Foundations of Astronomy 14th Edition (Ebook PDF) Download
Foundations of Astronomy 14th Edition (Ebook PDF) Download
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Dedication In memory of Edward & Antonette Backman and Emery & Helen Seeds
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PART 1: EXPLORING THE SKY
-
4-5 Ninety-Nine Years That Revolutionized Astronomy 74 An Ancient Model of t he Universe 60-61
Orbits 86-87
5 Gravity 78
Modern Optical Telescopes 112-11 3
S-1 Galileo's and Newton's Two New Sciences 79
S-2 Orbital Motion and Tides 84
S-3 Einstein and Relativity 92
iv Contents
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PART 2: THE STARS
-
7 Atoms and Spectra
7-1 Atoms 128
127 Celestial Profile THE SUN 144
-
10-3 The Gas-Stars-Gas Cycle 212 Atomic Spectra 136-137
11-1 Making Stars from the Interstellar Medium 217 The Family of Stars 192-193
11-2 The Orion Nebula: Evidence of Star Formation 221
Three Kinds of Nebulae 202-203
11-3 Young Stellar Obj ects and Protostellar Disks 226
11-4 Stellar Structure 230 St ar Formation in t he Orion Nebula 224-225
11-5 The Source of Stellar Energy 232
Observations of Young Stellar Obj ects and Prot ostellar
Disks 228-229
12 Stellar Evolution 238
12-1 Main-Sequence Stars 239
Star Clusters and St ellar Evolution 254-255
12-2 Post-Main-Sequence Evolution 246 Formation of Planetary Nebulae and White Dwarfs 266-267
12-3 Star Clusters: Evidence of Stellar Evolution 252
12-4 Variable Stars: Evidence of Stellar Evolution 253 The Lighthouse Model of Pulsars 290-291
Co ntent s v
C"P)TWII 2019 C t ~ UM'flina, All Righr.i l«M'rvtd. ~by Ml bo: ropii:d. U'.IMCd.. ordupti,:....:d. in whole « in I»"· Due io t k>:U'OIUC righ~ - lhird ~y tOMCU [Link]: Ju~ ~ fmm die ,:Book ~ <Chapt,:r(-').
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PART 3: THE UNIVERSE
17-1 Introduction to t he Universe 365 20-1 How Hypotheses and Theories Unify the Details 445
17-2 The Big Bang Theory 368 21 -1 Data Manipulation 468
17-3 Space and Time, Matter and Gravity 376
22-1 Who Pays for Science? 520
17-4 21st-CenturyCosmology 384
-
18-4 Planets Orbit ing Other Stars 41 3
The Nature of Space-Time 378-379
19 Earth: The Active Planet 424 Terrestrial and Jovian Planets 398-399
19-1 A Travel Guide to the Terrestrial Planets 425
19-2 Earth as a Planet 427
The Active Earth 434-435
19-3 The Solid Earth 428 Impact Cratering 446-447
19-4 Earth's Atmosphere 433
Volcanoes 472-473
20 The Moon and Mercury: Comparing When Good Planets Go Bad 488-489
Airless Worlds 442 Jupiter's Atmosphere 500-501
20-1 The Moon 443 The Ice Rings of Saturn 518-519
-
20-2 Mercury 456
22-1 A Travel Guide to the Outer Solar System 494 MARS 475
22-2 Jupiter 495 JUPITER 510
22-3 Jupiter's Moons and Rings 499 SATURN 510
22-4 Saturn 509
22-5 Saturn's Moons and Rings 512
vi Contents
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23 Uranus, Neptune, Celestial Profile URAN US 537
-
23-3 Pluto and the Kuiper Belt 542
CONCEPT ART
PART 5: LIFE
-
25 Astrobiology: Life on Other Worlds
25-1 The Nature of Life 578
577
Uranus's and Neptune's Rings
Observations of Asteroids
Observations of Comets
558-559
534-535
564-565
25-2 life in the Universe 582
25-3 Intelligent Life in the Universe 589 DNA: The Code of Life 580-581
Afterwo rd A· 1
Append ix A Units and Astro nom ical Data A-3
Content s vii
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A NOTE TO STUDENTS . .,/ L 4 .,. '
From Dana and Mike
We are excited chat you are caking an instance, ho\v can anyone know there was co show you how scientists use evidence
astronomy course and using our book a Big Bang? In today's world, you ne,ed and theory co create logical arguments
and related onl ine resources. You are go- ch ink carefully about the quality of the chat explain how nature \Yorks. Look at
ing co see and learn about some amazing inforn1acion \Vith wh ich \Ve are flooded. the list of special features chat follows chis
th ings, from the icy rings of Saturn co You should den1and evidence, not just note. Those features \Vere carefully
monster black holes. We are proud co be explanations. Scientists have a special way designed co help you understand astron-
your guides as you explore. of knowing based on evidence chat makes omy as evidence and che,ory. Once you see
We have developed ch is book co help scientific knowledge much n1ore powerful science as logical arguments, you hold the
you expand your knowledge of astron- than just opinion, policy, marketing, or key co the Universe.
omy, from recognizing the Moon and a public relations. le is the human race's best
fe\v scars in the even ing sky, co a deeper understanding of nature. To comprehend Don't Be Humble
understand ing of the extent, power, and the world around you, you need co As teachers, our quest is sin1ple. We wane
d iversity of the Universe. You will meet understand how science \Yorks. you co understand your place in the
\vorlds where it rains methane, scars so Throughout ch is book, you will find boxes Un iverse-your location not just in space
dense their atoms are crushed, colliding calle.d How Do ~ Know? and Practicing but in the unfolding h istory of the physi-
galaxies chat are ripp ing each ocher apart, Science. They will help you understand cal Un iverse. We wane you not only co
and a Universe chat is expanding faster how scientists use the n1echods of science know where you are and w hat you are in
and faster. co know \vhac the Universe is like. the Un iverse but also co understand ho\v
scientists know. By the end of chis book,
Two Goals Expect to Be Astonished we wane you co kno\v chat the Universe is
This book is designed co help you answer One reason astronomy is exciting is chat very b ig but chat it is described and gov-
. .
two tmpo rcanc questtons: astronomers discover ne\v th ings every erned by a small sec of rules and chat we
day. Astronomers expe,cc co be astonished . humans have found a way co figure out
... W h at are we?
You can share in the excitement because the rules- a method called science.
... How do we know? To app reciate your role in ch is
we have \Vorked hard co include new im-
By the question "What are we?" we n1ean: ages, new discoveries, and new insights beautiful Universe, you ne,e.d co learn
Ho\v do we fie into the Universe and its chat will cake you, in an introductory more than just the faces of astronomy.
h istory? The atoms you are made of \Vere course, co the frontier of human knowl- You have co understand w hat we are and
born in the Big Bang when the Universe edge. Telescopes on remote mountaintops how \Ve kno\v. Every page of ch is book
began, but chose atoms were cooked and and in space provide a dai ly dose of ex- refle,ccs chat ideal.
remade inside scars, and now th ey are in- citement chat goes far beyond entertain-
Dana Backman
side you. Where \vill they be in a bill ion ment. These new discoveries in astronomy
dbackman@[Link]
years? Ascronon1y is the on ly course on are exciting because they are about us.
campus chat can cell you chat story, and it They cell us more and n1ore about what M ike Seeds
is a story chat everyone should kno\v. we are. mseeds@[Link]
By the question "How do we know?" As you read chis book, notice chat it
\Ve mean: How does science work? What is not organ ized as lists of faces for you co
is the evidence, and how do we use it? For memorize. Rather, chis book is organized
C"P)-ri#il 2019 Cc,~ Lt:M'fling, All Rigt,r.,c Rni:rvtd. ~by M l bo: ropi.o:d. ~ or dupti,:.ui:d. in whok « in I»"· Ou,e IO [Link],:uon..ic righ~ iM'II: lhird ~ y COMCU tN.Y be' $U ~~ fmm die c&ok andlur <[Link]:r(i).
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.,.. All numerical values in t he text and tables were checked
Key Content and Pedagogical
and in son1e cases updated.
Changes for the Fourteenth .,.. T he featu res kno,vn as Doing Science in earlier editions
Edition were renamed Practicing Science.
.,.. Every chapter has been revised and updated with new
text and images regarding observatories, scientific Special Features
n1issions, and ne,v discoveries.
.,.. Material on normal galaxies, active galaxies, and black .,.. T he open ing page of each chapter helps students see t he
holes (Chapters 16 and 17 in t he previous ed ition), have organization of t he book by connecting the chapter with
been combined and streamlined into a single chapter the preceding and following chapters. The short list of
(Chapter 16). The follo,ving chapters have been renum- important questions h igh lights t he learning objectives of
bered as a result. the chapter.
.,.. Son1e sections have been reorganized and updated to give .,.. How Do We Know? boxes help students understand how
clea rer and more current p resentations, especially Section science works. Topics include t he d ifference between a
11-3, Young Stellar Objects and Procoscellar Disks; hypothesis and a theory, t he use of statistical evidence,
Section 13-4, Supernovae Explosions; Section 18-4, the construction of scientific n1odels, and n1ore.
Planets O rbiting Ocher Scars; Section 23-3b, Pluto as a .,.. Concept Art featu res appea r at least once in every chapter
World; and Section 24-3b, Comet Nuclei. and cover topics chat are strongly visual. Color and
.,.. Ocher chapters and sections ,vich less substantial but sti ll nun1erical keys in the introduction to the Concept Art
sign ificant revisions a re Section 6-3a, Modern Optical guide you to t he n1a in concepts.
Telescopes; Section 6 -6b, Gravity Wave Astronomy; .,.. Common Misconceptiom highlight and correct popularly
Section 8- ld Composition of t he Sun; Section 9- lc, held m isconceptions about astronomy.
Parallax and Distance; Section 19-4a, O rigin of t he .,.. Practicing Science boxes at the end of n1ost chapter
Atmosphere; Section 20-2b, Mercu ry's Surface; and sections begin with questions designed to put students
Section 20-2c, Mercury's Interior.
into t he role of scientists considering ho,v best co proceed
.,.. A Hotv Do We Know? essay has been added co the as they investigate the cosmos. T hese questions serve a
cosmology chapter rega rd ing what we can learn from a se,c ond purpose as a further revie,v of ho,v we kno,v what
n1iscaken clain1 about discovering gravity waves, we kno,v. Many of t he Practicing Science boxes end with a
.,.. All art has been carefully reviewed and revised in the second question chat points the scudenc-as-sciencist in a
interest of accuracy, clarity, and consistency. di rection for further investigation.
.,.. Key Equations no,v have numbers and tides, as ,vell as .,.. Celestial Profiles direcdy compare and contrast planets
examples co demonstrate t heir use. T his featu re h igh- with each ocher. Th is is the way p lanetary scientists
lights and reinforces the equations chat will be needed co understand the p lanets-not as isolated, un related bodies
solve problen1s in lacer chapters. but as siblings; they have noticeable d ifferences but many
.,.. Ne,v Sense ofProportion questions have been added to characteristics and a fan1 ily h istory in con1n1on .
help students ground t heir understanding of relative sizes .,.. What Are We? features at the end of each chapter show
of celestial objects, distances, and so on. As a comple- how the chapter content helps explain our place in t he
ment co chis, discussion of proportionality has been cosmos.
expanded where relevant th roughout t he text. .,.. Chapter Sumnzaries review the key concepts of the
.,.. T he Focus on Fundamentals boxed feature has been chapter, high lighting key terms and equations, co aid
el iminated and relevant material was moved back student study.
into t he text. .,.. End-of-chapter Revietv Questiom are designed co help
.,.. T he end-of-chapter Sunzmary sections have been sign ift- students revie,v and test t heir understanding of the
cancly revised in all chapters with t he goal of helping n1acerial.
students focus and better navigate key concepts for .,.. End-of-chapter Active Inquiry Questiom go beyond t he
revte\v. text and invite students co ch ink critically and creatively
.,.. D iscussion Questions have been replaced wit h Active about scientific questions .
Inquiry Questiom, designed co engage students in deeper .,.. End-of-chapter Problems p romote quantitative under-
critical chink ing. standing of the chapter contents.
A Note to Students ix
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"" Sense ofProportion questions gauge student understand- The end-of-chapter homework questions in M indTap provide
ing of relative sizes and quantities in t he Un iverse. a tighter integration with the textbook content and emphasize
"" Learning to Look questions p rompt students to answer conceptual understanding.
questions [Link] on observations of visual evidence sho\vn
in diagrams or photographs. Virtual Astronom y Labs 3.0 used real astronomical data com-
bined \Vith robust simulations in auto-graded modular segments
to p rovide a t rue on line laboratory experience. Through t he use
MindTap for Astronomy
of simulations and exercises, students are introduced to funda-
MindTap Astronomy for Foundatiom ofAstronomy, 14th Edition,
mental and complex theories. The labs focus on 20 of the most
is the d igical learning solution chat po\vers students fron1 men1ori-
in1porcant concepts in ascronon1y, such as ascronon1ical n1easure-
zacion to mastery. It gives you con1plete control of your course-
ments, dark matter, black holes, binary stars, and extrasolar
to p rovide engaging content, to challenge every individual and to
planets.
build their confidence. Empower students to accelerate thei r
progress with MindTap. M indTap: Po\vered by You. W ayp oints bring the Concept Arc from the p rinted page alive
MindTap for Astronomy has a carefully curated learn ing in sho re (4- co 6-minute) animated lessons nar rated by auth or
path that includes tutorial simulations, readings, and assess- Mike Seeds. Waypo incs serve co clarify important concepts
ments. Resea rch has p roven chat students perform better when and p resent dynamic interactions in full multimedia p resenta-
activities encourage an active experience; \Vith th is resea rch in tions on copies ranging from the Celestial Sphere and ch e
m ind, author M ike Seeds has developed tutorial simulations Ancient Universe to Em ission Nebulae, Galaxy C lass ification,
t hat are integrated right into the M indTap reader to help stu- and Stellar Evolution.
dents better visualize t he concepts. Animation tutorials will
bu ild student reason ing so t hey will u ltimately be able to draw
stronger conclusions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Over the years, we have had the guidance of a great many people A number of solar in1ages are used courtesy of the SOHO consor-
\vho care about astronomy and teach ing. We would like to thank tiun1, a p roject of international cooperation between ESA and
all of the students and teachers \vho have contributed to chis NASA. The NASA Sky View facility located at Goddard Space
book. They helped shape the book th rough thei r con1ments and Flight Center and the SIMBAD database operated by the CDS in
suggesnons. Strasbourg, France, were also used in p reparation of this text.
Many observatories, research institutes, laboratories, and It has been a great p leasure to \York \Vith our Cengage
individual astronomers have suppl ied figures and d iagrams for production team, Content Developer Rebecca Heider, Product
th is edition. They are listed on the credits page, and we would Assistant Caitl in Ghegan, Arc D ire,c to r Cate Barr, and Product
like to thank them specifically for their generosity. Manager Rebecca Berardy-Schwartz, plus Edward D ionne of
We are happy to ackno\vledge the use of images and data fron1 MPS Limited.
a number of important programs. In p reparing materials for this Most of all, we would like to than k ou r fami lies for putting
book we used several atlas images and mosaics p roduced by the up with "the books." They kno\v all too well that textbooks are
T\vo M icron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint p roject of the made of time.
University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Dana Backman
Analysis Center/JPL-Caltech, funded by NASA and the NSF. Mike Seeds
x Acknowledgments
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
•
R
C"P)-ri#il 2019 Cc,~ Lt:M'fling, All Rigt,r.,c Rni:rvtd. ~by M l bo: ropi.o:d. ~ ordupti,:.ui:d. in whok « in I»"· Ou,e IO [Link],:uon..ic righ~ iM'II: lhird ~y COMCU tN.Y be' $U~ ~ fmm die c&ok andlur <[Link]:r(i).
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Editorial rt"iew.' [Link] dteffll"d 1tw; an)" $u~ ~ COOIC'M docs na m;u,:riully .Cfcn 1hie O\~rall [Link], ~n,:,e. C,:npg,: Lt:aming ICSC'n >ee 1hie riglll 10 ttlllO\>e ~ eional comt m :aa ;any eimt if s ~ M rigtir.,c rc:,:uiceiMs requirt ii..
Courtl!'Sy of NASA
As you study astronomy, you will learn about yourself. You are a planet-walker, and this chapter • Composite image of
will g ive you a preview of what that means. The planet you live on whirls around a star that Earth's western hemisphere
moves through a Universe filled with other stars and galaxies which are all results of billions of at night assembled from
years of history and evolution. You owe it to yourself to know where you are in the Universe, and data acquired by the Suomi
when you are in its history, because those are important steps toward knowing what you are. National Polar-orbiting
In this chapter, you will consider three important questions about astronomy: Partnership satellite. The
bright crescent at right is
... Where is Earth in the Universe? the location of dawn .
... How does human history fit into the history of the Universe?
... Why study astronomy?
This chapter is a jumping-off point for your exploration of deep space and deep time. The
next chapter continues your journey by looking at the night sky as seen from Earth. As you
study astronomy, you will see how science gives you a way to know how nature works. later
chapters will provide more specific insights into how scientists study and understand nature.
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neighborhood. When you expand you r field of view by another
The longest journe~ begins witti facto r of JOO, the neighborhood you sa\v in Figure 1-2 vanishes.
a single steP-, -LAOZI No\v your field of view is J 60 kn1 wide, and you see cities and
to\vns as patches of gray {Figure 1·3). Wilm ington, Delaware, is
visible at the lower right. At th is scale, you can see son1e of the
1-1 Where Are We?
natural features of Ea rth's surface. T h e Allegheny Mountains of
To find you r place among the scars, you can cake a cosmic southern Pennsylvania cross the image at the upper left, and the
zoom- a ride out th rough the Universe to p review the kinds of Susquehanna River f!o\vs southeast into C hesapeake Bay. What
objects you a re about co study. look like wh ite bun1ps are a fe\v puffs of cloud.
Begin with something familiar. Figure 1·1 shows an area Figure 1-3 is an infrared photograph in \vhich healthy green
52 feet across on a college campus including a person, a sidewalk, leaves and crops are shown as red. Human eyes are sensitive to
and a few t rees, wh ich are all objects \Vith sizes you can under- only a na rro\v range of colors. As you explore the Un iverse, you
stand. Each successive picture in th is "zoom" will sho\v you a \viii learn to use a \vide range of other "colo rs," from X-rays to
region of the Universe chat is I 00 times wider than the p receding radio waves, to reveal sights invisible to unaided hun1an eyes.
p icture. That is, each step will widen your field of view, \vhich You will lear n more about infrared, X-ray, and radio energy in
is the region you can see in the image, by a facto r of I 00. later chapters.
Widening your field of view by a factor of I 00 allows you to At the next step in your journey, you can see your enti re
see an area I n1ile in diameter in the next in1age (Figure 1· 2). planet, wh ich is nearly 13,000 km in d ian1eter (Figure 1·4). Ac
People, t rees, and sidewalks have become coo small to discern, any particular moment, half of Earth's surface is exposed to sun-
but no\v you can vie\v an enti re college campus plus surrounding light, and the other half is in darkness. As Earth rotates on its
streets and houses. The d imensions of houses and streets are axis, it carries you th rough sunlight and then through da rkness,
fam iliar; chis is still the world you know. p roducing the cycle of day and night. T he blurriness at the right
Before leaving ch is famil iar territory, you need to change the edge of the Earth image is t he boundary berween day and
units you use to measu re sizes. All scientists, including astrono- night- the sunset line. T his is a good exan1ple of how a photo
mers, use the metric system of un its because it is \veil understood can give you visual clues co understanding a concept. Special
\vorld\vide and, more important, because it simplifies calcula- questions called " Lear ning to Look" at the end of each chapter
tions. If you are not al ready fam iliar with the metric system, or give you a chance to use your o\vn imagination to connect
if you need a review, study Appendix A before reading on. images with explanations about astronom ical objects.
In n1etric un its, t he image in Figure J.J is about 16 n1eters Enlarge your field of view by another factor of I 00, and you
across, and the I- mi le diameter of Figu re 1-2 equals about see a region J,600,000 km wide {Figure 1·5). Earth is the small
1.6 kilometers. You can see that a kilon1eter {abbreviated km) is blue dot in the center, and the Moon, the dian1eter of wh ich is
a bit less than C\vo-th irds of a mile- a short \Valk across a only one-fourth of Earth 's, is an even smaller dot along its orbit
• Figure 1·1 This familiar scene is an area about 52 feet • Figure 1· 2 The field of view is 1 mile (1.6 km) wide. This
(16 meters) wide. box • represents the relative size of Figure 1-1.
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A Figure 1· 3 The field of view is 160 km wide. This box • A Figure 1·4 The field of view is 16,000 km wide. This box •
represents the relative size of Figure 1-2. represents the relative size of Figure 1-3.
380,000 kn1 a,vay. (The relative sizes of Earth and Moon are measurement. For example, the average distance from Earth co the
shown in the inset at the bottom right of Figure 1-5.) Sun is a unit of distance called the astronomical unit (AU); an
The nun1bers in the preceding paragraph are so large chat it AU is equal co 1.5 X 108 kn1. Using chat term, you can express
is inconven ient to w rite chem out. Soon you will be using num- the average distance from Mercury co the Sun as about 0.39 AU
bers even larger than these co describe the U niverse; rather than and the average distance from Venus to the Sun as about 0.72 AU.
,vricing such astronomical numbers as they are in the p revious These distances are averages because the orbits of the planets are
paragraph, it is more convenient co write chen1 in scientific not perfect circles. This is especially apparent in the case of Mercury.
notation. T h is is noth ing n1ore than a simple way co ,vrice very Its orbit carries it as close co the Sun as 0.3 1 AU and as fur away as
big or very small numbers ,vich ouc using lots of zeros. For 0.47 AU. You can see the variation in the distance from Mercury co
example, in scientific notation 380,000 becon1es 3.8 X 105. If the Sun in Figure 1-6. Earth's orbit is more circular than Mercury's;
you are not furnil iar with scientific notation, read the section on its distance from the Sun varies by only a few percent.
"Powers of IO Notation" in Appendix A. The Un iverse is coo big
co describe ,vichouc using scientific notation.
When you once again enlarge your field of vie,v by a factor
of I 00 (Figure 1·6), Earth, the Moon, and the Moon's o rbit chat
filled the previous figure are indistinguishable in the blue doc at
lo,ver left of the new figure. Now you can see the Sun and nvo
ocher p lanets chat are part of our Solar System. Our Solar
System consists of the Sun, its family of p lanets, and some
smaller bodies such as moons, astero ids, and comets.
Earth , Venus, and Mercury are p lanets, which are spherical,
nonlun1 inous bodies chat orbit a scar and sh ine by reflected light.
Venus is about the size of Earth, and Mercury has slightly more
than one-th ird of Ear th's diameter. On ch is diagram, they
are both coo small co be portrayed as anyth ing but tiny docs. The
Sun is a star, a self-lun1inous ball of hoc gas. Even though the
Sun is about I 00 ti mes larger in d ian1ecer than Earth (inset
at bottom right of Figure 1-6), it, coo, is no more than a doc in
ch is d iagram. Figure 1-6 represents an area with a diameter of
1.6 X 10 8 km.
Another way astronomers sin1plify descriptions and calcula- A Figure 1-S The field of view is 1.6 million km wide. This
tions chat require large numbers is co define larger un its of box • represents the relative size of Figure 1-4.
C"P)TWII 2019 C t ~ UM'flina, All Righr.i l«M'rvtd. ~by Ml bo: ropii:d. U'.IMCd.. or dupti,:....:d. in whole « in I»"· Due io t k>:U'OIUC righ~ - lhird ~ y tOMCU tN.Y b: J u ~ ~ fmm die ,:Book ~ <Chapt,:r(-').
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A Figure 1· 6 The field of view is 160 million km wide. This A Figure 1 ·7 The field of view is 16 billion km (about 11 0 AU)
box • represents the relative size of Figure 1-5. wide. The orbits of the three innermost planets-Mercury,
Venus, and Earth- are too small to show at this scale. This
box • represents the relative size of Figure 1-6.
Enlarge your field of vie,v again by a factor of I 00, and you a fairly average neighborhood in the Universe. Although there
can see the enti re p lanetary region of ou r Solar System are n1any billions of stars like the Sun, none is close enough to
(Figure 1· 7). The Sun, Mercury, Venus, and Earth lie so close be visible in this d iagram, wh ich sho,vs a region only 11,000 AU
together t hat you cannot see t hen1 separately at th is scale. You in d ian1eter. Sta rs in the Sun's neighborhood are rypically sepa-
can see only the brighter, n1o re w idely separated objects such as rated by d istances about 30 times larger than that.
Mars, the next planet outwa rd. Mars is only 1.5 AU from the In Figure 1-9 , your field of vie\v has expanded again by a factor
Sun, but Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are farther from of I 00 to a diameter of I. I million AU. The Sun is at the center,
the Sun, so they are easier to locate in th is diagram. They are and at this scale you can see a few of the nearest scars. These stars
cold ,vorlds that are fur from the Sun's ,varmth. Light from the are so distant that it is not convenient to give their distances in AU.
Sun reaches Earth in only 8 minutes, but it takes more th an To express distances so large, astronon1ers defined a ne\v un it of
4 hours to reach Neptune. distance, the light-year. One light-year (ly) is the distance that light
You can ren1ember the order of the planets fron1 the Sun travels in one year, approxin1ately 9.5 X 10 12 km or 63,000 AU.
outward by remembering a simple sentence such as: My Very It is a Common Misconception that a light-year is a un it of time,
Educated Mother Just Served Us Noodles {perhaps you can come
up with a better one). The first letter of each ,vord is the same as
the first letter of a p lanet's nan1e: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jup iter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The list of planets once
included Pluto, b ut in 2006, astronomers attending an interna-
tional scientific congress made the decision that Pluto should be
redefined as a dwarf planet. Pluto n1eets son1e of the criteria to
be considered a p lanet, but not others. Pluto is now known to be
just one of a group of small objects that have been discovered
circling the Sun beyond Neptune.
When you again en large you r field of vie,v by a factor of
100, the Solar Systen1 vanishes {Figure 1·8). T he Sun is only a
po int of light, and all the planets and their orb its are now
cro,vde.d into t he small yellow dot at the center. The p lanets
are too small and too faint to be visib le so near the brilliance
of the Sun.
Notice that no stars are visible in Figure 1-8 except for the A Figure 1 ·8 The fi eld of view is 11,000 AU wide. This box •
Sun. The Sun is a fairly rypical star, and it seen1s to be located in represents the relative size of Figure 1-7.
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.•
•
•• •
• •.
• • •
..
•
·- .• .: •
I• ·
,. •
•
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•
•
• '
• •
•
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'" • •
•
• .. •
•
•
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, •
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"Figure 1·9 The field of view is 17 ly wide. The sizes of the "Figure 1·10 The field of view is 1700 ly wide. This box •
dots representing each star are not to scale. This box • repre- represents the relative size of Figure 1-9.
sents the relative size of Figure 1-8.
and you can sometimes hear the term misused in science fiction The Sun is a relatively faint star chat ,vould not be easily located
movies and TV shows. T he next time you hear someone say, "It in a p hoto at ch is scale.
,viii cake me light-years to finish n1y history paper," you could cell If you again expand your field of vie\v by a factor of I 00, you
the person chat a light-year is a distance, not a time (although see our Galaxy, w ith a visible disk of stars about 80,000 ly in
perhaps chat con1ment ,vouldn't be appreciated) . The diameter of diameter (Figure 1•11) . A galaxy is a great cloud of stars, gas, and
your field of view in Figure 1-9 is 17 ly. dust held together by the comb ined gravity of all of its matter.
Another Common M isconception is ch at scars look like disks Galaxies range fron1 I 000 ly to more than 300,000 ly in diameter,
,vhen seen t hrough a telescope. Although most stars are app rox- and the b iggest ones contain more than a t rillion ( I 0 12) scars. In
imately the same size as th e Sun, they are so far a,vay t hat the night sky, you can se,e our Galaxy as a great, cloudy wheel of
astronomers cannot see chem as anyth ing but points of light. scars ringing the sky. This band of scars is known as the Milky
Even the closest sta r to the Sun-Proxin1a Cent auri , ,vhich is Way, and our home galaxy is called the Milky Way Galaxy.
only 4.2 ly from Earth-looks like a point of light through the
b iggest telescopes on Earth. Figure 1-9 follows the common
astronom ical practice of making the sizes of th e dots represent
not the sizes of t he stars but their b rightness. T his is how star
images are recorded on photographs. Bright stars n1ake larger
spots on a photograph than faint scars, so the size of a star image
in a photo cells you not how b ig t he star is but rather how
bright it is.
You m ight wonder w hether other stars have families of plan-
ets orbiting around chem as the Sun does. Such objects, cern1ed
extrasolar planets, are very difficult to see because they are gener-
ally sn1all, fai nt, and coo close co the glare of their respective
parent stars. Nevertheless, astronomers have used indirect meth-
ods co find thousands of such objects, although only a handful
have been photographed d irectly.
In Figure 1·10, you expand your field of view by another fac-
to r of I 00, and the Sun and its neighboring scars van ish into the
background of thousands of oth er stars. The field of vie,v is now
1700 ly in dian1eter. Of course, no one has ever journeyed thou-
sands of light-years from Earth to look back and p hotograph our " Figure 1·11 The field of view is 170,000 ly wide. This
neighborhood, so chis is a representative p hotograph of the sky. box • represents the relative size of Figure 1-10.
C"P)TWII 2019 C t ~ UM'flina, All Righr.i l«M'rvtd. ~by Ml bo: ropii:d. U'.IMCd.. ordupti,:....:d. in whole « in I»"· Due io t k>:U'OIUC righ~ - lhird ~ y tOMCU tN.Y b: Ju~ ~ fmm die ,:Book ~ <Chapt,:r(-').
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How does anyone kno\v what the disk of the M ilky Way
Galaxy would look like fi-om a vantage point tens of thousands of
light years a\vay? Astronomers use evidence to guide thei r expla-
nations as they envision \vhac our Galaxy looks like. Artists can
then use chose scientific descriptions co create a painting. Many
in1ages in th is book are artists' conceptions of objects and events
that are too big or coo dim co see dearly, emit energy your eyes
cannot detect, or happen coo slowly or coo rapidly for humans co
sense. These images are mud, better than guesses; they are illus-
trations guided by the best scientific information astronon1ers can
gather. As you continue co explore, notice how astronomers use
the methods of science co understand and depict cosmic events.
The artist's conception of the Milky Way Galaxy rep ro-
duced in Figure 1-1 1 shows that ou r Galaxy, like many ochers,
has graceful spiral arms winding outward th rough its disk. In a
later chapter, you \vi ii learn that the spiral arms are places w here
scars are formed fron1 clouds of gas and dust. Our own Sun was
born in one of these spiral ar ms, and, if you could see the Sun in • Figure 1-13 The field of view is 1.7 billion ly wide. This
box • represents the relative size of Figure 1-12.
th is p icture, it would be in the d isk of the Galaxy about rwo-
th irds of the way out from the center, at about the location of the
marker dot indicated in the figure. few dozen galaxies. Galaxies are commonly grouped together in
Ours is a fairly large galaxy. Only a century ago astronomers such dusters. Some galaxies have beautiful spiral patterns like our
thought it was the enti re Un iverse-an island cloud of stars in an home, the M ilky Way Galaxy, some are globes of stars without
otherwise empty vastness. No\v they kno\v that the M ilky Way spirals, and some seem strangely distorted. In a later chapter, you
Galaxy is not un ique; it is only one of many b ill ions of galaxies \viii learn \vhat produces these differences among the galaxies.
scattered th roughout the Universe. No\v is a chance for you to spot another Common
You can see a few of these other galaxies when you expand [Link]. People often say Galaxy \vhen they mean Solar
your field of view by another factor of 100 (Figure 1-12). Our System, and they sometimes confuse both terms \Vith Universe.
Galaxy appears as a tiny luminous speck surrounded by other Your cosn1 ic won1 has shown you the d ifference. The Solar
specks in a region 17 mill ion light-years in diameter. Ead, speck System is your local neighborhood, that is, the Sun and its planets,
represents a galaxy. Notice that our Galaxy is part of a group of a one planetary system. The Milky Way Galaxy contains our Solar
System plus b illions of other scars and w hatever planets orbit
around then1- in other words, b illions of planetary systems. The
Un iverse includes everything: all of the galaxies, scars, and planets,
including our Galaxy and, a very sn1all part of that, our Solar
System. Distinguishing among the Solar System, the Galaxy, and
the Universe requires having an accurate sense of proportion.
If you expand your field of view one more time, you can see
that clusters of galaxies are connected in a vast network (Figure 1-13).
Clusters are grouped into superdusters-duscers of clusters-and
the supercluscers are linked co form long filan1ents and \valls outlin-
ing nearly empty voids. T hese filaments and \valls appear co be the
largest structures in the Universe. Were you to expand your field of
view another time, you would probably see a un iform fog of fila-
ments and \valls. When you puzzle over the origin of these struc-
tures, you are at the frontier of human knowledge.
C"P)TWII 2019 C t ~ UM'flina, All Righr.i l«M'rvtd. ~by Ml bo: ropii:d. U'.IMCd.. ordupti,:....:d. in whole « in I»"· Due io t k>:U'OIUC righ~ - lhird ~y tOMCU tN.Y b: Ju ~~ fmm die ,:Book ~ <Chapt,:r(-').
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caualleros, soldados y valientes hombres echávanles agua con
aquellos ysopos
308 en la cara, en renglera á cada uno por sí, y luego á las
mugeres del rey y á las demás señoras que presentes estauan.
Después de rociados voluíanse los señores á los esclauos y decíanles
: hermanos niios: id en paz á servir á vuestro amo y señor y rey
nuestro, Axayacatl; ídle consolando y animando por donde fuere:
mira no le falte algo de sus joias, no se os caigan por el camino,
seruilde con mucho cuidado y daldc todo lo que uviere menester, así
desta comida como de su bebida: mira no os falte algo y caigáis en
alguna falta. Los pobres dauan las gracias á los señores y
empecauan á llorar despidiéndose dcllos. Luego se voluian á los
corcobados y á los enanos y domésticos de su casa, y les
encomendauan tuviesen gran cuenta y cuidado de dar aguamanos á
su señor'y de admiuistralle el vestido y el calcado, como hasta allí
auian hecho, y de dalle el peyue y el espejo que lleuaban, y de dalle
la cebratana quando la uviese menester y el arco y hechas: mira no
os falte algo en el camino: id y seruí con todo cuidado á vuestro rey
y señor; y poniendo junto á las cenizas un teponaztli, que es el
instrumento con quedos tañen quando baylan, echáuanlos junto
aquel teponaztli de espaldas y cortáuanles el pecho, y sacándoles á
todos el coracon y la sangre, cogíanla en unos vasos y derramáuanla
en la lumbre donde el cuerpo del rey estaua ardiendo, la qual el
fuego juntamente la consumía. Acauados de matar todos los
esclauos y corcobados y enanos y todas las esclauas, que acontecía
pasar de cinquenta y de sesenta personas las que allí matauau, y
echada la sangre en el fuego, con la qual se apagauan aquellas
cenicas ardiendo, coxíanlo todo los sepultadores y hacían un hoyo
delante los pies de Vitzilopochtli y enterráuanlo allí con todos
aquellos corazones de los muertos y las joyas y plumas y mantas
que le auian ofrecido. Venían luego los cantores con aquellas xícaras
de agua y ysopos y tornauan ¡i rociar y dar ysopae,os de agua á
todos y á todas las presentes, no dexando á nenguno. Acauadas
todas estas cerimonias leuautáuanse los mayores señores de México,
que eran los quatro del consejo real, y dauan las gracias á todos los
presentís, besándoles las manos de parte de toda la ciudad y senado
della. diciúidoles cómo el Señor de lo criado auia apagado la candela
y escondido la luz de México y que auia escundido la voz de aquel
que todo lo man
309 daua y regia con ella, de lo qual tornauan á llorar
todos, con lo qual dando el retomo de las gracias, los señores se
fueron todos á sus tierras y quedaron los mexicanos todos
juntamente con las mugeres y parientes del muerto en ayuno de
ochenta dias, al cauo de los quales hicieron otra estatua y la
vistieron á la mesma manera que queda dicho y mataron otros
tantos esclauos, con las mesmas cerimonias de cantos y bayles,
comidas y bebidas y rocíos de agua, quemando la estatua,
derramándole encima aquella sangre de los muertos y enterrando
los coracones con las cenicas y todas las joyas y riquezas quel rey
tenia, lo qual llamauan cauo de año, como acá decimos, y desta
manera honrauan antiguamente á los reyes y señores que morían,
haciéndoles las cerimonias dichas. Acauadas estas cerimonias y
honras del rey Axayacatl, divulgóse luego al quarto dia la nueva
election de Tigocicatzin, que por otro nombre le llamauan
Tlachitonatiuh, que quiere decir, el sol baxo, 1 la qual election
divulgada y sauida en Tezcuco y en Tacuba y por todas las demás
prouincias, luego sin ninguna tardanza se mouieron á venir á México
á hacer sus cumplimientos y á dar la obediencia, como es uso y
costumbre y lo era entre ellos; y así vinieron á México el rey de
Tezcuco con todos sus principales; el de Tacuba con todos sus
señores; los de Chalco, Xuchimilco, con toda la chinampa; de
Cuitlauac, Mizquic, Culhuacan, Mexicatzinco y Itztapalapan, los
matlatzincas, los mazauaques, los coatlalpanecas, todos los señores
de la tierra caliente, los quales, después que le uvieron todos besado
las manos y ofrecídole grandes dones y riquecas, el rey de Tezcuco
le dio el grado desta manera: que estando el nuevo rey eleto en pié,
el rey de Tezcuco tomó una corona de piedras verdes, toda
guarnecida de oro y púsosela en la caueca, y oradándole las narices
por la ternilla, le puso atrauesada una esmeralda verde, del grueso
de un grueso cañón de escribir, y en las orejas unas dos esmeraldas
redondas guarnecidas de oro, y en los molledos, que le tornauan del
molledo al hombro, dos braceletes de oro muy resplandecientes, y
en las gargantas de los pies unas calcetillas con caxcaueles de oro al
cauo, y cacóle él mesmo con 1 Conlbrmúndouos á esta significación,
podría escribirse, Tlalchitonatiuh. — Así sllee en IxtlilxocMtZ, al
hablar de los cuatro soles, ó grandes periodos cíclicos.
310 sus manos unos oapatos en los pi
311 go, acauadas las cinco estaciones, traíanle á su casa á
donde le tornauan á sentar en su aposento r Real y leuantáuase el
rey que le auia dado las insinias reales, que era el de Tezcuco, y
hacíale la plática siguiente: muy poderoso señor y valeroso
mancebo: heredado as el estrado real de muy ricas y hermosas
plumas y el aposento de piedras preciosas que dexó el dios
Quetzacoatl y el gran Topiltzin y del marauilloso y admirable
Vitzilopochtli, el qual no se te da mas 2 de prestado, no para
siempre, sino por algún tiempo. Este asiento dexaron illustrado y
engrandecido aquellos Reyes valerosos tus antecesores,
especialmente tu agüelo de alta y suprema memoria Monteguma, el
qual con su larga vida lo dexó tan en la cumbre, que nunca hasta allí
tal auia estado; por tanto, señor, mira no sea abatido en tu tiempo;
no te descuides: mira lo que haces, ten cuenta con el guerfano y con
la viuda, con el viejo y con la vieja que ya no pueden trauajar,
porque son las plumas y las pestañas y cejas de Vitzilopochtli,
especialmente las águilas y tigres, los valientes y valerosos hombres,
que son muro y defensa tuya y de tu república, y estos la
engrandecen con el derramamiento de su sangre; y con esto,
valeroso señor, doy fin á mi plática. Luego salia el rey de Tacuba y
hacíale su plática, y así sucesivamente le iban haciendo sus pláticas
todas las demás ciudades y prouincias, que querellas aquí poner
cada una por sí, aunque según su elegancia y metáforas no íuera
tenido por prolixo, y sé que dieran mucho gusto de ver las metáforas
y maneras de hablar que estos tenían tan admirables; pero por no
ser molesto las dexo de poner, pues todas venían á concluir en
encomendalle el buen gouierno y cuidado de los pobres, y de honrar
y fauorecer á los buenos y valerosos, y la defensa de la patria y el
honor y reuerencia y culto de los dioses; y poniéndole delante las
mesmas insinias que al otro rey, todos á una sin discrepar, y
ofrecelle grandes preseas y dones, unos mas que otros, acauadas
las pláticas se fueron todos á sus tierras dexando ya al rey en su
trono. 1 Quizá — "asiento." 2 Esto es, "se te dá solamente de
prestado, etc.
CAPÍTULO XL. ' I>e eóino los mexicanos ordenaron dar
guerra a los de Metgtltlap para traer gonto l>;ir:i baoer fiesta en la
coronación de su Rey y ungimientos. Después de idos todos los
señores y reyes comarcanos, los mexicanos muy contentos y ufanos
con su rey, uvo parecer entre los señores de hacer una solene fiesta
á su Rey en honra y honor de la unción que le hacian y de su
coronación, y inventando que para ello, y el dia que se le quitase la
unción, uviese un gran sacrificio de hombres; y determinaron de ir á
probarse con los de Metztitlan y á traer gente de aquella tierra para
sacrificar, lo qual no se podia hacer sin guerra, porque de fuerza
auian de ser presos en guerra y por vía de armas los que auian de
ser sacrificados; y así con esta determinación enviaron á los de
Tezcuco y Tacuba y Chalco y Xuchimilco y á los de toda la tierra
caliente y á todas las demás prouincias de la Cuauhtlalpan y de la
Matlatzinca que se aperciuiesen para ir ú la guerra que para honra
de su rey ordenauan contra Metztitlan; lo qual oydo por los señores
de todas estas prouincias dixeron les placía, y luego puesto por obra
el hacer gente, fué con tanta priesa, que desde á pocos dias uvo
auiso en la ciudad de México, de todas partes, cómo ya la gente
estaua hecha; que mandasen lo que se auia de hacer. El rey, que
mientras le turaua la unción y estar velando sobre sus insinias y en
ayuno y penitencia, no mandaua aun nada, acudieron á T/acar/c/, el
qual les mandó que toda la gente que estuviese aperceuida y
aparejada se recogiese en Atotonilco, y que allí aguardasen todos al
demás exército y en Itzmiquilpan. Vueltos con este recado de a los
mensageros, luego mandaron los señores que saliesen todos los
soldados, sin que 1 Ví-ase la lámina 18Í, part. 1'? i Parece qne sobra
esta palabra.
313 quedase hombre, y así fué que dentro de tercero dia
no quedó ninguno que para aquella guerra se auia aperceuido y
determinado á ir. Sauido en México que ya todos eran partidos, los
de la redonda, : mandaron luego saliesen los de la ciudad de México,
y así todos, muy bien aderezados, salieron y tomando los señores al
rey consigo le Ueuaron á la guerra, el qual como era mogo y no se
auia aliado en semejantes negocios, Tlacaelel se lo encomendó muy
encarecidamente, que mirasen por él y que no lo dexasen de la
mano, sino que siempre estuviese acompañado con su gente de
guardia, y así partieron de la ciudad y llegaron á Tegontepec donde
el rey de Tezcuco lo esperaba con su gente, y saliéndolo á reciuir le
higo muy buen ospedaje y teníanle aperceuida muy buena y solene.
comida para él y para sus principales, y después de auer comido
salieron de allí y vinieron á Atotonilco, donde lo mas del exército
estaua esperando; y llegados, el rey mandó llamar á los señores de
aquel pueblo y de Itzmiquilpan, y díxoles: hermanos, yo vengo á ver
y probar mis fuerzas con estos de Metztitlan : quiero que hagáis una
cosa y es, que salgáis á dalles guerra vosotros solos, porque piensen
que vosotros solos les hacéis esta guerra, para que si os truxeren de
vencida, auiendo peleado con ellos, saldremos de refresco y
prenderemos los que pudiéremos; y ellos haciéndolo así salieron al
encuentro á los enemigos, y haciendo todo su poder, no pudiendo
resistidos, empegaron á voluer atrás; las quales nuevas llegaron2 al
rey y á los señores, cómo los atotonilcas y iztmiquilpas voluian atrás
y que venian de vencida, echaron todo el exército para que rompiese
con ellos, chalcas, tezcucanos, tepanecas, xuchimilcas, tlaluicas,
mazauaques. Los metztitlancalques auian llamado en su fauor á los
huaxtecas, y viendo la multitud que sobre ellos venian, salieron y los
huaxtecas al encuentro, y hiciéronles grandísima resistencia y
matáronles trecientos hombres, de lo qual los mexicanos afligidos,
no sauiendo qué se hacer para salir con alguna empresa, echaron un
escuadrón de mogos mochachos de á diez y ocho ó veinte años, que
siempre lleuauan á la guerra no mas de para l Ksto es, — de los
lugares inmediatos. •2 "llegando,"
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