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Exploring the Variety of Random
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that beauty was its sole object. He asserted that a "long poem is a
contradiction in terms." Says his latest biographer : •• In his prose
tales he declares repeatedly that he meant not to tell a story, but to
produce an effect. In poetry he aimed not to convey an idea, but to
make an impression. He was not a philosopher nor a lover; he never
served truth nor knew passion ; he was a dreamer, and his life was,
warp and woof, mood and sentiment, instead of act and thought."
The first collection of Poe's works was that by Rufus W. Griswold.
preceded by a memoir (3 vols., New York, 1850: 4 vols., 1850).
There are also several British editions, of which two of the latest are
those with memoirs by Richard Henry Stoddard (London, 1873) and
John H. Ingram (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1874). There is a later American
edition with the sketch by Ingrain (4 vols., New York, 1876) ; a "
Diamond " edition in one volume, with a sketch by William Fearing
Gill (Boston, 1874); and a limited edition with the memoir by
Stoddard (8 vols., New York, 1884). Several volumes of his tales
have been translated into French by Charles Baudelaire and William
Hughes. There have appeared also collections of his poems, with
memoirs, respectively, by James Hannay (London, 1852) ; Edmund
F. Blanchard (1857); and Charles F. Briggs (New York, 1858) ; and
many illustrated editions of single poems, notably of " The Raven."
The memoir by Griswold contains errors of fact, and is written in a
hostile spirit. Its accusations have been replied to by Mrs. Sarah
Helen Whitman in "Edgar A. Poe arid his Critics" (New York. 1859)
and by William Fearing Gill in his " Life of Edgar Allan Poe " (1877).
There is also a life by Eugene L. Didier (1876), and various magazine
articles, including one in "Scribner's Monthly" for October, 1875, by
Francis G. Fairfield. in which he attempts to show that Poe's
peculiarities were due to epilepsy. The latest and most impartial
biography is that by George E. Woodberry in the " American Men of
Letters " series (Boston, 1885). On 17 Nov., 1875, a monument,
riveted by the school-teachers of Baltimore, was publicly dedicated
to Poe's memory in that city. It is of Italian marble in the form of a
pedestal eight feet in height, and bears a medallion of the port. A
memorial volume containing an account of the dedication
ceremonies was issued by Sarah S. Rice and William Hand Browne
(Baltimore, ls;;i. In May. 1885, the actors of the United States
erected in the Metropolitan museum. New York city, a memorial to
Poe, at \vho-c dedication an address was made by Edwin Booth, ami
William Winter read a poem. There has recently been discovered a
large amount of manuscript material relating to Poe. including a lite
by Dr. Thomas Holley Cluvers. which may lie published at some
future time.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 26.97%
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POE POEY 47 POE, Orlando Mctculfe, soldier, b. in Navarre,

•Ohio, 7 March, 1832 ; d. in Detroit, 2 Oct., 1895. He was graduated
at the U. S. military academy and assigned to the topographical
engineers. He became 1st lieutenant, and was on lake survey duty
till the beginning of the civil war, when he engaged in the
organization of Ohio volunteers. He was chief topographical engineer
of the Department of the Ohio from 13 May till 15 June, 1861, being
engaged in reconnoissances in northern Kentucky and western
Virginia, participated in the battle of Rich Mountain, on the staff of
Gen. George B. McClellan. He became colonel of the 2d Michigan
volunteers in September, 1861, was in command of his regiment in
the defences of Washington, and took part in the principal battles of
the Virginia peninsular campaign. He was appointed brigadier-
general of volunteers, 29 Nov., 1862, was engaged at
Predericksburg, commanded a division of the 9th army corps from
February to March, 1863. and became captain of U. S. engineers in
that month, and subsequently chief engineer of the 23d corps of the
Army of the Ohio. He occupied a similar post in the army of Gen.
William T. Sherman in tne invasion of Georgia, the march to the sea,
and through the Carolinas, until the surrender of Gen. Joseph E.
Johnston. He received the brevet of major for gallant service at the
siege of Knoxville on 6 July, 1864, that of lieutenant-colonel for the
capture of Atlanta on 1 Sr|,i., 1864, and that of colonel for Savannah
on 21 Dec., 1864. In March, 1865, he was brevetted brigadier-
general for " gallant and meritorious service in the campaign
terminating in the surrender of the insurgent army under Gen.
Joseph E. Johnston." He was engineer secretary of the U. S. light-
house board in 1865-'70, commissioned major in the latter year,
constructed the light-house on Spectacle reef. Lake Huron, in 1870-
'3, and became a member of the light-house board in 1874. He was
aide-de-camp to Gen. William T. Sherman in 1873-'84, and at the
same time was in charge of the river and harbor works from Lake
Erie to Lake Superior. In 1882 he was commissioned lieutenant-
colonel of engineers, and colonel in 1888. POEPPItJ, Eduard (pup-
pig). German naturali-t. b. in Plauen, Saxony, 16 July, 1797; d. in
Leipsic. 4 Sept., 1868. He received his education in Leipsic, and,
after obtaining a medical degree, was given by the rector of the
university a botanical mission to North and South America. He
returned to Germany toward the close of 1832 with valuable
collections in zoology and botany, and was appointed in the following
year professor of zoology in the University of Leipsic, which post he
held till his death. He also contributed to the establishment of a
scientific museum in the latter city, and bequeathed to it his
collections. He published " Reise nach Chili, Peru, und auf dem
Amazoneu-Flusse" (2 vols., Leipsic, 1835); " Nova genera ac Species
plantarum quas in regno, Chiliensi, Peruviano, ac Terra Amazonica.
anni 18271832 lectarum " (3 vols., 1835-'45) ; " Reise nach den
Vereinigten Staaten" (1837); and " Landschaftliche Ansichten und
erlauternde Darstellungen" (1830). Poeppig also wrote most of the
American articles for the " Allgemeine Encyclopaedic," edited by
Ersch and Griiber. POEY, Felipe (po'-ay), Cuban naturalist, b. in
Havana, 26 May, 1799 ; d. there, 28 Jan., 1891. II.was of French
and Spanish parentage. He made his studies in his native city,
concluding them in the University of Madrid, where he was
graduated in law. Having a taste for natural history, he abandoned
his practice as a lawyer, and began the study of mollusks, insects,
and fishes. In 1825 he sailed for Cuba, and thence, with a collection
of specimens, for Paris. There he aided in founding, in 1827, the
"Societe entomologique," and contributed notes and drawings to the
" flistoire naturelle des poissons." In 1833 he returned to Havana
and devoted himself to the study of natural history, making drawings
of specimens with his associate, Juan Gundlach (
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48 POHL POINSETT granizadas en Cuba " (Havana, 1860-

2): "Cuban Antiquities." read before the American ethnological
society : " Tableau chronologique des tremblements de terre,"
"Travaux sur la meteorologie et la phisique du globe," " Memoires
sur les tempetes eleetriques," and •• Le positivisme " i Pan-. 1 *?!-
>). The last is an exposition of the principles of Auguste Comte's
philosophical system, of which the author is an ardent follower.
POHL. .loli.iiin l.ni.iniiel. Austrian botanist. b. in Vienna, Austria, in
1784; d. there. 22 May, 1834. He was educated as a physician, and
then devoted his attention to botany. In 181? he accompanied the
Archduchess Leopoldine to Brazil on tl ..i-i. .11 nt In')' marriage to 1
1. .m Pedro I.. .-UK! then spent four years in exploring that country
under orders from his government. On his return to. Vienna he was
appointed curator of the Brazilian museum. His works include
"Tentamen florae Bohemica1 " (2 vols., Prague, 1814) : " Expositio
anatomica organi audit us per classes animalium " (Vienna, ISllii; ••
Plantarum Brasilia? icones et descriptions " (2 vol-.. 1s-J7-':;i): "
Beitrage zur Gebirgskunde Brasiliens " (1832) ; " Brasiliens
vorzugliehste Insekten " (1832) ; and •• Reise ins innere Brasilien"
(1882). POINDEXTER, George, senator, b. in Louisa county. Va., in
1779 ; d. in Jackson, Miss., 5 Sept., 1853. He was of Huguenot
ancestry. He was left an orphan early in life, and became a lawyer in
Milton, Va.. l>ut in 1802 removed to Mississippi territory, where he
soon attained note, both at the bar and as a leader of the
Jeffersonian party. In 1803 he was appointed attorney-general of the
territory, and in this capacity he conducted the prosecution of Aaron
Burr when the latter was arrested by the authorities in his first
descent to New Orleans. His violent denunciations of Federalists
resulted in a challenge from Abijah Hunt, one of the largest
merchants in the southwest, whom Poindexter killed in the duel that
followed. Poindexter was accused by his enemies of firing before the
word was given, and bitter and prolonged controversies followed,
but the charge was never substantiated. He became a member of
the territorial legislature in 1805. and in 1807 was chosen delegate
to confress, where he won reputation as an orator. Here e remained
till 1813, when, notwithstanding the remonstrance of the majority of
the territorial bar. he was appointed U. S. judge for the district of
Mississippi. This office, contrary to general expectation, he
administered firmly and impartially, doing much to settle the
controversies that had arisen from conflicting land grants, and to
repress the criminal classes. He had assisted to prepare the people
of the territory for the war of 1812, and when the British invaded
Louisiana he joined Jackson and served as a volunteer aide at the
battle of New Orleans. During this service a soldier brought to him a
piece of paper bearing the British countersign " Beauty and Booty,"
which he had found on the field. Poindexter took it to Jackson, and it
was the cause of much excitement through the country. The
Federalists subsequently claimed that the paper had been forged by
Poindexter. He was active in the Mississippi constitutional convention
of 1817, being chairman of the committee that was appointed to
draft a constitution for the new state, and, on its admission to the
Union in that year, was elected its firstjepresentative in congress,
serving one term. Here, in 1819, he made his bestknown speech,
defending ('*< -n. .lac -k-oii's conduct in the execution of Arbnthnot
and Ambrister. and in the occupation of the Spanish ports in Florida
(see JACKSON), and it was largely due to his efforts that Jackson
was not censured by congress. At the end of his term he was elected
governor of Mississippi, notwithstanding attempts to show that he
had been guilty of gross cowardice at. New Orleans. While he held
this office the legislature authorized him to revise and amend the
statutes, and the result was the code that was completed in 1822
and published as "Revised Code of the Laws of Mississippi "
(Natchez. 1824). In 1821 he resumed his practice at the bar, which
he continued till his appointment to the I". S. senate in November.
1830. in place of Robert H. Adams, deceased. He was subsequently
elected to fill out the term, and served till 1835. Here he gradually
became estranged from Jackson, occupying, as he contended, a
middle ground between Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. but his
views were practically those of the latter. He especially resisted the
appointment of the president's personal friends to office in
Mississippi, and he also voted for Clay's resolution of censure. The
breach widened, and Jackson finally suspected Poindexter of
complicity in the attempt that was made on his life at the capitol. In
1835 he removed to Louisville, Ky., but was disappointed in his
hopes of political promotion there, and. after being commissioned by
President Tyler to investigate frauds in the New York custom-house,
returned to Mississippi, where he affiliated with his old political
friends. Poindexter had more than ordinary ability, but his career was
marred by violent personal controversies and by dissipation, and he
was embittered by domestic troubles and by the unpopularity that
his opposition to Jackson aroused against him in Mississippi. See a "
Biographical Sketch " of him (Washington. 1835). POINSETT, Joel
Roberts, statesman, b. in Charleston. S. C., 2 March, 1779 ; d. in
Statesburg, S. C., 12 Dec., 1851. He was of Huguenot descent, and
the last of his family. He was educated at Timothy Dwight's school in
Greenfield, Conn., and in England, and then studied medicine at
Edinburgh university, and military science at Woolwich academy. His
father induced him to abandon his intention of entering the army
and become a student of law. but feeble health obliged him to go
abroad again, and he travelled widely in Europe and Asia. While he
was in St. s . ^*} Petersburg the czar ( /;$ s ' offered him a commis-
V^X //? . / i?t46 sion in the Russian army. On his return to the
United State.- in 1809 he asked President Madison for military
employment, and the latter was about to make him quartermaster-
general of the army, but the sei i-etaiy of war objected, and Mr.
Poinsett was sent by the government to South America to inquire
into the condition of the inhabitants of that continent and their
prospects of success in their struggle with Spain for independence.
While he was in Chili the Spanish authorities of Peru, hearing th-it
war had begun between Spain and the United State-. i several
American merehant vessels, ami then, in\adinu' Chilian territory,
captured others at Talcahuano. Poin-ett put himself at the head of a
considerable force that was placed at his di-po.-al l>y the
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POINTIS POLAND 49 Republican government of Chili, and,

attacking the Spaniards, retook the ships. He was at Valparaiso
during the fight between the "Essex" ami the " Phcebe " and "
Cherub " (see PORTER, DAVID), and wished to return home at once
to enter the army, but the British naval authorities refused to let him
go by sea, and, after crossing the Andes in April and meeting with
various delays, he reached the United States after the declaration of
peace. On his return he was elected to the South Carolina
legislature, where he interested himself in projects of internal
improvement, and secured the construction of a road over the
Saluda mountain. He was afterward chosen to congress as a
Federalist, and served two terms in 1821-'5, advocating the cause of
the South American republics and that of Greek independence. In
1822 he discharged an important special mission to Mexico during
the reign of Iturbide, and in 1835 he returned to that country as U.
S. minister. During his term of office, which lasted till 1829, he
negotiated a treaty of commerce, and maintained his independence
with spirit and courage in the midst of many revolutionary
outbreaks. He was accused by the Church party of interfering
against them, but justified his course in a pamphlet after his return.
At the request of Freemasons in Mexico he sent for charters for their
lodges to the Grand lodge of New York, and he was consequently
accused of introducing Masonry into the country. On his return to his
native state he became the leader of the Union party there in the
struggle against nullification, opposing it by his speeches and in the
public press, and has been credited with the military organization of
the supporters of the National government in Charleston. He was
authorized by President Jackson to obtain arms and ammunition
from the government supplies in the harbor, and it was said by some
that he had been secretly commissioned a colonel. During Van
Buren's administration he held the portfolio of war in the cabinet. In
this office he improved the field-artillery of the army, and in 1840
strongly recommended that congress should aid the states in
reorganizing their militia. This was his last public office, and he
afterward lived in retirement. He was an earnest opponent of the
Mexican war. Poinsett was the author of various essays and orations
on manufacturing and agricultural topics, and of a discourse on the
"Promotion of Science," (in 1841) at the first anniversary of the
National institution, to which he gave a valuable museum. He took
much interest in botany, and the " Poinsettia Pulcherrina," a Mexican
flower, which he introduced into this country, was named for him. He
was also the founder of an academy of fine arts at Charleston, which
existed for several years, and published " Notes on Mexico, made in
1822. with an Historical Sketch of the Revolution " (Philadelphia,
1824). He left a mass of correspondence and other papers, which
remain unpublished. Columbia gave him the degree of LL. D. in
1825. A portrait of Poinsett, by John Wesley Jarvis, was presented to
the city of Charleston by William Courtenay in 1887. POINTIS, Jean
Bernard Louis Des.jean (pwan-tee). Baron de, French naval officer,
b. in Brittany in 1645 ; d. in Champigny, near Paris, 24 April, 1707.
He entered the navy when he was sixteen years old, and was
promoted chef d'escadre in 1693. In 1696 he presented a memoir to
Louis XIV., in which he proposed an attack on Carthagena, and was
authorized to form a company which should provide for the
expenses of the expedition in consideration of receiving half the
profits. He sailed from Brest, 9 Jan., 1697, and was joined in Santo
Domingo by Ducasse, the governor of Tortuga, at the head of 600
buccaneers. He arrived off Carthagena on 12 April, and, landing
three miles from the city, summoned it to surrender ; but the
Spaniards refused, and the French were driven back in several
attacks. But, after the storming of the fort of BocaC'hica and several
other important points of defence, the city capitulated on condition
that the buccaneers should not enter. Booty amounting to
$15,000,000 was secured by Pointis, who also imposed upon the city
a ransom of $600,000. Ducasse, being appointed governor, left the
buccaneers in garrison at Boca Chica; but they learned that Pointis
tried to keep them out of their share of the plunder, and, although
Ducasse restrained them for some time, they finally entered
Carthagena, and pillaged and burned for three days, committing all
kinds of atrocities. After destroying the fortifications of the place, the
French re-embarked on 1 June, and, defeating two English fleets,
anchored in Brest, 29 Aug., 1697. A medal was struck in
commemoration of the expedition. Pointis afterward commanded a
fleet, and besirgrd Gibraltar in 1704-'5. hut retired from active
service toward the close of the latter year. He published " Relation
de 1'expedition de C'arthagene faite par les Francois en 1697"
(Amsterdam. 1698). The historian of the filibusters, Charlevoix,
speaks with praise of Pointis as a humane and just commander, but
he deplores his severity with the buccaneers, as it caused the latter
to distrust France, which had often checked their tendency to
commit useless cruelties, but was thenceforth unable to do so.
POIRIER. Pascal, Canadian senator, b. in Shediac, New Brunswick,
14 Feb., 1852. He is of Acadian descent. He completed his course of
studies at St. Joseph's college, Memramcook, studied law, and was
admitted to the bar of Quebec in 1876. In 1872 Mr. Poirier was
appointed postmaster of the Dominion parliament, which post he
held till his appointment to the senate, 9 March, 1885. At an early
age he contributed to the press, both French and English, and he
has published "L'Origine des Acadiens" (Montreal, 1874). POISSON.
Modest Jules Adolphe, Canadian author, b. in Gentilly, province of
Quebec, 14 March, 1849. He was educated at the Seminary of
Quebec, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1873. Since
that year he has been registrar of Arthabasca county. He is the
author of " Chants Canadiens " (Quebec, 1880), " Heurs Perdues"
(1894), and has contributed to French Canadian periodicals.
POLANO, John Scroggs, soldier, b. in Princeton. Ind., 14 Oct., 1836 ;
d. in Asheville. N. C., 8 Aug.. 1898. He was graduated at the U. S.
military academy and appointed in the 3d infantry, July. 1861.
Subsequently he served with the Army of the Potomac, engaging in
the battle of Bull Run, and with that army in the following
campaigns, until after the battle of Gettysburg, when he was on duty
in the defences of Washington. Meanwhile he had been promoted
captain, and had received the brevets of major and lieutenant-
colonel. In 1865 he was assigned to the U. S. military academy,
where he remained for four years as assistant professor of
geography, history, ethics, and drawing. During the ten years that
followed he served principally on frontier duty, becoming, on 15
Dec., 1880, major of the 18th infantry, and in 1881-'6, he was chief
of the department of law at the U. S. infantry and cavalry school in
Leavenworth, Kansas, where he was also in charge in 1881-'3 of the
department of military drawing. On 1 March. 1886. he was promoted
lieutenant-colonel of the 21st infantry. Col. Poland has published "
Digest of the Military Laws
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50 POLAND POLK of the United States from 1861 to 1868 "

(Boston, 1868) and " The Conventions of Geneva of 1864 and 1868.
and St. Petersburg International Commission " (Leavenworth. INM;,.
POLAND. Luke Potter, jurist, b. in Westford, Vt., 1 Nov., 1815: d. in
Waterville, Vt., 2 July. 1887. He attended the common schools, was
employed in a country store and on a farm, taught at Jlorristown,
Vt., studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1836. He was a
member of the State constitutional convention in 1843, and
prosecuting attorney for the county in 1844-'5. In 1848 he was the
Free-soil candidate for lieutenant-governor, and in the same year he
was elected a judge of the Vermont supreme court. He was re-
elected each successive year, becoming chief justice in 1860. until he
was" appointed in November, 1865, on the death of Jacob Collamer,
to serve out his unexpired term in the U. S. senate. On its conclusion
he entered the house of representatives, and served from 1867 till
1875. While in the senate he secured the passage of the bankrupt
law, besides originating a bill for the revision and consolidation of
the statutes of the United States. As chairman of the committee on
revision in the house, he superintended the execution of his scheme
of codification. He was chairman of the committee to investigate the
outrages of the Ivi-Klux Klan, and of the investigation committee on
the Credit mobilier transactions ; also of one on the reconstruction of
the Arkansas state government. Several times, while serving on the
committee on elections, he came into conflict with other Republicans
on questions regarding the admission of Democratic members from
the M>uth. He was chairman of the Vermont delegation to the
Republican national convention of 1876, and presented the name of
William A. Wheeler for the vice-presidency, for which office he
himself had been brought forward as a candidate. Mr. Poland was a
representative in the state legislature in 1878. He was elected to
congress again in 1882, and served from 1883 till 3 March, 1885.
POLETTE, Antoine, Canadian jurist, b. in Pointe-aux-Trembles,
Quebec, 25 Aug., 1807 ; d. in Three Rivers, 6 Jan., 1887. He studied
law, became an advocate in 1828, entered parliament in 1848, and
was appointed queen's counsel in 1854. He was made a
commissioner for consolidating the laws in 1856, and in 1860 puisne
judge of the supreme court of Quebec, which post he held till he
retired in 1880. He was a royal commissioner in the Canadian Pacific
railway inquiry of 1873. POLHEJIL'S, Abraham, clergyman, b. in
Astoria, Long Island, N. Y., in 1812; d. in Newburg, N. Y., in October,
1857. His ancestor. Rev. Johannes T. Polhemus. a native of Holland,
came to this country in 1654. Abraham was graduated at Rutgers in
1831, and at New Brunswick theological seminary in 1835, and was
pastor in Hopewell. N. Y.. till ISoT. anil in Newark. N. .1.. f i-i mi Ma>
c'l' that year till his death. .Mr. Polhemus was very popular in the
community in which he lived, and was clear and logical as a pulpit
orator. He published an " Address before the Alumni of Rutgers
College" (1852). A " Memorial." containing twelve of his sermons,
the address at his installation in Newark, by Dr. David H. Riddle, and
his funeral discourse, by Dr. John Forsyth, chaplain, U. S. A., was
printed after his death. POLIGXAC. Camille Arinand Jules Marie (po-
leen-yak). Count de, soldier, b. in France, 6 Feb., 1832. He is a
descendant of the Duchess of Polignac, a favorite of Marie
Antoinette. At the beginning of the civil war he came to this country,
offered his services to the Confederate government, and was made
brigadier-general on 10 Jan.. 1802. and attached to the Army of
Tennessee. Subsequently he was given command of a division and
commissioned major-general on 13 June, 1864. During the Franco-
Prussian war of 1870-'! he served with his countrymen, and he has
since been engaged in journalism and in civil engineering. On
several occasions he has been sent to Algiers in charge of surveying
expeditions by the French government, and his work has received
special recognition. POLK, James Knox, eleventh president of the
United States, b. in Mecklenburg county, N. C., 2 Nov., 1795; d. in
Nashville, Tenn.. 15 June, 1849. He was a son of Samuel Polk,
whose father, Ezekiel, was a brother of Col. Thomas (q. v.). grandson
of Robert Polk, or Pollock, who was born in Ireland and emigrated to
the United States. His mother was Jane, daughter of James Knox, a
resident of Iredell county, N. C., and a captain in the war of the
Revolution. His father, Samuel, a farmer, removed in the autumn of
1806 to the rich valley of Duck river, a tributary of the Tennessee,
and made a new home in a section that was erected the following
year into the county of Maury. Besides cultivating the tract of land he
had purchased, Samuel at intervals followed the occupation of a
surveyor, acquired a fortune equal to his wants, and lived until 1827.
His son James was brought up on the farm, and not only assisted in
its management, but frequently accompanied his father in his
surveying expeditions, during which they were often absent for
weeks. He was inclined to study, often busied himself with hi~
father's mathematical calculations, and was fond of reading. He was
sent to school, and had succeeded in mastering the English branches
when ill health compelled his removal. He was then placed with a
merchant, but having a strong dislike to commercial pursuits, he
obtained permission to return home after a few weeks' trial, and in
July, 1813. was given in charge of a private tutor. In 1815 he
entered the sophomore class at the University of North Carolina, of
which institution his cousin. William (q. v.), was a trustee. As a
student young Polk was correct, punctual, and industrious. At his
graduation in 1818 he was officially acknowledged to be the best
scholar in both the classics and mathematics, and delivered the Latin
salutatory. In 1847 the university conferred upon him the degree of
LL. D. In 1819 he entered the law-office of Felix Grundy, who was
then at the head of the Tennessee bar. While pursuing his legal
studies he nttraeted the attention of Andrew Jackson, who soon
afterward was appointed governor of the territory of Florida. An
intimaey wa^ thus begun between the two men that in after-year*
great I \ inlliieiieed tincourse of at least one of them. In 1S20 Mr.
Polk was admitted to the bar, and established himself at Columbia,
tin- enmity-seat of Maury county. Here he .-iiiained such immediate
success as fails to the lot of few, his career at the bar only ending
with his election to the governorship in 1839. At times he practised
alone, while at others he was associated
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POLK POLK 51 successively with several of the leading

practitioners of the state. Among the latter may be mentioned Aaron
V. Brown and Gideon J. Pillow. Brought up as a Jeffersoniun. ami
early taking an interest in politics, Mr. Polk was frequently heard in
public as an exponent of the views of his party. So popular was his
style of oratory that his services soon came to be in great demand,
and he was not long in earning the title of the " Napoleon of the
Stump." He was, however, an argumentative rather than a rhetorical
speaker, and convinced his hearers by plainness of statement and
aptness of illustration, ignoring the ad-captamdum effects usually
resorted to in political harangues. His first public employment was
that of chief clerk to the Tennessee house of representatives, and in
1823 he canvassed the district to secure his own election to that
body. During his two years in the legislature he was' regarded as one
of its most promising members. His ability and shrewdness in
debate, his business tact, combined with his firmness and industry,
secured for him a high reputation. While & member of the general
assembly he obtained the passage of a law to prevent the then
common practice of duelling, and, although he resided in a
community where that mode of settling disputes was generally
approved, he was never concerned in an " affair of honor." either as
principal or as second. In August, 1825, he was elected to congress
from the Duck river district, in which he resided, by a flattering
majority, and re-elected at every succeeding election until 1839,
when he withdrew from the •contest to become a candidate for
governor. On taking his seat as a member of the 19th congress, he
found himself, with one or two exceptions, the youngest member of
that body. The same habits of laborious application that had
previously characterized him were now displayed on the floor of the
house and in the committee-room. He was prominently connected
with every leading question, and upon all he struck what proved to
be the keynote for the action of his party. During the whole period of
President Jackson's administration he was one of its leading
supporters, and at times, on certain issues of paramount
importance, its chief reliance. His maiden speech was made in
defence of the proposed amendment to the constitution, giving the
choice of president and vice-president directly to the people. It was
distinguished by clearness and force, copiousness of research,
wealth of illustration, and cogency of argument, and at once placed
its author in the front rank of congressional debaters. During the
same session Mr. Polk attracted attention by his vigorous opposition
to the appropriation for the Panama mission. President Adams had
appointed commissioners to attend a congress proposed to be held
at Panama by delegates appointed by different Spanish-American
states, which, although they had virtually achieved their
independence, were still at war with the mother-country. Mr. Polk,
and those who thought with him, contended that such action on the
part of this government would tend to involve us in a war with
Spain, and establish an unfortunate precedent for the future. In
December, 1827, he was placed on the committee on foreign affairs,
and some time afterward was also appointed chairman of the select
committee to which was referred that portion of the message of
President Adams calling the attention of congress to the probable
accumulation of a surplus in the treasury after the anticipated
extinguishment of the national debt. As the head of the latter
committee, he made a report denying the constitutional power of
congress to collect from the people for distribution a surplus beyond
the wants of the government, and maintaining that the revenue
should be reduced to the requirements of the public service. Early in
1833, as a member of the ways and means committee, he made a
minority report unfavorable to the Bank of the United States, which
aroused a storm of opposition, a meeting of the friends of the bank
being held at Nashville. I >uring the entire contest between the
bank and President Jackson, caused by the removal of the deposits
in October, 1833, Mr. Polk, now chairman of the committee,
supported the executive. His speech in opening the debate
summarized the material facts and arguments on the Democratic
side of the question. George McDuffie, leader of the opposition, bore
testimony in his concluding remarks to the boldness and manliness
with which Mr. Polk had assumed the only position that could be
judiciously taken. Mr. Polk was elected speaker of the house of
representatives in December, 1835, and held that office till 1839. He
gave to the administration of Martin Van Buren the same
unhesitating support he had accorded to that of President Jackson,
and, though taking no part in the discussions, he approved of the
leading measures recommended by the former, including the cession
of the public lands to the states, the preemption law, and the
proposal to establish an independent treasury, and exerted his
influence to secure their adoption. He was the speaker during five
sessions, and it was his fortune to preside over the house at a period
when party feelings were excited to an unusual degree.
Notwithstanding the fact that during the first session more appeals
were taken from his decisions than were ever known before, he was
uniformly sustained by the house, and frequently by leading
members of the Whig party. Although he was opposed to the
doctrines of the anti-slavery reformers, we have the testimony of
their leader in the house, John Quincy Adams, to the effect that
Speaker Polk uniformly extended to him " every kindness and
courtesy imaginable." On leaving congress Mr. Polk became the
candidate of the Democrats of Tennessee for governor. They had
become disheartened by a series of disasters and defeats caused
primarily by the defection of John Bell and Judge Hugh L. White.
Under these circumstances it was evident that no one but the
strongest man in the party could enter the canvass with the slightest
prospect of success, and it was doubtful whether even he could
carry off the prize. On being asked, Mr. Polk at once cheerfully
consented to allow his name to be used. He was nominated in the
autumn of 1838, but, owing to his congressional duties, was unable
fairly to enter upon the canvass until the spring of i839. His
opponent was Newton Cannon, also a Democrat, who then held the
office. The contest was spirited, and Mr. Polk was elected by over
2.500 majority. On 14 Oct. he took the oath of office. In his
inaugural address he touched upon the relations of the state and
Federal governments, declared that the latter had no constitutional
power to incorporate a national bank, took strong ground against
the creation of a surplus Federal revenue by taxation, asserted that
"the agitation of the Abolitionists can by no possibility produce good
to any portion of the Union, but must, if persisted in, lead to
incalculable mischief," and discussed at length other topics,
especially bearing upon the internal policy of Tennessee. In 1841 Mr.
Polk was again a candidate for the governorship, although his defeat
was a foregone conclusion in view of the political whirlwind that had
swept over the country in 1840 and resulted in the election of
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52 POLK POLK William Henry Harrison to the presidency. In

Tennessee the Harrison electoral ticket had received more than
12,000 majority. Although to overcome this was impossible, Mr. Polk
entered upon the canvass with his usual energy and earnestness. He
could not secure the defeat of James C. Jones, the opposing Whig
candidate, one of the most popular members of his party in the
state, but he did succeed in cutting down the opposition majority to
about 3,000. In 1843 Mr. Polk was once more a candidate ; but this
time Gov. Jones's majority was nearly 4.000. In 1839 Mr. Polk had
been nominated by the legislature of Tennessee as its candidate for
vicepresident on the ticket with Martin Van Buren, and other states
had followed the example: but Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky,
seemed to be the choice of the great body of the Democratic party,
and he was accordingly nominated. From the date of Van Buren's
defeat in 1840 until within a few weeks of the meeting of the
National Dc'inncratic convention at Baltimore in 1844, public opinion
in the party undoubtedly pointed to his renomination, but when in
April of the latter year President Tyler concluded a treaty between
the government of the United States and the republic of Texas,
providing for the annexation of the latter to the Union, a new issue
was introduced into American politics that was destined to change
not only the platforms of parties, but the future history and
topography of the country itself. On the question whether Texas
should be admitted, the greatest divergence of opinion among public
men prevailed. The Whig party at the north opposed annexation, on
the grounds that it would be an act of bad faith to Mexico, that it
would involve the necessity of assuming the debt of the young
republic, amounting to ten or twelve millions of dollars, and that it
would further increase the area of slave territory. At the south the
Whigs were divided, one section advocating the new policy, while
the other concurred with their party friends at the north on the first
two grounds of objection. The Democrats generally favored
annexation, but a portion of the party at the north, and a few of its
members residing in the slavestates, opposed it. Mr. Van Buren and
Mr. Clay agreed very nearly in their opinions, being in favor of
annexation if the American people desired it, provided that the
consent of Mexico could be obtained, or at least that efforts should
be made to obtain it. In this crisis Mr. Polk declared his views in no
uncertain tones. It being understood that he would be a candidate
for vice-president, a letter was addressed to him by a committee of
the citizens of Cincinnati, asking for an expression of his sentiments
on the subject. In his reply, dated 22 April, 1844. he said : " I have
no hesitation in declaring that I am in favor of the immediate
reannexation of Texas to the government and territory of the United
States. The proof is fair and satisfactory to my own mind that Texas
once constituted a part of the territory of the United States, the title
to which I regard to have been as indisputable as that to any portion
of our territory." He also added that " the country west of the
Sabine, and now called Texas, was [in 1819] most unwisely ceded
away"; that the people and government of the republic were most
anxious for annexation, and that, if their prayer was rejected, there
was danger that she might become "a dependency if not a colony of
Great Britain." This letter, strongly in contrast with the hesitating
phrases contained in that of ex-President Van Buren of 20 April on
the same subject, elevated its author to the presidency. When the
Baltimore convention met on 27 May, it was found that, while Mr.
Van Buren rouM not secure the necessary two-third vote, his friends
numbered more than one third of the delegates present, and were
thus in a position to dictate the name of the successful candidate. As
it was also found that they were inflexibly opposed to Messrs. Cass,
Johnson, Buchanan, and the others whose names had been
presented, Mr. Polk was introduced as the candidate of conciliation,
and nominated witli alacrity and unanimity. George M. Dallas was
nominated for vice-president. In his letter of acceptance, Mr. Polk
declared that, if elected, he should enter upon " the discharge of the
high and solemn duties of the office with the settled purpose of not
being a candidate for reelection." After an exciting canvass. Mr. Polk
was elected over his distinguished opponent, Henry Clay, by about
40,000 majority, on the popular vote, exclusive of that of South
Carolina, whose electors were chosen by the legislature of the state
; while in the electoral college he received 175 votes to 105 that
were cast for Mr. Clay. On 4 March, 1845, Mr. Polk was inaugurated.
In his inaugural address, after recounting the blessings conferred
upon the nation by the Federal Union, he said: "To perpetuate them,
it is our sacred duty to preserve it. Who shall assign limits to the
achievements of free minds and free hands under the protection of
this glorious Union J No treason to mankind, since the organization
of society, would be equal in atrocity to that of him who' would lift
his hand to destroy it. He would overthrow the noblest structure of
human wisdom which protects himself and his fellow-man. He would
stop the progress of free government and involve his country either
in anarchy or in despotism." In selecting his cabinet, the new
president was singularly fortunate. It comprised several of the most
distinguished members of the Democratic party, and all sections of
the Union were represented. James Buchanan, fresh from his long
experience in the senate, was named secretary of state : Robert J.
Walker, also an ex-senator and one of the best authorities on the
national finances, was secretary of the treasury ; to William L. Marcy,
exgovernor of New York, was confided the war portfolio ; literature
was honored in the appointment of George Bancroft as secretary of
the navy ; Cave Johnson, an honored son of Tennessee, was made
postmaster-general ; and John Y. Mason, who had been a member
of President Tyler's cabinet, was first attorney-general and afterward
secretary of the navy. When congress met in the following December
there was a Democratic majority in both branches. In his message
the president condemned all anti-slavery agitation, recommended a
subtreasury and a tariff for revenue, and declared that the
annexation of Texas was a matter that concerned only the latter and
the United States, no foreign country having any right to interfere.
Congress was also informed that the American army under Gen.
Zachary Taylor had been ordered to occupy, and had occupied, the
western bank of Nueces river, beyond which Texas had never
hitherto exercised jurisdiction. On 29 Dec., Texas was admitted into
the Union, and two days later an act was passed extending the
United States revenue system over the doubtful territory beyond the
Nueces. Even these measures did not elicit a declaration of war from
the Mexican authorities, who still declared their willingness to
negotiate concerning the disputed territory between the Nueces and
the Rio Grande. These negotiations, however, came to nothing, and
the president, in
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POLK POLK 53 accordance with Gen. Taylor's suggestion,

ordered a forward movement, in obedience to which that officer
advanced from his camp at Corpus Christi toward the Rio Grande,
and occupied tin- district in debate. Thus brought face to face with
Mexican troops, he was attacked early in May with 0.000 men by
Gen. Arista, who was badly beaten at Palo Alto with less than half
that number. The next day Taylor attacked Arista at Resaea de la
Palina, anil drove him across the Rio Grande. On receipt of the news
of thesr events in Washington, President Polk sent a message to
congress, in which he declared that .Mexican troops had at last shed
the blood of American citizens on American soil, and asked for a
formal declaration of war. A bill was accordingly introduced and
passed by both houses, recognizing the fact that hostilities had been
begun, and appropriating $10,000,000 for its prosecution. Its
preamble read as follows : " Whereas, by the act of the republic of
Mexico, a state of war exists between that government and the
United States." The Whigs protested against this statement as
untrue, alleging that the president had provoked retaliatory action by
ordering the army into Mexican territory, and Abraham Lincoln
introduced in the house of representatives what became known as
the " spot resolutions," calling upon the president to designate the
spot of American territory whereon the outrage had been
committed. Nevertheless, the Whigs voted for the bill and generally
supported the war until its conclusion. On 8 Aug. a second message
was received from the president, asking for money with which to
purchase territory from Mexico, that the dispute might be settled by
negotiation. A bill appropriating $2,000,000 for this purpose at once
brought up the question of slavery extension into new territory, and
David Wilmot. of Pennsylvania, in behalf of many northern
Democrats, offered an amendment applying to any newly acquired
territory the provision of the ordinance of 1781, to the effect that "
neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part
of said territory except for crime, whereof the party shall first be
duly convieted." The Whigs and northern Democrats united secured
its passage, but it was sent to the senate too late to be acted upon.
During the same session war with England regarding the Oregon
question seemed imminent. Bv the treaties of 1803 with France, and
of 1819 with Spain, the United States had acquired the rights of
those powers on the Pacific coast north of California. The northern
boundary of the ceded territory was unsettled. The United States
claimed that the line of ."i4 4(1 north latitude was such boundary,
while Great Britain maintained that it followed the Columbia river. By
the convention of 1827 the disputed territory had been held jointly
by both countries, the arrangement being terminable by either
country on twelve months' notice. The Democratic convention of
1844 had demanded the reoccupation of the whole of Oregon up to
54° 40', " with or without war with England." a demand popularly
summarized in the campaign rallying-cry of " Fifty -four -forty or
fight ! " The annexation of Texas having been accomplished, the
Whigs now began to urge the Demoi-raN to carry out their promise
regarding Oregon, and, against the votes of the extreme southern
Democrats, the president was directed to give the requisite twelve
months' notice. Further negotiations ensued, which resulted in the
offer by Great Britain to yield her claim to the unoccupied territory
between the 49th parallel and Columbia river, and acknowledge that
parallel as the northern boundary. As the president had subscribed
to the platform of the Baltimore con vention, he threw upon ilie
senate the responsibility of deciding whether the claim of the United
States to the whole of Oregon should be insisted upon, or the
compromise proposed by her majesty's government accepted. The
senate, by a vote of 41 to 14, decided in favor of the latter
alternative, and on 15 June,184(j, the treaty was signed. Two other
important questions were acted upon at the first session of the 39th
congress, the tariff and internal improvements. The former had been
a leading issue in the presidential contest of 1844. The act of 1842
had violated the principles of the compromise bill of 1833, and the
opinions of the two candidates for the presidency, on this issue,
were supposed to be well defined previous to the termination of
their congressional career. Mr. Polk was committed to the policy of a
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