐴𝑑(2𝑉𝑠) + 𝑜 = 2𝐴𝑑𝑉𝑠

Same polarity inputs:

𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉𝑖1 − 𝑉𝐼2 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑠 = 0

For common voltage :

1 1
𝑉𝑐 = (𝑉𝑖1 𝑉𝑖2) = (𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑠) = 𝑉𝑠
2 2
The output Voltage:

𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑑𝑉𝑑 + 𝐴𝑐𝑉𝑐 = 𝐴𝑑(0) + 𝐴𝑐𝑉𝑠 = 𝐴𝑐𝑉𝑠

Common Mode Rejection Ratio:

This parameter is defined as the ability of Operational Amplifier to reject unwanted signal.

CMRR = Ad/Ac

Where:
𝑉𝑜
Ad = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑐

𝑉𝑜
Ac = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑐

𝐴𝑑
CMRR = 20 log (𝑑𝑏)
𝐴𝑐

Example Problem:

Calculate the CMRR for the circuit measurements shown below:

Solution:

For Ad:
𝑉𝑜 8
Ad = = = 8000
𝑉𝑑 1𝑚

𝑉𝑜 12𝑚
For Ac = = = 12
𝑉𝑐 1𝑚

𝐴𝑑 8000
CMRR = = = 666.7
𝐴𝑐 12

𝐴𝑑
CMRR = 20 log = 20 log 666.7 = 56.48𝑑𝐵
𝐴𝑐

The operational amplifier is a very high gain amplifier having very high input impedance of a few
megaohms and low output impedance less than 100 ohms. It is made up of a difference amplifier with two
inputs + and - and at least one output. Shown is an equivalent circuit.

The circuit is a constant gain amplifier using Op Amp with input signal applied to the
Negative terminal via an input resistor R1. The output is connected back to same terminal through R2
which is called feedback resistor. The positive terminal of Op amp is at ground potential. Op amp is
replaced by equivalent practical and ideal circuit.

Using superposition setting –AVVi set to zero:

𝑅2
Vi1 = 𝑉1
𝑅1+𝑅2

With Vi set to zero:

𝑅1
Vi2 = (-Avvi)
𝑅1+𝑅2

The total voltage Vi :

𝑅2 𝑅1
Vi = Vi1 + Vi2 = 𝑉1 + (-Avvi)
𝑅1+𝑅2 𝑅1+𝑅2

Solving Vi :
𝑅2
Vi = V1, If Av≫ 1, 𝐴𝑣𝑅1 ≫ 𝑅2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑅2+(1+𝐴𝑣 )𝑅1

𝑅2
Vi = 𝑉1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜/Vi
𝐴𝑣𝑅1
 𝐴𝑉𝑅2𝑉1 𝑅2𝑉1
Vo/Vi = -− =−
𝑉𝑖𝐴𝑣𝑅1 𝑅1𝑉𝑖

Vo/V1 = -R2/R1

For unity Gain:

If R1 = R2 the gain is

Voltage gain = -R2/R1 = 1

For constant magnitude gain say R2 = 10R1 then

Voltage gain = -R2/R1 = 10R1/R1 = 10

Virtual Ground:

The output voltage is limited by supply voltage if Vo = -10V and Av = 20000 the input

voltage is

Vi = -Vo/Av = 10/20000 =0.5mV

If overall voltage gain Av is 1 the value of vi is 10V. Compared to all other input and output voltage, Vi is
then small and maybe considered as 0V.

Note that although Vi= 0V it is not exactly 0 (the output voltage is a few volts due to a very small vie times
very large gain Av) This Vi = 0 leads to a concept of virtual ground exist in input terminal.

Iin = If

Vi/R1 = Vo/Rf

Vo/Vi = Rf/R1

Practical Op –AMP Circuits:

• Inverting Amplifier is an operational amplifier in which the input is fed to an inverting terminal of
OP Amp and the output voltage is the inverse of the input voltage multiply by the voltage gain AV
• Noninverting Amplifier is a circuit of an Op Amp in which the input voltage is fed to positive
terminal of the device and the output is same phase with the input voltage
𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑉 = 1 +
𝑅𝑖𝑛
 • Unity Gain Amplifier provides a gain equal to 1 with no polarity or phase reversal

Vo = Vi

Vi

Vo

• Summing Amplifier this circuit provide a summation of all the input voltage multiplied by a
constant gain.

𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
Vo = - ( V1 + V2 + V3)
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅3

• Integrator circuit in this circuit instead of resistor as a feedback element it is replaced by a

capacitor.

1
Vo (t) = -
𝑅𝐶
∫ 𝑉𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
 • Differentiator circuit in this circuit interchanging the position of capacitor and resistor in the
integrator circuit makes the circuit solve differential equation.

𝑑𝑣1(𝑡)
Vo (t) = - RC
𝑑𝑡

Op Amp Specifications:

For lecture purpose the following parameters wheretaken from Texas Instruments specification of
Operational Amplifier
Other Parameters defined:

• Input Offset Voltage VIO is defined as the DC voltage that must be applied to between the input
terminals to force the quiescent DC output to zero or some specified level. If input is perfectly
symmetrical and the tranistors is perfectly match VIO = 0
• Input Current IiO is the difference between the bias current at inverting and noninverting terminal

IiO = Ib1 –Ib2

• Input Common Mode Voltage Range it is the voltage that is common to both inputs of OP Amp if
this is too high or too low, the input will shut down and proper operation ceases.
• Maximum Output Voltage Swing (VOM) is defined as the maximum positive or negative peak
output voltage that can be obtained without waveform clipping when quiescent DC output voltage
is zero
• Large Signal Differential Voltage Amplification (AVD) is the ratio of output voltage change to the
input differential voltage while holding VCM constant.
• Input capacitance (Ci) is measured between the input terminals with either input is grounded
• Input resistance (ri rid) ri is the resistance between the input terminal with either input is grounded
rid is the differential input resistance . It is the small signal resistance between two ungrounded
input terminals.
• Output Impedance is defined as the small signal impedance between the output terminal and the
ground.
• Common Mode Rejection ratio (CMRR) is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage
amplification to the common mode voltage amplification.
• Supply Voltage rejection Ratio is the ratio of power supply voltage change to the output voltage
change
• Supply Current is the quiescent current draw of the Op Amps with no load.
• Slew rate is the rate of change in the output voltage caused by a step input unit V/µs
• Equivalent Input Noise is the noise measured at the output of an Op Amp and referenced back to
the input
READ:

Operational Amplifier By: Robert Bolyestad

Watch:

[Link]

Activities/Assessments:

1. Define the following:

• Operational Amplifier
• Inverting Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• Integrator Circuit
• Differentiator Circuit

2. Draw the internal circuit stages of an Operational Amplifier and give each function.

3. Give at least 5 circuits application of Operational amplifier.

4. Solve at least 5 circuits problems regarding Op Amp

5. Assemble a simple circuit application of Operational Amplifier discuss how the circuit operates.
6. What are the important terminals of Op Amp, show pin configuration..
7. Name at least 5 manufacturers of Operational Amplifier
 Power Amplifier

Module 7

Compiled By:

Ma. Elena Noriega

The Module Objectives:

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

• Define the Power Amplifier

• Understand the Classes of Amplifiers
• Know important characteristics of Power Amplifiers
• Analyze and solve circuit characteristics by mathematical solution

The Overview:

An amplifier receives signal from a source and provides a higher version of signal to some output device
or another stage. In a small signal Amplifier, a small version of signal is being amplified and we scrutinize
its amplification linearity and magnitude of gain. The amount of power handling capacity and power
efficiency are of little concern with this small signal amplifier. With Power Amplifier or Large signal
Amplifier we have to go into the sufficient amount of power needed in order to drive a speaker or other
power device, typically a few to tens of watts. We will concentrate on the main features such as power
efficiency the maximum amount of power that the circuit is capable of handling and impedance matching
to the output device. And one method used to categorize amplifiers is by class. This amplifier classes
represent amount of output signal varies over one cycle of operation for a full cycle of input signal.
The Course Materials:

Power amplifier is an amplifier designed to strengthen the power of an input signal in order to drive an
output loads such as speakers, headphones transmitters. Below is a block diagram of Audio amplifier.

• Pre amp is an amplifier that changes a weak signal into an output signal strong enough to drive a
power amplifier and a loudspeaker. It performs two functions such as it handles switching
between different line level sources and boost the signal before sending it to the amplifier.
• Voltage amplifier is raised the voltage level of the signal in order to achieve maximum voltage
amplification.
 • Tone control is an equalization used to make specific pitches or frequencies in an audio signal
softer or louder defending upon the liking of the listener to adjust tone of the sound. This tone
control is made up of filters which modify the signal before it is fed to speaker or other devices.
• Volume control is a device to adjust the intensity of sound with the used of potentiometer.
• Power Amplifier is used to increase the magnitude of power of a given input signal to a higher
level to drive the loads of output device such as speaker, headphones and RF transmitter etc.

Types of Amplifiers:

• Audio Power Amplifier used to increase the power of an audio signal. This is used to drive a
speaker of mobile phone, television and other devices. It ranges from few milliwatts to thousands
of watts.
• Radio Frequency Power Amplifiers for wireless transmission of signal of modulated waveform
using antennas and the range of transmission depends on magnitude of power fed to antenna.
For FM broadcasting a thousand of kilowatts.
• DC power Amplifiers used for Pulse Width Modulation needed to drive a motors and actuators.
Inputs are from microcontroller system.

Classes of Amplifiers:

• Class A: the output signal varies for full 360° of cycle and requires a Q point to be biased at a
level half the signal swing of output may vary up and down without going to high enough voltage
to be limited by the supply voltage level or too low to approach the lower supply level or 0V. It has
a power efficiency of 25% to 50%

Class A Power Amplifier

• Class B Power Amplifier: it provides an output signal over one half input cycle or for 180 ° of
signal. The bias point is from zero with an output varying from this bias for half cycle. The Output
is not faithful reproduction of input if only onehalf cycle is present. Two class B operation one to
provide output on positive half cycle and other for negative half cycle. Combining half cycle
produce 360°. This is also termed push-pull operation. Power efficiency is 78.5%
Class B Power Amplifier

• Class B Power Amplifier: it provides an output signal over one half input cycle or for 180 ° of
signal. The bias point is from zero with an output varying from this bias for half cycle. The Output
is not faithful reproduction of input if only onehalf cycle is present. Two class B operation one to
provide output on positive half cycle and other for negative half cycle. Combining half cycle
produce 360°. This is also termed push-pull operation. Power efficiency is 78.5%

Class B Power Amplifier

Class AB Power Amplifier: This is a type of power amplifier that biased above 0

Base current level of class B and above one half the supply level of class A. It still requires push-pull
connection to achieve full output cycle but the DC level is closer to zero base current level for better
efficiency. The signal swing occurs between 180° to 360 °. The power efficiency is between 25%
(50%) and 78.5%
Class AB Power Amplifier

• Class C Power Amplifier: output is biased for less than 180° of cycle and operate only with tuned
(resonant) circuit and provide full operation cycle for resonant or tuned circuit. This is used for
tuned radio or communication.

Class C Power Amplifier

• Class D Power Amplifier: This is an amplifier using pulse or digital signals which is on for short
interval and off for long interval. Using digital technique makes it possible to obtain signals that
varies over full cycle ( using sample and hold circuitry. The power efficiency is very high that is
over 90 %.
Comparison for different classes of Amplifier:

Series FED Class A Amplifier: A simple fixed bias circuit the signal handled by this large signal circuit
are in a range of volts and transistor used is power transistor capable of operating in a few to tens of
watts. This has a poor efficiency.
DC Bias Operation:

VCC – 0.7
IB =
𝑅𝐵

IC = β IB

VCE = VCC – ICRC

AC Operation:

Power Consideration

The power into amplifier is provided by DC supply. With no input signal the DC current is the collector
current Icq, the power drawn from the supply is

Pi(dc) = VCC Icq

The output Power

The output voltage and current varying around bias point provide Ac power to the load Rc. Ac signal
Vi caused Ib to vary around the dc bias current and collector current at its quiescent level this result in
an ac current and voltage signals. The larger the input signal the larger the output swing up to
maximum set by circuit. The ac power delivered to the load Rc is express in RMS value.

Po (ac) = VCE (rms) Ic (rms)

Po (ac) = 𝐼𝑐 2 (rms)_ Rc
Po (ac) = 𝑉𝑐 2 (rms)/ Rc

Using peak signals. The ac power delivered to the load

𝑉𝐶𝐸 (𝑝)𝐼𝑐 (𝑝)

Po (ac) =
2

𝐼𝑐 2 (p) Rc
Po (ac) =
2

𝑉𝐶𝐸 2 (p)
Po (ac) =
2𝑅𝑐

Using peak to peak signals the power delivered to the load is

𝑉𝐶𝐸 (𝑝−𝑝) 𝐼𝑐 (𝑝−𝑝)

Po (ac) =
8

𝐼𝑐 2 (p−p)Rc
Po (ac) =
8

𝑉𝐶𝐸 2 (p-p)
Po(ac) =
8𝑅𝑐

Efficiency: This is the amount of power delivered from dc source and calculated:

𝑃𝑜 (𝑎𝑐)
%𝑛 = x 100%
𝑃𝑖 (𝑑𝑐)

Maximum Efficiency:

Maximum Vce (p-p) = VCC

Maximum Ic (p-p) = VCC/Rc

Maximum Power using voltage swing:

Vcc (Vcc/Rc)
Maximum Po(ac) =
8

𝑉𝑐𝑐 2
PoMax(ac) =
8𝑅𝑐

The maximum power input is calculated by dc current set to half of maximum value

Vccmax Icmax
Pimax (dc) =
2

𝑉𝑐𝑐 2
Pimax (dc) =
2𝑅𝑐

Therefore
 𝑉𝑐𝑐2
8𝑅𝑐
Maximum %n = 𝑉𝑐𝑐2
x 100%
2𝑅𝑐

= 25%

Maximum efficiency of class A series –fed amplifier is then 25%

Calculate the input power, output power and efficiency of the amplifier circuit for an input voltage that
result to a base current of 10 mA peak.

Solution: at Q point

𝑉𝑐𝑐 −0.7
Ibq = = 19.3ma
1𝐾

Icq = BIb =25(19.3m) = 482.5ma

Vceq = Vcc-IcqRc = 20 – 482.5m (20) = 10.4V

Plotting DC load line at the following points:

Icmax =Vcc/Rc = 1000 ma Vce = Vcc = 20V

When input ac base current increases from its dc bias level the collector rises by:

Ic(p) = Bib(p) = 25 (10m) =250ma peak

𝐼𝑐 2 (p) Rc (250m)2 (20)

Po(ac) = = = 0.625W
2 2

Pi (dc) = Vcc Icq = 20 (485ma) = 9.6W

 𝑃𝑜 (𝑎𝑐) 0.625
%𝑛 = x 100% = x 100% = 6.5%
𝑃𝑖 (𝑑𝑐) 9.6

Transformer-Coupled Class A Amplifier: This amplifier used a transformer to couple the output signal
to the load. With this circuit it has a maximum efficiency of 50%

Transformer Basic:

Voltage Transformation:

𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑆
=
𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃

Current Transformation:

𝐼𝑆 𝑁𝑃
=
𝐼𝑃 𝑁𝑆

Impedance Transformation:

𝑍𝑆 𝑉𝑆/𝐼𝑆 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑃 𝑁𝑆 𝑁𝑆
= = =
𝑍𝑃 𝑉𝑃/𝐼𝑃 𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑆 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑃
𝑍𝑆 𝑁𝑆 2
=( )
𝑍𝑃 𝑁𝑃

Defining:

𝑁𝑃 2 𝑍𝑝
𝑎2 = ( ) , = 𝑎2 where a is the turn ratio
𝑁𝑆 𝑍𝑆

Where Zp is the effective load seen at primary

Zs is the Load Resistance

Problem:

Calculate effective resistance looking into the primary of transformer with 20:1 transformer connected
to an 8 ohms load.

Solution: ZP = 𝑎2 ZS = (20)2 8 = 3.2 K

What is the turn ratio required to match a 16 ohms speaker load so that the effective load seen at
primary is 10K ohms?

𝑍𝑝 10𝐾
Solution: 𝑎2 = = = 625, a =√625 = 25:1
𝑍𝑆 16

Operation of Amplifier:

DC Load Line: The transformer (dc) winding resistance determines dc load line which is of small
value ideally 0 ohms. Shown in the figure it is a straight vertical line. There is no voltage drop since
resistance is zero and Vceq is equal to Vcc.

Quiescent Operating Point: The operating point is determined from intersection of dc load line and
the base current set by circuit and collector quiescent current can also be obtained from the operating
point.

AC Load Line: the reflected load resistance looking into the primary side of transformer should be
calculated using the load resistance of secondary and the turn ratio. Graphical technique then
proceeded with the slope of the line equal to -1/Zp (the reflective load) and draw the ac load line
which passes to the operating point. Notice that ac load line shows the output signal swing.

Signal Swing and Output Ac Power.

The following equation are use for determine signal swing and the ac power developed across the
transformer primary

Vce(p-p) = Vcemax –Vce min

Ic (p-p) = Icmax – Icmin

(Vcemax –Vce min)(Icmax – Icmin)

Po(ac) =
8

𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑙2 (𝑟𝑚𝑠)
Vl =Vs = Vp (Voltage across the load), PL = ( Power of the Load)
𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝐿
 𝑁𝑝
IL =Is = 𝐼𝑐 ( 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑), Po(ac)=𝐼𝐿2 (rms) RL (Output ac power)
𝑁𝑠

Problem: Calculate the ac power delivered to 8 ohms speaker. The circuit components value result to
dc base current of 6ma and the input signal Vi result in a peak base current swing of 4ma.

For dc loadline:

Vceq = Vcc = 10V

For IB = 6ma the operating point on collector characteristic curve is

Vceq= 10V, Icq = 140ma

The effective ac resistance seen at primary is

𝑁𝑝 2
Zp =( ) RL = (3)2 8 = 72
𝑁𝑠

The ac loadline can be drawn of slope 1/72 passing through the operating point. To draw the load line
solving Ic for current swing

Ic = Vce/Zp = 10/72 = 139ma

Mark point A:

Iceq +Ic = 140m +139m = 279ma along y axis then connect point A through Q point to obtain ac load
line. Reflect 4 ma swing to get Icmax and Ic min together with Vcemax and Vcemin

Vcemin = 1.7V Icmin = 25mA

Vcemax = 18.3V Icmax = 255 mA

The ac power:

(Vcemax –Vce min)(Icmax – Icmin)

Po(ac) =
8

(( 18.3−1.7)(255𝑚𝑎 −25𝑚𝑎 )
=
8

Po(ac) = 0.477W

Efficiency: The input power from supply is

Pi(dc) = VccIcq

The power dissipated by transformer is of negligible value due to small dc resistance of coil. The only
power loss is due to the power transistor

PQ = Pi (dc) – Po (ac)

Where PQ =power dissipated as heat

Problem: For the figure of transformer coupled class A amplifier calculate the dc input power, power
dissipated by transistor and the efficiency of circuit for input signal

of previous example problem.

Solution:

Pi (dc) = Vcc Icq = (10) (140ma) = 1.4W

Po(ac) already computed of 0.477W

PQ = Pi(dc) – Po(ac) = 1.4 -0.477 = 0.92W

The efficiency of amplifier is

𝑃𝑜 (𝑎𝑐) 0.477
%𝑛 = x 100% = x 100 % = 34.1 %
𝑃𝑖 (𝑑𝑐) 1.4

The maximum Theoretical efficiency is 50%, the efficiency can be expressed as

𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
%n = 50 ( ) %,
𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥+𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛

the larger the value of Vcemax and the smaller the value of Vcemin, the closer the efficiency
approaches theoretical limit of 50%

Problem: Calculate the efficiency of a transformer coupled class A amplifier for a supply of 12V and
the outputs of

• V(p) = 12V
• V(p) = 6V
• V(p) = 2V

Solution:

With Vceq = 12V and V(p) = 12 V, maximum and minimum voltage swing are

Vcemax = Vceq + V(p) = 12 + 12 = 24V

Vcemin = Vceq – V(p) = 12 - 12 = 0V

𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
%n = 50 ( ) %
𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥+𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛

24 −0 2
= 50 ( ) %
24+0

%n = 50%

With Vceq = 12 and V(p) = 6V, maximum and minimum voltage swing are

Vcemax = Vceq + V(p) = 12 + 6 = 18V

Vcemin = Vceq – V(p) = 12 - 6 = 6V

𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
%n = 50 ( ) %
𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥+𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛

18 −6 2
= 50 ( ) %
18+6

%n = 12.5%
With Vceq = 12 and V(p) = 6V, maximum and minimum voltage swing are

Vcemax = Vceq + V(p) = 12 + 2 = 14V

Vcemin = Vceq – V(p) = 12 - 2 = 10V

𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
%n = 50 ( ) %
𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥+𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛

14 −10 2
= 50 ( ) %
14+10

%n = 1.39 %

Class B Amplifier Operation: For this circuit one transistor is on and the other one is off that is during
each half cycle. The output signal will be the combination of each output and result to full cycle of
signal.

Input DC Power:

2
Pi(dc) = Vcc Idc, Idc = (Ip).
𝜋

2
Pi (dc) = Vcc { (Ip)}
𝜋

Output Ac Power:

𝑉𝑙2 (rms) 𝑉𝑙2 (p)

Po (ac) = , Po (ac) =
𝑅𝑙 2𝑅𝑙

Efficiency:

𝑃𝑜 (𝑎𝑐)
%𝑛 = x 100%
𝑃𝑖 (𝑑𝑐)

𝑉𝑙2 (p-p)
2𝑅𝑙
= 2 X 100%
𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝐼 (𝑝)
𝜋

With I (p) = VL (p)/RL = Vcc / RL

𝜋
Max efficiency = X100% = 78.5%
4

Power Dissipated by output:

P2Q = Pi(dc) –Po(ac) for two transistors

Power dissipated of each transistor is:

PQ = P2Q/2
Problem: For class B amplifier having 20V peak signal to a 16ohm load and a power supply of Vcc =
30V, determine the input power Pi(dc), output power Po(ac) and circuit efficiency.

Solution:

IL(p) = VL (p)/RL= 20/16 = 1.25A

2 2
I(dc) = (Ip) = (1.25) = 0.796A
𝜋 𝜋

Pi(dc) = Vcc I(dc) = 30 (0.796) = 23.9W

𝑉𝑙2 (p-p) (20)2

Po(ac) = = = 12.5W
2𝑅𝑙 2(16)

𝑃𝑜 (𝑎𝑐)
%𝑛 = x 100%
𝑃𝑖 (𝑑𝑐)

12.5
=
23.9

%n = 52.3%

Maximum PowerConsideration:

The maximum power is delivered to the load when Vl =Vcc

𝑉𝑐𝑐 2 𝑉𝑐𝑐
Max Po(ac) = since I(p) =
2𝑅𝑙 𝑅𝑙

The max average current from power supply is

2𝑉𝑐𝑐
Max I (dc) =
𝜋 𝑅𝑙

Using I (dc) formula

 2𝑉𝑐𝑐 2
Max Pi(dc) = Vcc I(dc)max=
𝜋𝑅𝑙

The maximum circuit efficiency:

𝑉𝑐𝑐2
𝑃𝑜 (𝑎𝑐) 2𝑅𝑙
%𝑛 = x 100% = 2𝑉𝑐𝑐2
X 100%
𝑃𝑖 (𝑑𝑐)
𝜋𝑅𝑙

𝜋
Max %n = X100% = 78.54%
4

Maximum power dissipated by two transistors is

2
Vl = 0.636Vcc = Vcc
𝜋

2𝑉𝑐𝑐 2
Max P2Q =
𝜋2 𝑅𝑙

Problem: For class B amplifier with Vcc = 30V and driving a load of 16 ohms determine input power,
output power and transistor dissipation.

Solution:

𝑉𝑐𝑐 2 302
Max Po (ac) = = = 28.125W
2𝑅𝑙 2(16)

2𝑉𝑐𝑐 2 2(30)2
Max Pi (dc) = = = 35.81𝑊
𝜋𝑅𝑙 𝜋(16)

𝑃𝑜 (𝑎𝑐) 28.125
%𝑛 = x 100% %𝑛 = x 100% = 78.54%
𝑃𝑖 (𝑑𝑐) 35.81

2𝑉𝑐𝑐 2 2(30)2
Max PQ = 0.5 ( ) = 0.5( ) = 5.7W
𝜋2 𝑅𝑙 𝜋2 16

For maximum condition a pair of transistors, each handling 5.7W at most can deliver 28.125W to a 16
ohm load while drawing 35.81W from supply.

The maximum efficiency of class B amplifier can be expressed by formula below:

𝑉𝐿(𝑝)
%n= Po(ac)/Pi (dc) x 100% = 78.54 %
𝑉𝑐𝑐

Problem: Calculate the efficiency of a class B amplifier for supply of Vcc = 24V with

(a) VL(p) = 22V

(b) VL(p) = 6V

Solution:

𝑉𝐿(𝑝) 22
%n = 78.54 % = 78.54( )% = 72%
𝑉𝑐𝑐 24
 𝑉𝐿(𝑝) 6
%n = 78.54 % = 78.54( )% = 19.6%
𝑉𝑐𝑐 24

Class B Amplifier Circuits:

Class C Amplifier: This is biased to operate for less than 180° of input signal. The tuned circuit at the
output will provide a full cycle of output signal for fundamental resonant frequency of a tuned ( L and
C tank circuit) of the output

Class D Amplifier designed to operate with digital pulse type signals and efficiency of over 90% is
achieved with this circuit.
Read:

Electronics Devices and Circuits Theory

By: Robert Bolyestad

Louis Nashelsky

Watch:

Activities/ Assessment:

1. Define Power Amplifier

2. Give the classes of amplifiers and differentiate each one from them
3. Give example of circuits for classes of amplifiers and discuss how it operates.
4. Solve circuits problems regarding the classes of amplifiers
5. Discuss about Harmonic Distortion
6. Solve problems regarding harmonic distortion
 Polytechnic University of the Philippines
Electronics Engineering Department
Electronics System Analysis and Design
FINAL EXAMINATION
Prepared by: Ma Elena Noriega

Test I. Multiple Choice: Select the best answer Right minus Wrong (15pts)

1. A Device that is used for amplification and characterized as current control device
a. Schottky Diode
b. Transistor
c. EMOS
d. Bipolar Junction Transistor
e. None of the above
2. Use to amplifier a voltage to higher value and characterize as voltage control device
a. Field Effect Transistor
b. Voltage Amplifier
c. Bipolar Junction Transistor
d. All of the above
e. None of the above
3. A combination of circuit elements properly chosen that best approximate the actual
behavior of a semiconductor under operating condition
a. Schematic Diagram
b. AC Circuit
c. Model
d. Network
e. None of the above
4. A field effect transistor that is made up of a substrate, an intrinsic material with an insulator
known as Sio2 and a metal
a. VMOSFET
b. MOSFET
c. DMOSFET
d. EMOSFET
e. None of the above
5. An AC Model circuit made up of a resistor Bre in the input terminal and a current source
in parallel with a resistor ro seen at the output terminal
a. re model
b. common emitter amplifier re model
c. hybrid model
d. common base amplifier re model
e. None of the above
6. Semiconductor materials are classified into two types intrinsic semiconductor and extrinsic
semiconductor. Example of intrinsic semiconductor materials are
a. Silicon, Germanium, Gallium Arsenide
b. Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P)
c. Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminum (Al)
d. Germanium, Gallium Arsenide, Gallium Phosphide
e. None of the above
7. An N type extrinsic semiconductor material is a pure semiconductor material in which a
pentavalent atom is being doped to a material made of silicon atom. Pentavalent atoms
have 5 valence electrons in the most outer selves. Examples are
 a. Boron
b. Indium
c. Arsenic
d. Antimony
e. None of the above
8. A P type extrinsic semiconductor material is a pure semiconductor material in which a
trivalent atom is being doped to a material made of germanium atom. Trivalent atoms have
3 valence electrons in their most outer shelves. Examples are
a. Boron
b. Indium
c. Arsenic
d. Phosphorous
e. None of the above
9. A two terminal device made up of P type and N type semiconductor materials joined
together and used as rectifier in a power supply circuit
a. PN Junction Diode
b. Diode
c. Rectifier Diode
d. Switching Diode
e. None of the above
10. An AC model circuit that is made up of the following hi,hr,hf, ho variables that is seen in
input and output terminal
a. Re model
b. Z model
c. H model
d. Hybrid model
e. None of the above
11. A parameter defined at the output that is measured by looking back into the input
terminal setting Vi to zero
. a. Av
b. Ai
c. Zi
d. Zo
e. None of the above
12. This name was chosen for a model because of the combination of voltage and current.
a. H model
b. Hybrid
c. re
d. re model
e. None of the above
13. This is an optoelectronic device which changes electrical energy into light energy to
produce high intensity light. In P-N junction the diode acts as a laser medium. Instead of
using silicon an alloy of aluminum and gallium arsenide are use.
a. Gunn diode
b. Varactor diode
c. Light emitting diode
d. Laser diode
e. None of the above
14 A parameter use in a model with an equation Vi/Ii by setting Vo = 0
a. Impedance
b. Reverse transfer voltage ratio
 c. Forward transfer current ratio
d. Output conductance
e. None of the above
15. This is diode model obtain from analysis of characteristic curve of diode. Drawing a.
Straight line in the graph we may be able to determine the average resistance of diode that is
a change in voltage of diode divided by the change in current of the diode

a. Ideal diode model

b. On/off switch model
c. Piecewise linear model
d. Diode model
e. None of the above
Test II. Identification Type: Identify the following (15pts)

___________1. An input impedance of h model

___________2. An output parameter of h model known as ho

___________3. A hybrid parameter known as forward transfer current ratio

___________4. A hybrid parameter known as reverse transfer voltage ratio

___________5. A model with a resistance of a diode in the input terminal

___________6. A parameter that cannot be measured by an ohmmeter since it is in a dc mode

___________7. A. filter made up of operational amplifiers and passive element such as

Resistor and capacitors

___________8. A parameter measured with applied signal set to zero with a unit siemens
__________ 9. A model that is very sensitive to the dc biasing network of amplifier

__________10. It includes a list of hybrid parameter establish an ac model for transistor.

__________11. Utilizes the dc feedback to increase stability and changing state of capacitor from

Dc to Ac.

__________12. This is a model use for common emitter, common base and common collector

Configuration that is the same.

___________13. There is no phase shift between the input and output of fet amplifier

configuration

___________14. A logarithmic unit used for gain

___________15. An amplifier in which it amplify the difference of the two input signal

Test III. Enumeration Type: Enumerate the following (20pts)

 1. Three amplifier Configuration
2. Two model used in AC analysis of transistor
3. For hybrid parameters of H model
4. Four important Characteristic of a two port system
5. Three passive filters according to frequency response
6. Five application of operational amplifier
7. Five classes of Power Amplifiers
Test IV. Draw the following circuit and discuss its operation (10pts)

1. Differential amplifier
2. Block diagram of a class D amplifier
Test V. Problem Solving: (10pts each)

1. Determine Voltage Gain, Current Gain, Input Impedance and Output Impedance of the Circuit.
Let B = 100, ro = 50KΩ, R1 = R2 = 100KΩ.

2. Draw the Following AC equivalent circuit. Apply re model and hybrid model. Derive Voltage Gain
Av of the circuit (20 pts.)
Test VI. Sketch the following: (15 pts.)

a) Integrator circuit using operational amplifier

b) Summing amplifier using operational amplifier
c) Equivalent h model of a common emitter amplifier circuit using voltage divider bias
d) An AC model of a common source filed effect transistor
e) Class B Power amplifier