Course codes:

QTS106 (Introduction to Building and Environment)

URP104 (Introduction to Environmental Sciences II)
ARC102 (Nature of Environmental Science)

Departments:
Estate Management
Architecture
Quantity Surveying

Lecturer:
Mr Idowu Peter Damilare

Week 1: Introduction to Environmental Sciences

Introduction

Environmental Services and Interrelationships

Out of several definitions, in simple terms, Science could imply a body of knowledge
about the universe (with greater emphasis on the earth) especially based on
examination, tests and facts that could be proved. Dimitris (2008) believes that
science is one and its purpose is the understanding of all phenomena (occurrences,
trends, experiences, observable facts, etc).
For easier understanding of the totality of universal rules or occurrences, science is
divided into “partial sciences” and each one covers its objective field. One of such is
Environmental Science which of course deals with Science of the Environment.

Environment - Definition and Scopes

The word “Environment” is traditionally defined as the total surrounding which
includes natural resources (material or substances occurring in nature) and
biological resources (plants and animals, biotic, genetic resources). In actual sense
the natural resources are inclusive of biological resources. But sometimes the term is
used as if to exclude animal resources.
But with the current trend of sustainable development, the definition of the
Environment has been widened to include natural and human resources (people or
humans) and their interaction with each other.
The World Bank defines the environment as “the natural and social conditions
(condition based on income, occupation or education) surrounding all mankind and
including future generations” (World Bank, 1991). This simply implies the
surroundings around man based on what both nature and his social status have to
offer.
Basically, it is deductive to say in terms of SCOPE that the Environment is within the
framework of man’s natural surrounding and activities. This includes biophysical
(biotic and abiotic) components and processes of the natural environment of land,
water and air. It also includes all layers in the atmosphere (troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere), inorganic and organic matters (living
and dead matters), socio-economic components and processes of the human
environment (which include social, economic, technological, administrative, cultural,
historical, archaeological components and processes), land and associated resources,
structures, sites, human health, and safety matters).
There are different classifications of the environment. Whichever is adopted, they
tend to encapsulate the same components. With respect to the above description of
the environment, two broad categories can be deduced. These are natural and social
environments. In most classification, the natural environment has been split into
physical and biological environments to give 3 categories in total. There could be
other forms or terms of classification.
The natural environment (which can be further divided into physical and biological
components) should be taken to include those components that have originated
independently of man. These are rocks, minerals, landforms, plants, animals,
micro-organisms, etc). This category is concerned with the biosphere and its
interaction with weather or climate, landforms and soil.
Cultural or Social environments include tangible works of man (or man-made
features) which are cultural elements in the form of social, political and economic
elements. This includes cities, transport and communication networks and other
major engineering works and other aspects of technology devised for the control and
exploitation of the resources of the natural environment.
There is the concept of cognised or perceived environment which is defined in terms
of the human understanding of the operation of the environment. It could also be a
perception or creation of what the environment ought to be. This has to do with the
notion or belief that people hold with regards to what happens or should happen in
the environment. This is a more recent concept developed by anthropologists.
Environmental Sciences is the study of the interactions between living organisms and
their surroundings. It examines both natural systems (such as forests, rivers, and
climate) and human influence (such as urbanization, pollution, and resource use).
This field is crucial because it helps us understand how to protect the environment,
sustain natural resources, and solve environmental problems affecting our world
today.

Why Study Environmental Sciences?

1. It Helps Us to Understand Nature – Learn how ecosystems function and how
humans affect them.
2. It Solves Environmental Problems – Provides solutions to deforestation, pollution,
climate change, and habitat destruction.
3. It Supports Sustainable Development – Helps us use natural resources wisely to
ensure a balance between human needs and environmental health.
4. It Improves Human Well-being – A healthy environment means clean air, fresh
water, and abundant food.

Real-Life Example:
- The Niger Delta faces pollution due to oil spills. Understanding environmental
science helps develop strategies to clean water sources and protect wildlife.

Keynotes on definition and Scope of Environmental Sciences

What is the Environment?
The environment includes everything around us—air, water, land, plants, animals,
and human activities.

Definitions of Environment
1. General Definition: The surroundings in which living organisms exist and interact.
2. Scientific Definition: The collection of biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
components in a system.
3. Ecological Perspective: A complex system where organisms interact with each
other and with non-living factors to sustain life.

Types of Environment
1. Natural Environment – Forests, oceans, mountains, rivers.
2. Human-Made Environment – Cities, roads, industries, farms.
3. Social Environment – Culture, traditions, economic systems.
4. Technological Environment – Innovations like renewable energy systems,
transport networks.

Example:
A forest ecosystem consists of trees, animals, soil, and air interacting together to
support life.

Components of the Environment (Environmental Media)

Environmental media are the major components of the Earth’s system that support
life and ecosystem balance.

A. Biosphere (The Living World)

- Definition: The part of Earth where living organisms exist and interact.
- Includes: Plants, animals, microorganisms, ecosystems.
- Importance:
- Supports biodiversity.
- Provides oxygen through photosynthesis.
- Regulates natural cycles (carbon, nitrogen, water cycles).
- Example: Rainforests produce oxygen, store carbon, and house millions of species.

B. Atmosphere (Air Layer)

- Definition: The layer of gases surrounding Earth, essential for life.
Main Gases:
- Nitrogen (78%) – Supports plant growth.
 - Oxygen (21%) – Essential for respiration.
- Carbon dioxide (trace amounts) – Needed for photosynthesis.

Importance:
- Regulates Earth’s temperature.
- Shields organisms from harmful solar radiation.
- Drives climate patterns, weather changes, and air circulation.
- Example: The ozone layer protects Earth from harmful UV rays.

C. Lithosphere (Land Systems)

- Definition: The solid outer layer of the Earth, including rocks, soil, mountains,
landforms.

Importance:
- Provides natural resources (minerals, fossil fuels, fertile land).
- Supports plant growth, agriculture, and infrastructure development.
- Example: The Niger Delta contains valuable oil and gas reserves.

D. Hydrosphere (Water Systems)

- Definition: Includes oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater, glaciers, and water vapor in
the atmosphere.

Importance:
- Essential for hydration, agriculture, industry, and transportation.
- Regulates climate through the water cycle (evaporation, condensation,
precipitation).
- Example: The River Niger supports fishing, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.

Interactions Between Environmental Media

- Trees (biosphere) absorb carbon dioxide (atmosphere) and grow in soil
(lithosphere), using water (hydrosphere).
- Rainfall (hydrosphere) nourishes soil (lithosphere), helping plants (biosphere)
grow.
Relationship Between Population and Environment
Humans depend on the environment for food, water, shelter, and energy. However,
human activities also harm nature.

A. Human Activities That Impact the Environment

1. Deforestation – Cutting down trees reduces oxygen production, disrupts
ecosystems, and causes soil erosion.
2. Pollution – Industrial waste, plastic waste, and air pollution harm wildlife and
human health.
3. Overpopulation – More demand for natural resources leads to scarcity, habitat
destruction, and waste buildup.
4. Climate Change – Excessive carbon emissions from industries lead to global
warming, rising sea levels, and extreme weather.

B. Solutions to Human-Environmental Challenges

1. Sustainable resource management – Using energy-efficient technologies and
preserving forests.
2. Waste reduction – Recycling materials and reducing plastic usage.
3. Afforestation – Planting trees to restore biodiversity.
4. Renewable energy – Switching to solar, wind, and hydroelectric power to reduce
carbon emissions.

Why Environmental Science Matters Today

Key Global Environmental Issues
1. Climate Change – Causes global warming, droughts, floods.
2. Pollution – Air, water, and soil contamination threaten health.
3. Deforestation – Leads to biodiversity loss and climate instability.
4. Water Scarcity – Freshwater shortages affect communities and agriculture.
Week 2: Ecology and Ecosystems

Introduction to Ecology

Definition of Ecology
Ecology is the scientific study of interactions between living organisms (biotic
factors) and their physical environment (abiotic factors). It helps us understand how
species coexist, how energy moves through ecosystems, and how human activities
affect nature.

Importance of Ecology
Ecology is important because it:
1. Explains how ecosystems function – How organisms survive and depend on each
other.
2. Maintains environmental balance – Regulates population control and nutrient
recycling.
3. Preserves biodiversity – Protects the variety of life forms needed for ecosystems to
thrive.
4. Solves environmental problems – Helps in climate change mitigation,
conservation, and pollution control.

Branches of Ecology
1. Autecology – Studies individual species and their behaviors.
2. Synecology – Examines how different species interact within a shared
environment.
3. Ecosystem Ecology – Focuses on energy flow and nutrient cycles.
4. Population Ecology – Investigates population dynamics, growth, and survival
strategies.

What Is an Ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a system where living organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms)
interact with non-living components (soil, air, water, sunlight) to sustain life.
Types of Ecosystems
1. Terrestrial Ecosystems – Found on land (forests, deserts, grasslands).
2. Aquatic Ecosystems – Found in water (rivers, lakes, oceans).
Each ecosystem has unique conditions that determine which organisms can survive
there.

Major Components of an Ecosystem

A. Biotic Components (Living Things)
These include:
1. Producers (Autotrophs) – Convert sunlight into food via photosynthesis.
- Examples: Trees, grass, algae.
2. Consumers (Heterotrophs) – Depend on producers or other animals for food.
- Herbivores (eat plants) – Example: Cow, rabbit.
- Carnivores (eat animals) – Example: Lion, hawk.
- Omnivores (eat plants and animals) – Example: Humans, bears.
3. Decomposers (Saprotrophs) – Break down dead organisms, recycling nutrients.
- Examples: Fungi, bacteria, earthworms.

B. Abiotic Components (Non-Living Factors)

Abiotic elements shape the environment and influence life:
1. Air – Provides oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
2. Water – Necessary for hydration and nutrient transport.
3. Soil – Provides minerals for plants to grow.
4. Sunlight – Powers photosynthesis and regulates temperature.
5. Temperature – Determines metabolic rates of organisms.

Ecological Interactions
Types of Species Interactions
Organisms in ecosystems interact in different ways:
1. Mutualism (+/+) – Both species benefit.
- Example: Bees pollinate flowers while feeding on nectar.
2. Commensalism (+/0) – One species benefits while the other remains unaffected.
- Example: Barnacles attach to whales for transport.
3. Parasitism (+/-) – One species benefits while harming the other.
- Example: Mosquitoes sucking human blood.
4. Competition (-/-) – Two species struggle for limited resources.
- Example: Lions and hyenas competing for prey.
5. Predation (+/-) – One species hunts another for food.
- Example: A hawk hunting a mouse.

Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Food Chains (Simple Energy Transfer)
A food chain shows how energy moves through an ecosystem.

Example of a Basic Food Chain

🌱 Grass - 🦗 Grasshopper - 🐸 Frog - 🐍 Snake - 🦅 Hawk
Each level in the chain is called a trophic level:
1. Producers (Plants) – Use sunlight to create food.
2. Primary Consumers (Herbivores) – Eat plants.
3. Secondary Consumers (Carnivores) – Eat herbivores.
4. Tertiary Consumers (Top predators) – Eat secondary consumers.

Food Webs (Complex Energy Transfer)

A food web shows multiple interconnected food chains, illustrating a more realistic
view of energy transfer.

Example of a Food Web in a Forest

- Birds eat insects and berries.
- Insects feed on leaves and nectar.
- Frogs eat insects but are also hunted by snakes.
- Snakes eat frogs but are prey for hawks.

Ecological Pyramid (Visualizing Energy Flow)

1. Energy Pyramid – Shows energy decreases at higher levels.
2. Biomass Pyramid – Represents total living matter at each level.
3. Numbers Pyramid – Displays the number of organisms per trophic level.
Biodiversity, Habitat, and Niche
Biodiversity (Variety of Life)
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms in an ecosystem.
Importance:
- More biodiversity = A healthier, more stable ecosystem.
- Biodiversity prevents species extinction.
- Ensures ecosystem resilience to environmental changes.

Habitat (Where Organisms Live)

A habitat is the physical place where an organism lives.
Examples:
- Fish live in aquatic habitats.
- Eagles live in mountainous habitats.
- Camels live in desert habitats.

Niche (Role of an Organism)

A niche is an organism’s role in an ecosystem, including how it interacts with its
environment.
Examples:
- Bees pollinate flowers, ensuring plant reproduction.
- Earthworms decompose soil and improve plant health.
- Owls hunt rodents to control populations.
Week 3: Environmental Media and Natural Cycles

What Are Environmental Media?

Environmental media refer to the major components of the Earth’s system through
which natural processes occur. They support life and regulate climate, energy flow,
and resource availability.

The Atmosphere
The Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere can be described as a gaseous envelope held to the earth by
gravitational forces. The composition of the atmosphere is fairly homogenous from
the earth surface upward to an altitude of about 80km. It is fairly homogeneous
because there are internal variations in the composition even within the range.
This fairly homogeneous part of the atmosphere is referred to as the homosphere.
From the altitude of 80km upward, the composition of the atmosphere is no longer
uniform and this layer is referred to as the heterosphere.

Composition of the Homosphere

The composition of the homosphere consists of many gases which are shown below.
They are perfectly diffused among one another to form:

Name of Gas Composition by Volume

Nitrogen (N2) - 78.08%
Oxygen (O2) - 20.95%
Argon (Ar) - 0.93%
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - 0.03%
Neon (Ne) - 0.001%
Helium (He) - 0.0005%
Krypton (Kr) - 0.0001%
Xenon (Xe) - 0.00009%
Hydrogen (H2) - 0.00005%
Methane (CH4) - 0.00002%
Nitrous oxide (N2O) - 0.00005%
In addition to the above, we also have those gases whose proportion by volume varies
from time to time. It varies temporally and spatially depending on the condition of
the atmosphere. These gases are: water vapour (H2O); sulphur dioxide (SO2);
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2).

Factors Influencing the Composition of the Atmosphere

a. Altitude: the dense gases are found at the lower layer of the atmosphere especially
at a distance of up to 15km from the earth surface. The lighter gases such as
hydrogen and helium are found at the upper layer of the atmosphere. It should be
noted that turbulence can bring a distortion in the atmospheric composition since
the atmosphere is not static but rather dynamic
b. Latitude and season: gases that vary with latitude and season include ozone, water
vapour and carbon dioxide. Ozone concentration is lower around the equator and
densely concentrated over latitudes 500N and S of the equator
c. Time: gases such as carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere varies with time.
The period of time when changes take place in a society that is urbanized and
industrialized to the time it achieves a high level of urbanisation and
industrialization is referred to here as “Time”. It has been observed that the carbon
dioxide content of the world’s atmosphere increased by 9% between 1900 and 1935
arising from urbanization and industrialization all over the world.

The Structure of the Atmosphere

The structure of the atmosphere refers to stratification or division of the atmosphere
using the factors of temperature. In other words, it refers to the division of the
atmosphere into temperature zones.
The various layers or divisions in the atmosphere are: troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere and thermosphere.

The Troposphere
This is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. It extends to a height of 16 – 18km over
the tropical region, and 8 – 10 km over the polar region, although an average of 15km
is often adopted as the vertical extent of this layer. The major characteristics of this
layer include:
i. Uniform decrease in temperature with increase in height. This rate of temperature
decrease with increasing height is called Environmental Lapse Rate. This decrease of
temperature takes place at a rate of 6.50C per kilometer.
ii. Increase wind speed with increase in height
iii. Higher quantity of moisture at the lower part of this layer
iv. Considerable movement of air vertically. There is considerable atmospheric
instability or what we call air turbulence arising from alternating heating (during the
day and cooling at night) of the earth surface. The upper boundary of this layer is
called tropopause.

The Stratosphere
This is the second layer of the atmosphere. It extends from an average of 15km to
50km from the earth surface. It has the following characteristics:
i. Horizontal air movement
ii. High wind speeds
iii. Low concentration of water vapour and consideration nuclei
iv. Absence of clouds (except for cirrus clouds) at the lower parts
v. Temperature is constant at the lower part about 2-3km, but begins to rise with
height from the height of 20 km
vi. This is the layer that has ozone
vii. Maximum temperature is about 70C at the upper limit of the layer.
The combination of stratosphere and troposphere constitute what is referred to as
the lower atmosphere.

The Mesosphere
This is the third layer of the atmosphere and this extends from about 50km to 80km.

General characteristics of the mesosphere

i. Temperature generally decreases with increase height or elevation to a minimum of
about 900C at its upper limit
ii. It is also characterized by very high atmospheric pressure
iii. Some clouds-like particles believed to be a layer of ash produced by the oxidation
of meteors are found in this layer.
The Thermosphere
The thermosphere is the fourth atmospheric layer, where temperatures rise with
altitude due to solar radiation absorption. At its upper boundary, around 500 to
1,000 km, temperatures can reach up to 2,500°C, depending on solar activity.

Functions of the Atmosphere

i. It serves as a medium for the exchange of water and heat between the earth and the
atmosphere
ii. It provides the oxygen for breathing by man and other living organisms
iii. It provides the gas (ozone) that shields the earth from the ultraviolet radiation of
the sun.

The lithosphere
The lithosphere otherwise known as the earth's crust is made up of two parts. The
upper part is made up of granitic rocks, and forms the continent.. This part is rich in
minerals such as silica and alumina and is collectively called' SIAL'. While the lower
part, made up of basaltic rocks forms the oceanic crust. This part is rich in silicon
and magnesium, and the two collectively form what is known as 'sima'. The SIAL has
an average density of 2.7gicm3 while 'sima' has a density of 3.0g/cm3.
The SIAL continents, of a lighter material than the 'sima', tend to float upon it like
icebergs in the sea.
Beneath the outer skin (that is the lithosphere), are the mantle and the core.
Generally speaking, the lithosphere is often erroneously regarded as a passive factor
in the environment.. The fact it provides a solid table platform for life supports this
belief. But the lithosphere is not passive. It is just the process going on in the
lithosphere operates at a very slow rate when compared with the process operating or
going on in the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere.

Unlike the biosphere and hydrosphere, the energy of the lithosphere is largely
independent of the solar energy system which dominates the atmosphere and
hydrosphere. The most important source of energy in the lithosphere is radioactivity.
This is the energy generated through the decay of certain mineral elements known as
radio isotopes.
Man and the Lithosphere
Man interacts with the lithosphere in several ways, and the result of the interaction
may be positive or negative. As far as man is concerned, the lithosphere provides the
resources as well as the resistances and environmental hazards. On the other hand,
man modifies the lithosphere in many ways. Unfortunately, most of the impacts of
man on the lithosphere are destructive.
As far as the resources provided by the lithosphere are concerned, they are either in
the form of minerals or in the form of landforms or processes which man can take
advantage of. For example, the lithosphere provides man with minerals, soil as well
as water stored in water bearing rocks. The minerals provided by the lithosphere can
be divided into three (3) types:
(1) Metalliferous minerals e.g. Iron, Copper and Bauxite.
(2) Precious minerals like gold, silver and diamond
(3) Non-metallic minerals especially the structural materials, building sands, stone,
gravel, etc.
Apart from these, there are also salts like sulphur salts, chlorides and phosphate,
even fossil fuels such as coal, liquid, petroleum and gas. In some parts of the world,
we have nuclear fuel such as Thorium and Uranium. In addition, the lithosphere also
provides the non- renewable resources. These are resources whose rate of
exploitation is several times greater than the rate of replenishment. Most of these
non-renewable minerals continue to increase everyday. Perhaps, the most important
resource provided by the lithosphere is the soil. Soil is formed from weathered
materials, organic matter, air and water. It is the medium of plant growth, and is
therefore very crucial to man's food supply. The physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of soil determine the important qualities of land.
(1) It determines the ability of land to provide nourishment to plants and animals.
(2) It also determines the ability of land to provide water for plants, lakes and
streams.
(3) Also the ability of land to give mechanical support to plants, animals and
buildings.
(4) These characteristics provide materials for construction purposes.

As far as the landforms are concerned, the landforms provided by the lithosphere
have aesthetic value, and very good educational resources e.g. Volcanoes, mountains,
warm springs, inselberg, rivers, water falls, etc. Despite all these resources provided
by the lithosphere, it also provides resistance. For example, mountains, gullies,
waterfalls and gorges are most of the time obstacles to the movement of
communication lines. Similarly, earthquakes, mudflows, landslides, floods are
environmental hazards where they occur. Finally, as far as man's impact is
concerned, we discover that most of their impacts are largely negative.
(1) Man extracts minerals from the lithosphere and this may result in serious
environmental consequences. For example, it could lead to what is known as
despoliation of land surface. Scars are created on the landscape when minerals are
exploited.
(2) Extraction of minerals may also lead to subsidence, which may eventually lead to
mudflow.
(3) Extraction could also lead to water stream channels.

When minerals are exploited by sophisticated means, it can lead to air pollution. In
some cases, when extraction is very near the sea, like extraction of fossil fuel, it could
lead to ocean pollution.
Finally, man is an agent of erosion when he carries out deforestation through
cultivation or building purposes. These are the complex interrelationships between
man and the lithosphere.

The Hydrosphere
It is a term used to describe the sum total of all water on earth, and it includes
oceans, seas, lakes, streams and rivers, underground water, soil moisture, water
vapour in the atmosphere, glaciers and ice sheets. Water is the only element which
occurs naturally in three states - gaseous, liquid and solid state. The chemical
formula for water is H2O. The freezing point is O°C, while the boiling point is 100°C.
Three quarters of the surface materials on the crust of the earth consist of water.
Water also forms the largest part of most living matters. For example, an average
man is two-thirds (2/3) water; and plants manufacture carbohydrates with water.
Plants also take their nutrients in solution.
In fact, water is a universal solvent i.e. dissolves many substances, and the solubility
of water increases with increasing temperature. Water is also a very remarkable
catalyst as many chemical reactions are slowed down or totally prevented when water
is not available. Water is also a geomorphic agent important for the process of
weathering. Also, important in the process of weathering, modification and
formation of landforms (as water is an erosional agent).
Water is the basis of life itself. It occurs in varying locations in the earth's
atmosphere system. It is also involved in rain processes taking place within the earth
atmosphere system. Because of the ubiquitous nature of water, we find out that water
is studied by various disciplines. Some of the discipline which study aspect of water
include:
(1) Hydrology: This is defined as the scientific study of water, especially inland water
both surface and underground, including its properties, distribution, movement and
utilization. (Inland water occurs over the land).
(2) Hydrography: Is concerned with the description, survey and charting of the
oceans, sea and coastlines together with the study of tides, currents and winds
especially from the point of view of navigation.
(3) Oceanography: Is the scientific study of all phenomena associated with the ocean.
There are two branches of oceanography:
(a) Physical and
(b) Biological Oceanography
Physical oceanography studies the extent and shape of the ocean basin, the structure
and relief of their floors, the movement of sea water, its temperature and salinity.
Biological oceanography is the study of life forms in the ocean including plants and
animal's lives.
(4) Limnology: Is the scientific study of lakes, fresh water and ponds. It deals with
the various physical, chemical and biological conditions and characteristics of water
bodies. These four disciplines deal directly with water.
The level at which the troposphere gives way to the stratosphere is known as the
Tropopause. The height of the tropopause from the earth surface varies from about
10 km around the poles to about 17 km at the equator. The Stratosphere starts from
10 km to 17 km above the earth surface and extends to a height of about 35 km. In
this layer, air temperature increases gradually with increasing height.
The Hydrological Cycle
This is also known as the water cycle. This is the term used to describe the endless
interchange of water between the ocean, air and land. The cycle has no beginning nor
an end. The hydrological cycle consists of two phases, the land and the ocean phases.
In the land phase of the cycle, water is evaporated from the oceans and most of the
moisture is advected inland as vapour by air masses. The vapour later condenses to
give precipitation on the land. The falling precipitation is disposed of in various ways
including -percolatin (that is seepage into the ground); runoff (that is flowing
through channels, and interception and reflection which will be sent back to the
atmosphere, or will eventually slide down to the surface. Also, precipitated water
finds its way to surface water, ground water or oceans and seas, where the process of
evaporation begins all over.
The ocean phase is much shorter. Over the oceans, water is being evaporated from
the ocean surface into the atmosphere, the condensation of the vapour and finally,
the precipitation falling on the ocean surface.
Over the oceans; evaporation exceeds precipitation. The excess water vapour is
therefore transported towards the land masses by atmospheric advection currents.
Whereas, over land, precipitation exceeds evaporation; the surplus land water is
therefore transported to the oceans in the form of surface runoff through streams.

The Biosphere
The biosphere consists of the following:
(i) The weathered surface layer of the lithosphere which is more commonly referred
to as soil.
(ii) The lower layer of the lithosphere which is more commonly referred to as soil.
(iii) The bodies of water on the earth's surface including ponds, lakes, rivers, streams
and the seas.
The biosphere lies at the interface of the lithosphere, atmosphere and the
hydrosphere. The non-living things or abiotic component of the biosphere form the
physical environment in which organisms live. The functional interactions between
organisms and their physical environment result in distinctive entities called
ecosystems.
Why Are Environmental Media Important?
- Maintain ecological balance by regulating energy and matter flow.
- Support life systems through oxygen, water, and nutrients.
- Influence climate and weather patterns through atmospheric interactions.
- Enable resource cycles such as water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles.

Natural Cycles: How Nature Recycles Energy and Nutrients

Natural cycles refer to the repeated movement of elements and compounds through
the Earth’s systems, ensuring that essential nutrients are recycled for living
organisms.

The Water Cycle (Hydrological Cycle)

The water cycle describes how water moves between the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere, and biosphere. It ensures a constant supply of freshwater and regulates
weather patterns.

Stages of the Water Cycle:

1. Evaporation – Sun heats water bodies, converting liquid water into vapor.
2. Condensation – Water vapor cools and forms clouds.
3. Precipitation – Water falls as rain, snow, or sleet, returning to the surface.
4. Infiltration & Runoff – Some water enters the soil (groundwater), while excess
flows back to rivers, lakes, and oceans.

Example: The Niger River depends on rainfall (precipitation) to replenish its flow,
supporting agriculture and ecosystems.

The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle regulates the movement of carbon between living organisms, soil,
oceans, and the atmosphere.

Stages of the Carbon Cycle:

1. Photosynthesis – Plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen.
2. Respiration – Animals and humans inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide.
3. Decomposition – Dead organisms break down, releasing stored carbon into the
soil.
4. Combustion – Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) releases carbon into the air,
contributing to climate change.

Example: Increased carbon emissions from industries contribute to global warming,

leading to rising sea levels and extreme weather.

The Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle moves nitrogen between air, soil, water, and living organisms,
supporting plant and animal life.

Stages of the Nitrogen Cycle:

1. Nitrogen Fixation – Certain bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into forms
usable by plants.
2. Assimilation – Plants absorb nitrogen compounds for growth.
3. Consumption & Decomposition – Animals eat plants, and their waste decomposes,
returning nitrogen to the soil.
4. Denitrification – Soil bacteria release nitrogen back into the atmosphere.

Example: Fertilizers used in farming alter nitrogen levels, affecting soil health and
water pollution.

The Oxygen Cycle

The oxygen cycle involves the movement of oxygen between air, water, and living
organisms, making life possible.

Stages of the Oxygen Cycle:

1. Photosynthesis – Plants produce oxygen as a by-product of making food.
2. Respiration – Animals and humans consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide.
3. Decomposition – Breakdown of dead organisms releases oxygen back into the
environment.
Example: Deforestation reduces oxygen levels, affecting air quality and human
health.

Importance of Natural Cycles

- Ensure continuous availability of nutrients for life.
- Regulate climate and atmospheric balance.
- Prevent excessive accumulation of harmful substances.
- Support ecosystem stability and productivity.

Human Impacts on Natural Cycles

1. Pollution disrupts the water cycle, contaminating rivers and affecting agriculture.
2. Deforestation reduces photosynthesis, leading to higher carbon dioxide levels.
3. Fossil Fuel Combustion accelerates climate change by increasing atmospheric
carbon.
4. Excessive Use of Fertilizers disrupts nitrogen balance, causing soil degradation.
Week 4: Biodiversity and Conservation
Introduction to Biodiversity

Definition of Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms on Earth, including plants, animals,
fungi, and microorganisms. It also includes genetic variations within species,
different ecosystems, and the complex interactions among organisms that sustains
life.

Why Is Biodiversity Important?

Biodiversity is essential for life because it:
- Maintains ecosystem balance by ensuring all organisms have a role in nutrient
cycles.
- Supports food chains by providing natural resources for survival.
- Ensures climate regulation by stabilizing temperature and weather patterns.
- Provides medicine and raw materials, improving human health and industry.

Example:
- The Amazon rainforest produces 20% of the Earth’s oxygen through
photosynthesis, helping regulate global climate.

Types of Biodiversity

Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity refers to the variation in genetic makeup within a species. The
higher the genetic diversity, the more adaptable a species is to environmental
changes.

Examples:
- Different breeds of dogs, varieties of maize and rice.
- Disease-resistant crops developed through genetic diversity.
Species Diversity
Species diversity refers to the number of different species within an ecosystem. The
more species present, the more balanced and resilient an ecosystem becomes.

Examples:
- A coral reef has thousands of fish, marine plants, and microorganisms.
- A tropical rainforest contains birds, insects, mammals, and reptiles.

Ecosystem Diversity
Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of ecosystems in a region that provide
different habitats for species.

Examples:
- Grasslands, forests, wetlands, deserts, mangroves, and tundras.

Functional Diversity
This refers to the biological roles species play within an ecosystem, such as
pollination, decomposition, and oxygen production.

Examples:
- Bees help with pollination, supporting food production.
- Mushrooms and fungi decompose organic matter, enriching soil nutrients.

Importance of Biodiversity for Ecosystem Stability

1. Regulates Climate and Weather Patterns
- Forests and oceans absorb carbon dioxide, preventing extreme global
temperatures.
- Wetlands and coral reefs reduce the impact of storms and floods.

2. Supports Food Chains and Food Webs

- Biodiversity ensures a balance between predators and prey, preventing
overpopulation or extinction.
3. Provides Natural Resources for Human Use
 - Wood from trees for building materials.
- Medicinal plants for treating diseases.
- Marine resources for food, tourism, and economic development.

4. Protects Against Disease and Pest Outbreaks

- High biodiversity prevents the spread of pests and diseases by maintaining
predator-prey relationships.

Threats to Biodiversity
Despite its importance, biodiversity faces severe threats due to human activities and
environmental changes.

Habitat Destruction
- Deforestation removes forests, displacing species.
- Urbanization replaces natural landscapes with roads, factories, and settlements.
- Agricultural Expansion leads to habitat fragmentation, reducing wildlife
populations.

Example:
- The Amazon rainforest loses over 1 million hectares of forest annually, affecting
global climate and biodiversity.

Pollution
- Air Pollution – Carbon emissions harm plant life and contribute to acid rain.
- Water Pollution – Industrial waste, oil spills, and chemicals poison aquatic
ecosystems.
- Soil Pollution – Excessive pesticide use damages soil fertility and kills beneficial
microorganisms.

Climate Change
- Rising temperatures disrupt ecosystems, causing species migration or extinction.
- Example: Coral bleaching happens when high temperatures kill marine corals.
Overexploitation of Natural Resources
- Overfishing reduces marine populations, disrupting food chains.
- Illegal Wildlife Trade threatens species like elephants and rhinos.

Invasive Species
- Non-native species introduced into an ecosystem compete with native species,
leading to biodiversity loss.
- Example: Water Hyacinth spreads aggressively, blocking waterways and killing
aquatic plants.

Conservation Strategies for Biodiversity Protection

In-Situ Conservation (Protecting Species in Their Natural Habitat)
1. National Parks and Wildlife Reserves – Protected areas preserve native species.
- Example: Yankari National Park conserves elephants and lions.
2. Afforestation and Reforestation – Planting trees to restore forests.
3. Laws Against Hunting and Poaching – Bans on illegal wildlife trade.
4. Biodiversity Hotspot Protection – Preserving regions with high biodiversity.

Ex-Situ Conservation (Protecting Species Outside Their Natural Habitat)

1. Zoos and Botanical Gardens – Provide safe environments for endangered species.
2. Seed Banks – Store genetic material to prevent plant extinctions.
3. Captive Breeding Programs – Reintroduce endangered species into the wild.

Sustainable Practices for Conservation

1. Eco-friendly farming – Organic farming preserves soil quality.
2. Water conservation – Reducing waste and pollution in freshwater ecosystems.
3. Renewable energy – Using solar and wind power instead of fossil fuels.

Role of Government and International Organizations

Environmental Laws and Policies
- Endangered Species Protection Act – Prevents illegal hunting and deforestation.
- National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency
(NESREA) – Regulates environmental policies in Nigeria.
- Forestry Laws – Control logging and reforestation practices.
International Agreements
- Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) – Global effort for biodiversity
conservation.
- Paris Agreement on Climate Change – Reduces carbon emissions that affect
biodiversity.
- CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) – Regulates
wildlife trade.

Week 5: Population and the Environment

Introduction to Population and the Environment

Definition of Population
Population refers to the total number of individuals of a particular species living in a
defined area. In environmental science, we study human populations because they
affect ecosystems by consuming resources, producing waste, and altering natural
habitats.

The Relationship Between Population and the Environment

Human populations depend on the environment for food, water, shelter, and energy,
but as populations grow, they place increasing pressure on natural resources, leading
to environmental degradation.

Why Is Studying Population and the Environment Important?

1. Understanding resource demand – Larger populations consume more food, water,
and energy.
2. Identifying environmental problems – Overpopulation leads to deforestation,
pollution, climate change, and habitat destruction.
3. Developing sustainable solutions – Encouraging responsible resource use to
protect ecosystems for future generations.

Global Perspective on Population Growth

- The world's population is increasing by about 80 million people per year.
- Population growth in developing countries is faster due to higher birth rates and
improved healthcare.
- Regions with high population density (e.g., Lagos, Nigeria) face severe urban
expansion, pollution, and resource shortages.

Causes of Human Population Growth

Factors Leading to Population Growth
1. Advances in Medicine – Lower death rates due to improved healthcare and
sanitation.
2. Better Agricultural Practices – Increased food production supports more people.
3. Economic Growth and Urbanization – Job availability and improved living
conditions attract migration into cities.
4. High Birth Rates and Lack of Family Planning – In some countries, cultural and
economic reasons encourage large families.

Population Growth Trends in Nigeria

- Nigeria’s population has grown rapidly from 45 million in 1960 to over 200 million
today.
- High fertility rates contribute to urban expansion, increasing demand for resources.
- Without proper planning, this rapid growth exerts pressure on forests, water
sources, and farmlands.

Environmental Impacts of Population Growth

A. Deforestation and Land Degradation
- More people require housing, farmland, and infrastructure, leading to clearing
forests.
- This causes soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, and contributes to climate change.

Example:
- The Amazon rainforest loses over 1 million hectares annually due to human
expansion, reducing carbon storage and increasing global warming.

Water Scarcity and Pollution

- Increased population raises water demand for drinking, sanitation, and farming.
- Waste contaminates rivers, lakes, and groundwater, reducing clean water
availability.

Example:
- The Niger River faces pollution from industrial waste, reducing water quality for
nearby communities.

Waste Accumulation and Air Pollution

- More people produce more waste, leading to plastic pollution and poor waste
management in cities.
- Increased use of vehicles and factories leads to air pollution, affecting public health.

Example:
- Lagos experiences high levels of air pollution, causing respiratory diseases and
environmental damage.

Increased Carbon Emissions and Climate Change

- More energy use leads to higher carbon emissions, contributing to global warming.
- Climate change causes rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and ecosystem
disturbances.

Example:
- Coastal cities like Victoria Island, Lagos, face flood risks due to rising sea levels.

Loss of Wildlife and Biodiversity

- Expanding human populations invade wildlife habitats, leading to species
extinction.
- Overhunting and overfishing disrupt food chains and ecosystem balance.

Example:
- The demand for bushmeat has contributed to the decline of wildlife species in West
African forests.

Urbanization and Environmental Impact

Definition of Urbanization
Urbanization is the increase in population living in cities due to migration and better
job opportunities.

Effects of Urbanization on the Environment

1. Loss of Natural Habitats – Cities expand into forests and wetlands, destroying
ecosystems.
2. Increased Pollution – Industries, vehicles, and waste disposal contaminate air,
water, and soil.
3. High Energy Consumption – Cities use large amounts of electricity, fuel, and
industrial products.
4. Food and Water Shortages – High demand for resources can create supply
shortages and increase food prices.

Solutions for Sustainable Urbanization

- Green Building Technology – Energy-efficient infrastructure reduces
environmental impact.
- Public Transportation Systems – Reducing vehicle use lowers carbon emissions.
- Urban Green Spaces – Parks and gardens improve air quality and reduce heat
island effects.
- Waste Recycling Programs – Proper disposal of plastics, metals, and organic waste
minimizes pollution.

Case Study: Urbanization in Lagos

- Lagos has grown rapidly, causing traffic congestion, flooding, and waste
management issues.
- Sustainable development efforts focus on transport systems, green energy, and
proper waste management.

Resource Use and Sustainability

Overuse of Natural Resources
High population growth leads to excessive use of:
1. Land – Overgrazing and poor farming practices degrade soil.
2. Water – Overconsumption reduces availability for future generations.
3. Fossil Fuels – Heavy reliance on coal, oil, and gas increases pollution.

Principles of Sustainability
Sustainability ensures that natural resources are used wisely so they remain available
for future generations.

Ways to Ensure Sustainable Resource Use

1. Renewable Energy – Solar, wind, and hydropower reduce pollution.
2. Water Conservation – Reducing waste and promoting efficient irrigation
techniques.
3. Sustainable Agriculture – Crop rotation and organic farming protect soil health.
4. Forest Conservation – Preventing deforestation through afforestation and legal
protection.

Case Study: Sustainable Practices in Nigeria

- Renewable energy projects, such as solar farms, reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
- Lagos and Abuja promote waste recycling initiatives to improve sustainability.

Week 6: Climate and Weather Systems

Introduction to Climate and Weather
Definition of Weather
Weather refers to the short-term atmospheric conditions in a specific place at a given
time. It includes temperature, humidity, wind speed, air pressure, and precipitation.
Weather can change from hour to hour or day to day, affecting daily human
activities.

Definition of Climate
Climate refers to long-term atmospheric conditions over an extensive geographical
area, typically measured over 30 years or more. Climate determines seasonal
changes, temperature averages, and rainfall patterns, influencing how ecosystems
and human societies function.

Factors Influencing Climate

1. Latitude – Areas near the equator receive more direct sunlight, making them
hotter, while polar regions remain cold due to less solar radiation.
2. Altitude – The higher the elevation, the colder the temperature. Example:
Mountain regions are cooler than surrounding plains.
3. Ocean Currents – Warm currents raise temperatures along coasts, while cold
currents make nearby land areas cooler.
4. Wind Patterns – Air circulation affects temperature distribution, bringing rain or
dry conditions to different regions.

Major Climate Zones of the World

Global Climate Zones
The Earth’s climate can be categorized into different zones:

Tropical Climate (Hot and humid)

- Found near the equator.
- Heavy rainfall and dense vegetation.
- Example: Amazon rainforest, Nigeria’s tropical forest regions.

Dry Climate (Deserts and arid regions)

 - Low precipitation, extreme temperatures.
- Example: Sahara Desert, Sahel region.

Temperate Climate (Moderate conditions, seasonal variations)

- Warm summers and cool winters.
- Example: Parts of Europe and North America.

Polar Climate (Cold and icy all year round)

- Located near the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
- Example: Greenland, Antarctica.

Climate Types in Nigeria

1. Guinea Savannah – Moderate rainfall, seasonal variation.
2. Sudan Savannah – Dry season dominates, scattered vegetation.
3. Tropical Rainforest – Heavy rainfall, dense biodiversity.
4. Sahel Climate – Hot, dry conditions leading to desertification.

The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

Understanding the Greenhouse Effect
- The Earth absorbs sunlight and releases heat into the atmosphere.
- Certain gases (CO₂, methane, water vapor) trap heat, keeping the planet warm
enough for life.
- This process is natural and necessary, but human activities increase greenhouse gas
levels, leading to global warming.

Causes of Global Warming

1. Burning Fossil Fuels – Releases carbon dioxide, trapping excess heat.
2. Deforestation – Fewer trees mean less CO₂ absorption, increasing atmospheric
carbon levels.
3. Agriculture and Livestock – Methane emissions from cattle and fertilizers
contribute to climate change.
4. Industrial Pollution – Factories release greenhouse gases, worsening warming
effects.

Effects of Global Warming

1. Rising Sea Levels – Melting ice caps cause coastal flooding.
2. Extreme Weather Events – More frequent droughts, hurricanes, and heatwaves.
3. Loss of Biodiversity – Species struggle to adapt to rising temperatures.
4. Food Shortages – Changing climates affect crop growth and water availability.

Case Study: Climate Change in Nigeria

- Desertification affects northern Nigeria due to rising temperatures.
- Flooding in coastal cities like Lagos occurs due to rising sea levels.
- Drought and irregular rainfall affect agricultural production.

Air Circulation and Weather Patterns

Wind Systems and Atmospheric Circulation
- Trade Winds – Move warm air from the equator.
- Westerlies – Affect weather patterns in temperate zones.
- Monsoons – Seasonal winds that bring heavy rains or dry conditions.

Weather Phenomena
1. Cyclones and Hurricanes – Large storms caused by low-pressure systems.
2. Tornadoes – Spinning air columns caused by strong winds.
3. Heatwaves and Droughts – Extended periods of extreme heat and dryness.

Example:
- The Harmattan season in West Africa occurs due to cold, dry winds from the Sahara
Desert, affecting visibility and temperature.

Climate Change and Human Impact

Causes of Climate Change
- Excess greenhouse gas emissions from industries and vehicles.
- Large-scale deforestation, reducing carbon absorption.
- Urbanization and pollution altering weather patterns.

Consequences of Climate Change

1. Extreme weather conditions disrupt farming, health, and economies.
2. Water shortages reduce drinking water supplies and affect irrigation.
3. Biodiversity loss as ecosystems struggle to adapt to changing conditions.

Solutions to Climate Change

1. Reducing Carbon Emissions – Switching to renewable energy sources.
2. Afforestation and Reforestation – Planting trees to absorb CO₂.
3. Sustainable Agriculture – Organic farming and soil conservation techniques.
4. Government Policies – Implementing environmental regulations.
Week 7: Climate Change, Deforestation, and Desertification

Introduction to Climate Change, Deforestation, and Desertification

Definition of Climate Change

Climate change refers to long-term alterations in global or regional climate patterns
caused by natural processes and human activities. These changes affect temperature,
precipitation, sea levels, and extreme weather events over extended periods.

Definition of Deforestation
Deforestation is the large-scale removal of trees and forests for agriculture,
urbanization, and industrial purposes. It leads to loss of biodiversity, soil
degradation, and disruption of climate regulation.

Definition of Desertification
Desertification is the process by which fertile land becomes desert, usually due to
drought, deforestation, and unsustainable agricultural practices. It reduces soil
productivity and threatens food security.

Why Are These Topics Important?

- Climate change accelerates deforestation and desertification, altering ecosystems.
- Deforestation increases carbon emissions, contributing to global warming.
- Desertification reduces arable land, making farming difficult in affected regions.

Causes of Climate Change

Natural Causes
1. Solar Radiation Variations – Changes in solar activity affect Earth's climate.
2. Volcanic Eruptions – Release gases that temporarily block sunlight.
3. Ocean Currents – Influence global temperature patterns.

Human-Induced Causes
1. Burning Fossil Fuels – Industries, vehicles, and power plants release excess CO₂.
2. Deforestation – Fewer trees absorb CO₂, increasing greenhouse gas levels.
3. Agricultural Practices – Fertilizers, livestock methane emissions, and land misuse
contribute to climate change.
4. Urbanization – Expanding cities increase energy consumption and pollution.

Example:
- The rapid urban expansion in Lagos contributes to higher carbon emissions and
temperature rise.

Effects of Climate Change

1. Rising Global Temperatures – Warmer temperatures affect agriculture, water
supply, and human health.
2. Extreme Weather Events – More hurricanes, droughts, and floods occur
worldwide.
3. Loss of Biodiversity – Species struggle to adapt to changing conditions, leading to
extinction.
4. Food and Water Shortages – Crop failures and water scarcity increase hunger and
poverty.
5. Health Issues – Increased respiratory problems due to air pollution and
heat-related illnesses.
6. Rising Sea Levels – Coastal cities face flooding, impacting infrastructure.

Case Study: Effects of Climate Change in Nigeria

- Northern Nigeria experiences desertification, reducing farmland productivity.
- Coastal areas like Lagos suffer from flooding due to rising sea levels.
- Irregular rainfall patterns affect agriculture, threatening food security.

Deforestation: Causes and Consequences

Causes of Deforestation
1. Agricultural Expansion – Trees cleared for farming, especially in rainforests.
2. Logging – Timber harvesting for construction and furniture.
3. Urbanization and Infrastructure – Roads, buildings, and industries replace forests.
4. Mining – Extracting minerals leads to land degradation and loss of forests.
5. Forest Fires – Sometimes caused by human activities or climate-related
conditions.

Consequences of Deforestation
1. Loss of Habitat and Biodiversity – Wildlife loses shelter, leading to species decline.
2. Increase in Carbon Emissions – Fewer trees absorb CO₂, intensifying climate
change.
3. Soil Erosion – Trees anchor soil; removing them causes erosion and land
degradation.
4. Disruption of Water Cycles – Reduced tree cover affects rainfall patterns.
5. Impacts on Indigenous Communities – Forest-dependent communities face
displacement.

Desertification: Causes and Consequences

Causes of Desertification
1. Deforestation – Loss of trees accelerates soil erosion and land degradation.
2. Overgrazing – Excessive livestock grazing removes vegetation, leading to barren
land.
3. Climate Change – Rising temperatures and droughts dry up soil moisture.
4. Unsustainable Farming Methods – Overcultivation weakens soil fertility over time.
5. Poor Water Management – Inefficient irrigation reduces land productivity.

Consequences of Desertification
1. Loss of Arable Land – Decreased crop yields threaten food security.
2. Migration and Conflict – Farmers move to cities, increasing urban stress.
3. Dust Storms and Poor Air Quality – Unstable soil leads to health hazards.
4. Water Scarcity – Rivers and lakes dry up, reducing access to drinking water.
5. Economic Decline – Agriculture-dependent regions suffer financial losses.
Solutions to Climate Change, Deforestation, and Desertification
Mitigation Strategies for Climate Change
1. Switching to Renewable Energy – Solar, wind, and hydroelectric power reduce
carbon emissions.
2. Reducing Industrial Pollution – Enforcing environmental regulations on
industries.
3. Afforestation and Reforestation – Planting trees to absorb CO₂.
4. Sustainable Farming Practices – Organic farming reduces soil degradation.
5. International Climate Agreements – Paris Agreement, UN Climate Initiatives.

Solutions to Deforestation
1. Forest Protection Laws – Strict regulations against illegal logging.
2. Promoting Agroforestry – Integrating trees into farming systems.
3. Supporting Conservation Efforts – NGOs and local communities protecting
forests.
4. Using Recycled Wood Products – Reducing demand for fresh timber.

Solutions to Desertification
1. Implementing Water Conservation Techniques – Efficient irrigation and rainwater
harvesting.
2. Planting Drought-Resistant Crops – Helps maintain food production.
3. Stopping Overgrazing – Controlling livestock numbers to preserve vegetation.
4. Reversing Land Degradation – Using organic fertilizers and soil regeneration
techniques.