Chapter: 1 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

PRASHANTH KUMAR SHETTY DHARMASTHALA

What is flower? Write the importance of a flower.

Angiosperms)

Parts of a flower
Accessory whorl - sepals and petals
Essential whorl pistil and stamens

Importance of flowers - Flowers have aesthetic, social, religious, and cultural value. They have been
used as symbols of love, affection, happiness, grief, and mourning. Ecologically flower plays vital role.
They support the life of insects and there by involve in the production of fruits and seeds.

Structure of a L.S of flower

What are the events of sexual reproduction in flowering plants?
Events of Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
1. Pre fertilisation events
i. Formation of male sex organ Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollen grains (male gametophyte)
ii. Formation of female sex organ - Pistil, Megasporangium (Ovule) and Embryo sac.
iii. Pollination
2. Fertilization 3. Post fertilisation Events
i. Double fertilisation i. Formation of endosperm
ii. Formation of embryo
iii. Formation of seeds.

Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollen grains (male gametophyte)

What is a) Androecium b) Stamen?

Androecium is male sex part of a flower which

consists of whorl of stamens.
Stamens represent male reproductive organs of a
flower.
Stamen has long slender stalk called filament and
terminal bilobed anther.
The number, attachment, structure, and size of the
stamens are varying in different plants.
 Structure of Anther

Explain the structure of a) young anther and b) mature anther

Explain the structure of microsporangium.
What are the roles of different walls of the young anther?
Name the nutritive tissue of young anther (Ans: Tapetum)

A,B - YOUNG AND C- MATURE ANTHER

Anther is bilobed (two lobes). Each lobe has two theca called dithecous.
The anther is tetragonal structure consists of four microsporangia in each corners.
Microsporangium
Microsporangium is Circular in outline and surrounded by four wall layers, they are Epidermis,
Endothecium, Middle layer and Tapetum.
The outer three layers Epidermis, Endothecium and Middle layer helps in protection and
dehiscence of anther to release the pollen grains.
The innermost layer of anther is Tapetum helps in nourishes the developing pollen grains. The
Tapetum has dense cytoplasm and generally has more than one nucleus.
When anther is young, a group of compactly arranged homogenous cells called sporogenous
tissue occupies the centre of each microsporangium.
 Sporogenous tissues undergo meiotic cell division to form microspore tetrad (group of four
microspore cells. Each microspore is haploid and has only one nucleus. The microspore later
becomes pollen grain by dividing nucleus into two cells).
Since Sporogenous tissues are capable of gives rise to microspore tetrads, they are called
Microspore mother cell or pollen mother cell (PMC).
Finally pollen grains are released with the dehiscence of anther walls.

Development of pollen grain inside the microsporangium of anther

Meiosis

Microspore tetrad four microspore

Pollen grain

Explain the structure of Pollen grains (The male gametophyte)

Generally pollen grains are spherical, measuring about 25 50 micrometers. The pollen has two
layers surrounding the plasma membrane.
The hard outer layer called exine made up of sporopollenin. Sporopollenin is one of the most
resistant organic materials which can withstand high temperature and strong acids & alkali. There
is no enzyme to breaks down sporopollenin. Pollen grains are well preserved as fossils because of
the presence of sporopollenin.
The exine shows different patterns of designs which are specific to each family as like human
fingerprints.
The aperture of exine where sporopollenin is absent called germ pore.
The thin and continuous inner wall of the pollen grain is called intine. It is made up of cellulose
and pectin.
 The mature pollen grain has two cells called Vegetative cell and Generative cell.
The vegetative cell is bigger, has abundant reserve food and large irregular nucleus.
The generative cell is small and floats in the cytoplasm of vegetative cells. It is spindle shaped and
has dense cytoplasm and nucleus.
In 60% of angiosperms the pollen grains shed at this 2-celled stage. In remaining species, the
generative cell divides mitotically to gives rise to two male gametes (3-celled stages)
Name the two cells of pollen grains. (Ans: vegetative and generative cells)

What is the special feature of sporopollenin?

Why pollen grain is called male gametophyte? (Ans: pollen grain carries two male gametes)

What is pollen allergy? Write the symptoms of pollen allergy

Pollen allergy During some flowering seasons of the year, persons may be suffering from severe
allergy and bronchial afflictions due to the pollen grains. Pollen allergy leads to respiratory disorders like
asthma, bronchitis etc. The best example is Parthenium or carrot grass that came into India as
contaminant with imported wheat causes allergy.

How pollen is important as food supplements?

Pollen as food supplements Pollen grains are rich in nutrients. In western countries large numbers of
pollen products are available in the market in the form of tablets and syrups. It increases the
performance of athletes and race horses.

What is pollen viability? How it varies from plants to plants?

Pollen viability It is the period for which pollen grains retain its germinating capacity after releasing
from the anther. The pollen grains have to germinate on the stigma before they lose viability. The pollen
viability purely depends on temperature and humidity.
In some cereals like rice and wheat pollen grains lose viability within 30 minutes of their release.
In Leguminoseae and Solanaceae the pollen grains maintain viability for months.

What is pollen bank? At what temperature pollen grains can be preserved?

If the pollen grains are preserved at -1960C in liquid Nitrogen, they can retain viability for many years.
Such stored pollen grains can be used as pollen banks (similar to seed bank) in crop breeding
programme.
[Semen/sperms of the animals can also be stored at -1960C in liquid Nitrogen for artificial insemination].
 Pistil, Megasporangium (Ovule) and Embryo sac (Female gametophyte)

i) Gynoecium ii) pistil

Gynoecium is female sex part of a flower which consists of pistils.
Pistil represents female reproductive organ of a flower.

A flower has either single pistil (monocarpellary) or many pistils (multicarpellary). In multicarpellary
flowers, the pistils are fused (syncarpous) or free (apocarpous).

A pistil has three parts - stigma,

style and ovary.

The placenta is located inside the

ovary which is attached to ovule

The number of ovule in ovary may

be one (wheat, paddy and mango)
or many (papaya, water melon and
orchids).

Explain the structure of Megasporangium/anatropous ovule

 Stalk of the ovule helps to attach placenta is called funicle.
The junction between ovule and funicle is called hilum.
One or two protective coverings called integuments.
A small opening at the tip is called Micropyle.
The basal part of the ovule opposite to micropylar end is called Chalaza.
Integuments enclose mass of cells with reserve food called nucellus.
Within the nucellus there is embryo sac/female gametophyte. It is formed from megaspore
through meiotic /reduction cell division.

What is nucellus?
Nutritive tissue found inside the integuments of ovule which supplies food to the growing embryosac.

What is Megasporogenesis? Explain the steps of monosporic development of female gametophyte.

The process of formation of megaspore from the megaspore mother cell (MMC) is called
Megasporogenesis. Four megaspores are produced from the megaspore mother cell (MMC) through
reduction division. Out of four megaspores only one functional megaspore develops into the embryo
sac/female gametophyte is termed as monosporic development.
 The megaspore nucleus divides into 2-nucleate, 4 -nucleate and 8-nucleate stages. After 8-nucleate stage
the cell wall is formed to six nuclei except two polar nuclei. Each cell is organized at different locations of
the embryo sac. This is the mature embryo sac.

Explain the structure of embryo sac/female gametophyte.

Embryo sac (Female gametophyte)

Three cells at the micropylar end called egg apparatus. It consists of two synergids and one egg
cell.
The synergids have special cellular thickenings at the micropylar end called filiform apparatus
which play important role in guiding the pollen tubes into the synergids.
Three cells at the chalazal end are called antipodals.
A central cell has two polar nuclei. Thus, a typical angiosperm embryo sac at maturity is 8-
nucleate but 7-celled.

What is the role synergids/filiform apparatus in embryo sac?

 Pollination
What is pollination? Explain different kinds of pollination depending on the source of pollen.
Pollination is the mechanism of transfer of pollen grains to the stigma of a flower.

Kinds of pollination Depending on the source of pollen.

Autogamy Geitonogamy Xenogamy
Transfer of pollen grains from Transfer of pollen grains from Transfer of pollen grains from
the anther to stigma of same the anther to stigma of different the anther to stigma of a
flower flowers of same plant different plant
Autogamy brings genetically Geitonogamy brings genetically Xenogamy brings genetically
similar pollen grains to the similar pollen grains to the dissimilar pollen grains to the
stigma stigma stigma

Write the differences between Autogamy and Xenogamy.

Why Autogamy is genetically similar to Geitonogamy?

What are the factors that favor Autogamy?

i) Synchrony in pollen release and stigma receptivity (both anther and pistil mature at same time)
ii) Anthers and stigma are very close to each other.
iii)Cleistogamous flower
these flowers stamens and stigma are always lies very close to each other.

Write the differences betweenchasmogamous flower and Cleistogamous flower

Some plants such as Viola, Oxalis, and Commelina produce two types of flowers in the same plant body.
i) Chasmogamous flower flower with exposed anthers and stigmas. They favor all kinds of pollination
ii) Cleistogamous flower -
 Agents of pollination
Abiotic agents (wind and water) and biotic agent

What are the flowering conditions in wind pollinated plants?

Wind pollination is very common in grasses.
The factors that favor Wind pollination are
i. pollen grains are light and non-sticky.
ii. Well exposed stamens to easily disperse of pollen grains.
iii. Large feathery stigma to easily catch wind pollen grains.
iv. Single ovary per a flower
iv. Single ovule in each ovary
v. Numerous flowers packed into an inflorescence. Example is corn cob the tassels are nothing but
stigma and style which wave in the wind to trap pollen grains.

Write a note on water pollination.

Water pollination is rare and is limited to 30 genera mostly to monocots.
i) Water is necessary for the transfer of male gametes in Bryophytes and Pteridophytes.
ire water for the pollination. For examples in water hyacinth and water lily
flowers are emerged above the water level. Therefore they undergo wind or insect pollination.
iii) The submerged plants like Vallisneria&Hydrilla and marine sea grasses such as Zostera perform
water pollination. Their pollen grains have mucilaginous sheath to prevent them from water (wetting).

Explain how water pollination takes place in Vallisneria and sea grass/Zostera
Water pollination in Vallisneria Water pollination in sea grass/Zostera
Both male and female flowers reach the surface Both male and female flowers are submerged in
of water. Male flowers release pollen grains on water. The long ribbon like pollen grains is
the surface of water. Pollination takes place with carried to the stigma passively inside the water.
the help of water current.

[Since there is no guarantee of pollination, a large numbers of pollen grains are produced in plants
that pollinates through abiotic agents].
The water pollinated plants have mucilaginous sheath around the pollen grains - To prevent
pollen grains from water (wetting)
What are the biotic agents of pollination? How flowers are modified for biotic agents?
Animals like Bees, butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps, ants, moths, birds (sun birds and humming birds) bats,
larger animals such as primates (lemurs),arboreal (tree dwelling), rodents, reptiles (gecko lizard, garden
lizard) are the biotic pollinators.
Majority of the insect pollinated flowers are large, colorful, fragrant and rich in nectar to attract the
pollinators. The insects visit the flower where pollen grains get attached to the body of the pollinators
which is carried to the stigma of different flowers.

Give any two examples for floral rewards

1. Nectar and pollen grains are the common floral rewards provided by each flower to the
pollinators.
2. In plants like Yucca and in tallest flowering Amorphophallus, the moths pollinate flowers and
deposit its egg in the ovary. The larvae come out as seeds start to develop.
[Since there is the guarantee of pollination, comparatively less numbers of pollen grains are produced in
biotic pollinate plants]

What are out breeding devices? Explain different types

Continuous self-pollination or Autogamy results in Inbreeding depression. It can be prevented by cross
pollination /cross breeding
are the mechanism developed in some plants to discourage self-pollination
(Autogamy) but to promote cross pollination. They are,
Unsynchronized anther and pistil maturity Either pollen grains releases before the maturity
of stigma or stigma mature before the releases of anthers.
Position of anther and stigma both anthers and stigma are placed at different height, so that
they can never be met.
Self incompatibility this is the mechanism in which pollen grains cannot fertilize the self ovule
due to failure of pollen germination or pollen tube growth.
Unisexual flower
Monoecious plant Both male and female flowers are different but in a same plant. This prevents
Autogamy but not Geitonogamy. Examples are Castor, Maize etc.
Diecious plant male and female flowers are in different plants. This prevents both Autogamy
&Geitonogamy but supports Xenogamy. Examples are papaya and date palm.

Explain
as pollen pistil interaction.
Steps
Both compatible pollen (right type) and incompatible pollen (wrong type) deposit on the stigma of
a flower.
The incompatible pollen fails to germinate on the stigma or fails to extend pollen tube in the style.
Only compatible pollen grains germinate on the stigma due to chemical interaction between pollen
grains and stigma.

The pollen grains are at 2-celled stage. They are vegetative cell and generative cell. The generative
cell divides into two male gametes.
The inner wall of the pollen grain extended to form pollen tube. The pollen tube carries two male
gametes.
Pollen tube enters into ovule at micropylar region. Synergid guides the entry of pollen tube
through filiform apparatus.

Explain the process of double fertilization

Out of two male gametes, one male gamete (n) fertilizes the egg cell (n) to form diploid zygote
(2n). Another male gamete (n) fertilizes central cell (2n) to form triploid (3n) Primary Endosperm
nucleus (PEN). This is called double fertilisation.

The formation of Primary Endosperm nucleus (PEN) involves fusion of three haploid nuclei (two
polar nuclei of central cell and one male gametes) is called triple fusion.

Finally zygote (2n) becomes embryo, Primary Endosperm nucleus (PEN) becomes primary
endosperm cell (PEC), ovule becomes seed, and ovary becomes fruit.

What is endosperm? What are the three types of endosperm? Explain.

Endosperms are the cells or tissue contains reserve food material for the growing embryo. It is formed
from PEN. There are different types of endosperm that are free nuclear endosperm and cellular
endosperm, tissue endosperm.
Free nuclear endosperm - The primary Endosperm Nucleus (PEN) undergo nuclear division to
produce many free nuclei. Example for Free nuclear endosperm is water from tender coconut
contains many free nuclei.
Cellular endosperm . Later cell wall is formed around the free nuclei to form a cell. These cells
contain different number of nuclei. Reserve food stored in each cell. Example is white kernel
surrounding the coconut.
Tissue endosperm the Primary Endosperm cells (PEC) repeatedly divides to form triploid
endosperm tissue. The cells of this tissue contain reserve food material for the growing embryo.
These are found in monocot seeds.

What is Embryo?
The zygote divides into mass of cells called embryo.

Why does embryo develop in embryo sac only after formation certain amount of endosperm?
It is to confirm about availability of nutrition to the growing embryo.
What is embryogeny?
The early stages of embryo development are called embryogeny which is common to both monocots and
dicots. Embryo develops at the micropylar end of ovule.

Stages of development of Dicot embryo

Write the differences between Dicot embryo and Monocot embryo

Dicot embryo Monocot embryo

Consists of embryonal axis and two cotyledons Consists of embryonal axis and only one
cotyledon. The cotyledon is called scutellum.
The portion above the level of cotyledon is called The portion above the embryonal axis is called
epicotyls epicotyl.
Epicotyl terminates with stem tip called plumule Epicotyl terminates with stem tip and leaf
primordial. Both enclosed in a coleoptile
The portion below the level of cotyledons is The portion below the level of cotyledons is
hypocotyl hypocotyl
Hypocotyl terminates as root tip called radicle Lower end of the embryonal axis is radicle or root
The root tip is covered with root cap. cap. They are enclosed in a sheath called
coleorrhiza
Mango, Peas, Ground nut. Wheat, Maize, paddy.
What is Seed? Name the parts of a seed.
Fertilized ovule is called seed. In angiosperms seeds are the final product of sexual reproduction. It is
formed inside the fruits.

Parts of the seeds

Hard, tough protective seed coat (integuments of the ovule develops into seed coat but Micropyle
region is remained open helps in absorption of water and oxygen during seed germination)
cotyledon (storage of food) or endosperm in monocots
Embryo axis (stem tip above & root tip below)

What are the two types of seeds? Differentiate them.

Two types of mature seeds - Albuminous seed & Non - albuminous seed

Albuminous seed (endospermic seed) Non albuminous seed (non endospermic seed)
Endosperm is present. Endosperm is absent.
Endosperm is not consumed by growing embryo Endosperm is consumed by growing embryo
which get collect in two cotyledons
Cotyledon is thin Cotyledons are thick and swollen due to storage
of food.
Wheat, maize, barley, castor and sunflower Pea, groundnut.
What is Perisperm?
In some seeds such as black pepper and beet, remaining part of nucellus persists in the seeds called
Perisperm.

What is Seed dormancy?

The embryo of seeds enters a state of inactivity called seed dormancy
As seeds mature, its water content is reduced and seeds become relatively dry which contain only
10-15% moisture by mass. The metabolic activities of the seeds slow down. The embryo enters a state of
inactivity called seed dormancy. If favorable conditions like moisture, oxygen and temperature are
available, the seeds germinate.

What are the advantages of seeds to angiosperm?

Helps in colonization of plant species to new habitat
Seed nourishes young seedlings until plants are capable of photosynthesis.
Hard seed coat provides protection to the young embryo.
Seeds are the products of sexual reproduction which carry new genetic variation.
Seeds are the basis of our agriculture.

How long do the seeds remain alive after they are dispersed?

have very small viability period but others have very lengthy viability period.
The seeds of lupines germinated and flowered after 10,000 years of dormancy. These seeds were
excavated from Arctic Tundra.
The date palm seeds germinated after 2,000 years of dormancy. These seeds were excavated from

What is apomixis? How it is formed? Give examples.

The formation of seeds without fertilisation is called apomixis.

Formation of apomixis
i) The diploid egg cell is formed without reduction division which develops directly into embryo.
Examples grasses and plants of asteraceae family
What is polyembryony? How it is formed?
Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed is referred to as polyembryony.
Formation of polyembryony
In Citrus, Orange and Mango the nucellar tissues around the embryo sac protrudes into embryo sac and
develops into many embryos.

[Note Apomixis/ nucellar polyembryony is a kind of asexual reproduction. The apomictic embryos can
be called as clones because they are all genetically similar among themselves and to the parents.]

What is the importance of apomictic seeds?

i)Apomictic and polyembryonic seeds maintain genetic purity of parental plants because they are formed
without fertilisation.
ii) Farmers need not purchase new hybrid seeds every time.

Write the difference between parthenogenesis and Apomixis.

Parthenocarpy Apomixis
Formation of fruits without fertilisation Formation of seeds without fertilisation

What is Fruit?
Fertilized ovary develops into fruit which contain seeds.

Name the wall of a fruit.

Pericarp is the wall of a fruit. It is fleshy and can be eaten in Mango, Guava, and Orange etc but dry in
Groundnut and mustard.

What is parthenocarpic fruit? Give example

The development of fruits without fertilisation is called parthenocarpic fruit. Banana is the natural
parthenocarpic fruit.

What is true fruit?

The fruit develops from fertilized ovary is called true fruit.

What is false fruit? Give examples.

The fruits develop from other than ovary such as thalamus is called false fruit.
Example: Apple, Cashew, and Strawberry
Apple is developed from thalamus
Cashew is developed from pedicel
What is artificial hybridization? Write the steps of artificial hybridization.
Crossing of different species or different genera to combine desirable characters to produce
commercially superior varieties is called artificial hybridization.

Steps of artificial hybridization

i) Emasculation - removal of anthers from the bisexual flower bud before its maturity. (If flower is
unisexual female then emasculation is not required)
ii) Bagging covering of emasculated flowers with a bag to prevent contamination with unwanted
stigma.
iii) Crossing - the stigma of female flower is dusted with selected/desired pollen grains.
iv) Rebagging- covering of crossed flowers with a bag till fruits are developed.
Step 1 Step 2

Step 3 Step 4

If Ovary has four ovules it requires four pollens but eight male gametes
Even if single ovule is fertilized, the ovary becomes fruit because of hormone auxin