HIGHWAY ENGINEERING MATERIALS

BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
Bituminous materials are binders used to hold mineral aggregates together in order to
improve pavement stability, durability and overall performance.
Bituminous materials (or bitumen’s) are hydrocarbons that are soluble in carbon
disulphide. They are usually fairly hard at normal temperatures. When heated they
soften and flow. When mixed with aggregates in their fluid state and then allowed to
cool, they solidify and bind aggregates together, forming a pavement surface.
They include: asphalt cement, liquid asphalts and tars. The first two being the mostly
widely used bituminous materials.
Asphalt cements, in the form of hot-mix type bituminous concrete, is used to a great
extent in the higher class highways while liquid asphalts are predominantly used in
paving of secondary highways where surface treatment type of construction is
common

DEFINITIONS
Asphalt: is a dark brown to black cementitious material, solid or semi-solid in
consistency in which predominating constituents are bitumen’s that occur in nature or
by refining petroleum
Asphalt Cement (AC): asphalt specially prepared to quality and consistency suitable
for use in pavement construction.
Liquid Asphalts
o Asphalt Emulsions: emulsions of asphalt cement and water which contain a
small amount of emulsifying agent
o Cutbacks: asphalt cement that have been liquefied by blending with petroleum
solvents.
Tars: A by-product in the manufacture of coal gas
BEHAVIOUR AND COMPOSITION

Since most asphalt contain a high proportion of bitumen, in excess of 99% for
petroleum refined asphalts, it seems reasonable to expect the behavior of asphalt to
largely reflect the corresponding behavior of constituent bitumen.

Composition

Early studies of the structure of bitumen led to the assumption that the material is
colloidal suspension of asphaltenes in an oily medium with the resins acting to prevent
coagulation of asphaltenes.

In general bitumen is made up of:

o Asphaltenes

o Resins and

o Oils

1) Asphaltenes are large, high molecular weight hydrocarbon molecules with carbon
hydrogen ratio of more than 0.8. They are solid at room temperature; they constitute
the “solid” body of asphalt.
2) Resins are hydrocarbon molecules with a carbon-hydrogen ratio of less than 0.8 and
more than 0.6. They affect adhesive and ductile properties of asphalt.
3) Oils are hydrocarbons with a carbon-hydrogen ratio of up to 0.6. These are liquids of
high viscosity which may contain solid hydrocarbons. They influence the viscosity
and flow of asphalt.

Behaviour

Asphaltenes are therefore large, hard, powdery black materials. The asphaltenes are
surrounded by resins, which contribute to ductility and adhesiveness of asphalt. These
particles are suspended in an oily material, which allows asphalt to flow.
The consistency or hardness of asphalt cements depends on the relative proportions of
these three materials in its composition.
Aging or hardening of asphalts is due to evaporation and oxidation of the lighter oily
constituents during mixing at high temperatures and the oxidation of oils to resins and
resins to asphaltenes when used over a period of years.
 SOURCES RODUCTION AND PROCESSING

Bitumen’s that have been used in paving include:

1) Native asphalts – obtained from asphalt lake in Trinidad and other Caribbean areas,
these were used in some of the earliest pavements in North America
2) Rock asphalts – these are rock deposits containing bituminous materials
3) Tars – these are bituminous materials obtained from the distillation of coal
4) Petroleum asphalts – these are the products of distillation of crude oil. These asphalts
are by far the most common bituminous paving materials in use today.

Natural Asphalt

Two sources
o Trinidad
o Athabasca

TRINIDAD LAKE

Porous dull black and brittle mixture of

bitumen, water and Very finely divided
mineral matter, mainly quartz and clay

Excavated Material
Water
Driven Off 160oC Tanks Equipment
with Stream Oils

More Fluid Material

Stream of Filter Out
Pieces of Wood etc
Low Penetration Values, High Viscosity Purified Asphalts
Blend with

Refinery Various
Refinery
Fluxed with Heavy Oils
Bitumens

Paving & Building Asphalts Asphaltic Cement with a useful

Range of penetrations
 Athabasca

Bitumen – Water – Silica Mixture

Hot Water

Bitumen 10 – 12% Asphaltenes

45% Resins
35% Oils

PETROLEUM PRODUCTION
When certain petroleum’s are processed to obtain gasoline, kerosene, fuel oils and
rudter oils, asphalt is produced as a valuable by-product
The fractions that make up petroleum

Fraction Product Type Boiling Point

Light distillate Gasoline 30 – 205
Medium distillate Kerosene 177 – 302
Heavy distillate Diesel 218 – 371

Very heavy distillate Lubricating oil Over 344

Residue Asphalt
PRODUCTION PROCESS
Straight reduction by distillation is necessary first step in the processing of all crude
oils.
Thereafter, the processing adopted depends on the quality and quantity of the asphaltic
residium produced

1) Direct distillation
Heavy asphaltic – base crudes which can withstand relatively high
temperature without cracking can be distilled at atmospheric pressure.
They are valuable mainly for their asphalt content (up to 70%)
Many crudes are intermediate in gravity and contain less asphalt (10 –
25%) and high boiling point fractions
They require distillation under vacuum
Asphalt produced directly by atmospheric or vacuum distillation are termed
straight-run

2) Solvent disulphating
The process was originally developed for crudes where high viscosity oils
and waxes rather than asphalt were the main product
Such crudes cannot be distilled directly without raising the temperature
high enough to cause cracking.
Instead, they are dissolved out in propane (later recovered) leaving asphalt
residue

3) Blowing
Passing hot air over a residuum mainly increases carbon-hydrogen ratio
and causes asphalt to form definite structural complexes.
The process increase the asphaltene constituent and reduces oils and resins
The increase in asphaltenes causes hardening which is desirable in the case
of asphaltic residues that might otherwise be too soft for commercial use
because of inherently low asphaltene content.
The process produces more elastic, less brittle, more ductile and less
temperature susceptible asphalt

4) Residuum Oil Supercritical Extraction

 The ROSE process is one in which an asphaltic residuum is mixed with
only one of a variety of low boiling hydrocarbon solvents (normally
pentane)
This process extract asphaltenes, resins and oils separately giving a
possibility of blending them in prescribed amounts to produce specific
properties

5) Blending
Blending of two quite different asphalts is another way of producing
specific rheological properties, if the blend is made on a proportionality
basis

SUMMARY
In principle it is possible to process asphalt from a given feed stock to
produce almost any desired rheological properties.
In the extreme this means production of synthetic asphalts by blending of
the three basic constituents i.e. asphaltenes, resins and oils.
However, the production of custom-made synthetic asphalt is not a reality,
probably for economic reasons, commercial asphalts are largely of straight-
run, solvent-extracted or blow varieties.
GRADING OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS

Asphalt Cement

Asphalt cements are the primary asphalt products produced by the fractional
distillation of crude oil. This is obtained as a residue of fraction distillation of
petroleum. In the British literature, it is known as Bitumen
Asphalt cement is commercially available in different grades depending on the range
of consistency.

Grading on the Basis of Penetration Values

For many years these ranges were based on measurements by penetration test alone.
AC was available in five standard grades: 40-50, 60-70,85-100, 120-150, 200-300,
300-400 with the numerical grader indicating the allowable ranges of penetration for
each grade.
Grading of asphalts on the basis of penetration test is an old method and it is
empirical.
This method is currently known to be inadequate with the advent of modern
technology.

Grading on the Basis of Viscosity

A more scientific basis is the viscosity test.
Therefore the modern method is to grade asphalt cements according to their viscosities
in Poises at 60oC.
There are two series of viscosity grades by which asphalt cement is available.
One consists of grades AC – 2.5, AC – 5, AC – 10, AC – 20, AC – 40, and sometimes
AC – 30.
The numerical values indicate the viscosity in hundreds of Poises at 60oC. The
allowable tolerance for each grade is ± 20%
o AC 2.5 {Viscosity = 250 Poises ± 20% (200 – 300 Poises)}
 Grading on the Basis of Viscosity of Asphalt Residue

The other series is based on the measurement done on the residue of asphalt after
asphalt has been subjected to the rolling thin film oven test.
The grades in this series are: AR-1000, AR 2000, AR-4000, AR 8000, and AR-16000.
Again the numerical values indicate the viscosity in Poises.
The tolerance is 25%.

Grading of Liquid Asphalts

Emulsified Asphalt

Asphalt emulsions are asphalt cement and water plus the emulsifying agent (usually a
type of soap).
In emulsification process, warm asphalt is mechanically milled into minute globules
and dispersed in water treated with small quantity of emulsifying agent.
The water is called the continuous phase and the globules of asphalt are called the
discontinuous phase.
Anionic – asphalt globules (particles) are electro negatively charged. They adhere
better with aggregate particles with positive surface charge (e.g limestone)
Cationic – asphalt globules are electro positively charged. They adhere better with
aggregate particles with negative surface charge (e.g silica)
Non ionic – asphalt globules are neutral
The first two types are ordinarily used in roadway construction and maintenance.
By variation of the materials and manufacture, emulsified asphalts of both anionic and
cationic are basically in three types.

Anionic Cationic

Rapid Setting RS CRS

Medium Setting MS CMS

Slow Setting SS CSS

Cutback Asphalt
 Cutbacks asphalts are asphalt cements mixed with solvents to reduce their viscosity to
make them easier to use at ordinary temperature.
Petroleum solvents used for dissolving asphalt cement are variously called distillate,
diluent, or cutter stock.
If the solvent used in making the cutback is highly volatile, it will quickly escape by
evaporation.
Solvents of lower volatility evaporate more slowly.
On the basis of relative speed of evaporation, cutback asphalts are divided into three
groups:
o Rapid curing (RC) – use gasoline as a solvent and therefore cure rapidly
o Medium curing (MC) – use kerosene
o Slow curing (SC) – use diesel fuel or may be produced directly from the
refinery during distillation.
Rapid Curing (RC)
o Asphalt cement and light diluent of high volatility generally in the gasoline or
naphtha boiling point range (RC-70, RC-250, RC-800, RC-3000)
o RC-70: Rapid curing cutback with the kinematic viscosity between 70 and 140
strokes

Medium Curing (MC)

o Asphalt cement and diluent of intermediate volatility generally in the kerosene
boiling point range
Slow Curing (SC)
o Asphalt cement and oils of low volatility

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ASPHALT

 The physical properties of asphalt that are of most interest to highway design,
construction, and maintenance personnel are: durability, adhesion, temperature
susceptibility, and aging and hardening

Durability
Durability is the measure of how well an asphalt retains its original characteristics
when exposed to normal weathering and aging processes. It is a property judged
primarily through pavement performance, and is therefore difficult to define in terms
of the asphalt alone. This is because pavement performance is affected by mix design,
aggregate characteristics, construction workmanship, and other variables, as much as
by the durability of the asphalt.
Nonetheless, there are routine tests used to approximate asphalt durability. They are
the Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) and the Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT).
Both involve the heating of thin films of asphalt

Adhesion and Cohesion

Adhesion is the asphalt's ability to stick to the aggregate in the paving mixture.
Cohesion is the asphalt's ability to hold the aggregate particles firmly in place in the
finished pavement.
The ductility test does not directly measure adhesion or cohesion; rather, it tests a
property of the asphalt that is considered by some to be related to adhesion and
cohesion. Consequently, the test is a pass-fail type that can indicate only whether or
not the sample is sufficiently ductile to meet minimum requirements.

Temperature Susceptibility
All asphalts are thermoplastic; that is, they become harder (more viscous) as their
temperature decreases and softer (less viscous) as their temperature increases. This
characteristic is known as temperature susceptibility, and is one of asphalt's most
valuable assets. Temperature susceptibility varies among asphalts from differing
petroleum sources, even if the asphalts are of identical grade.

Hardening and Aging

Asphalt tends to harden in the paving mixture during construction and in the pavement
itself. The hardening is caused primarily by oxidation (asphalt combining with
oxygen), a process that occurs most readily at higher temperatures (such as
construction temperature) and in thin asphalt films (such as the film coating aggregate
particles).
During mixing, asphalt is both at a high temperature and in thin films as it coats the
aggregate particles. This makes mixing the stage at which the most severe oxidation
and hardening usually occurs. Figure 2.9 shows the increase in viscosity caused by
heating a thin film of asphalt. The viscosity range of the original material (before the
Rolling Thin Film Oven Test) is significantly lower than after the heating test.

Not all asphalts harden at the same rate when heated in thin films. Therefore. each
asphalt used should be tested to determine its aging characteristics so that construction
techniques can be adjusted to minimize hardening. Such adjustments usually involve
mixing the asphalt with the aggregate at the lowest possible temperature for the
shortest practical time.
 The hardening of asphalt continues in the pavement after construction. Again,
oxidation and polymerization are the chief causes. These processes can be retarded by
keeping the number of connected voids (air spaces) in the final pavement low, and the
asphalt coating on the particles thick.

DESIRED PROPERTIES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF ASPHALT CEMENT

For engineering and construction purposes three properties or characteristics of asphalt
are important:
o Consistency (often called viscosity or fluidity)
o Purity
o Safety

Consistency
Asphalts are thermoplastic materials because they gradually liquefy when heated.
They are characterized by their consistency or ability to flow at different temperatures.
Consistency is the term used to describe the viscosity or fluidity of asphalt at different
temperature.
When asphalt is exposed to air in thin films at elevated temperatures, the asphalt tends
to harden.
This means that the consistency or viscosity of asphalt increases. A limited increase is
allowable.
Consistency of paving asphalts are commonly specified and measured by a viscosity
test or penetration test.
For air blown asphalts a softening point test is used.

Purity
Asphalt cement is composed of almost entirely of bitumen, which by definition, is
entirely soluble in carbon disulphide.

Safety
Asphalt cement, if heated to high temperature will release fumes that will flash in the
presence of a spark or open flame.
• The temperature at which this occur is called flush point and it should be well
above the temperatures normally used in paving operations.
TESTS FOR BITUMINOUS MATERIALS

Four groups of tests

o Consistency tests
o Composition tests
o Functional tests
o Special tests for emulsions

Consistency Tests

As binders may range from very thin liquid to semi-solid, there is no single
consistency test that can readily evaluate all the characteristics for all binders over
such a wide range.
Consistency tests are:
o Penetration tests
o Viscocity test
o Softening point test
o Ductility test

Penetration Test - For semi-solid pengrade bitumen

The binders are classified according to their penetration value (Pen – needle
penetration in 1/10 of a mm) under standard test condition (25oC, 100g, 5 sec)
 Significance of test
o identification purposes (higher values indicate lower viscosity)
o In conjunction with the softening point test at different temperatures can be
useful in defining binder properties
o Changes in hardness that occur in bitumen from causes like heating, loss of
volatiles, natural weathering etc can be determined

Viscosity Test – For soft pengrade bitumen, cutbacks, emulsions, tars (liquid binders)

Binders are classified into viscosity ranges according to the time (secs) required for a
given amount of binder (60ml) to flow through a specified orifice at the bottom of a
container
The diameter of the orifice is:
o 10 mm for viscosity values 15 – 500 seconds at 25oC
o 4 mm for viscosity less than 15 seconds at 25oC
o For very high viscosity values (> 500 seconds at 25 oC) the test is performed at
40oC in the same cap
o The results are reported with the temperature at which the test is done and the
relevant orifice diameter.
Significance of the test
o Used to control the consistency which in turn determine grade of the liquid
material
o For establishing the relationship between the temperature and viscosity (flow
characteristics)
 a) The asphalt Institute b) Connon–Manning
Vacuum Viscometer Vacuum Viscometer

Softening Point Test – For hard or semi-solid pengrade bitumen

The binders are classified according to the temperature at which a steel ring filled
with bitumen (Ring and Ball test)
Samples of asphalt loaded with steel balls are confined in brass rings suspended in a
beaker of water, glycerine, or ethylene glycol at 25 mm above a metal plate.
The liquid is then heated at a prescribed rate. As the asphalt softens, the balls and
asphalt gradually sin towards the plate.
At the moment the asphalt touches the plate, the temperature of the water is
determined and this is designated as ring and ball (RB) softening point of asphalt.
Significance:
o Specification of bitumen for crack filling and joint sealing
Ductility Test – For semi-solid pengrade bitumen
A ductile material Is one that elongates in tension. The ductility of binder in road
pavement is required in order to accommodate deflections on the road pavement
during traffic loading without cracking
The ductility of binder is expressed as the distance in cm that a semi-solid block will
elongate before breaking.
Significance: Supplementary test to reveal the presence or absence of internal
cohesion
Composition Tests

Composition tests gives proportions of specific components or fractions of binders

Composition tests are:
o Distillation test
o Water content test
o Loss on heat
o Ash content
o Solubility

Distillation Test
Distillation test is used to determine the quantity and quality of volatile material
constituents and the amount of non-volatile residue.
Different volatile elements evaporated at different temperatures.
Significance: Type of volatile material on the binder
o Rate at which these will be lost under conditions
o Types of residue left (determined in the standard consistency tests)
Distillation for Emulsified Asphalt

Distillation for Emulsified Asphalt

Water Content Test – For bituminous binders

Asphalt materials except for emulsified asphalts are usually specified to be water free
or substantially so, primarily because water causes foaming when the material is
heated thus creating a haradous condition.
Moisture content is tested by mixing a specified amount of binder with a
predetermined of petroleum spirit (for bitumen) coal – tar solvent (for tars) with which
it is immiscible and distilling in a flask attached to a glass water cooled reflux
condenser and graduated in receiver until a constant volume is attained on the
receiver.
This volume as a percentage of the original volume gives the moisture content (m/c).
Significance
o Bituminous binder should only contain extremely low moisture content if they
are to be heated over 100oC otherwise foaming of the binder will occur during
a hot mixing process.

Loss on Heat Test – For pen grade bitumen

A 50 g sample is heated to 160oC and left for 5 hours on a revolving shaft oven, then
cooled to room temperature and weighed.
The revolving shaft oven rotates at approximately five to six revolutions per minute
The loss in weight is measured as a percentage of the original weight. Also conditions
asphalt other tests. It subjects the asphalt to hardening conditions similar to those
expected in the application processes.
A penetration test usually is made on the asphalt after the loss on heating test for
comparison with penetration of the asphalt prior to the test
Significance
o Indication of volatile content under specified condition (heating condition in
storage tanks).
Ash Content Test – For pen grade bitumen and cutback

Indicate the percentage by weight of inorganic residue left behind after ignition of the
sample.
Significance
o Control undesirable amount of inorganic minerals in surface dressing materials

Solubility Test – For bitumen’s and tars

The solubility test is a procedure for measuring the purity of an asphalt cement.
Percentage of binder is determined by dissolving bitumen in carbon disulphide or
toluene (for tars) and weigh the residue.
A sample is immersed in a solvent (trichlorethylene) in which the active cementing
constituents of the sample dissolve. Impurities such as salts, free carbon, and
nonorganic contaminants, do not dissolve, but remain in particle form. These insoluble
impurities are filtered out of the solution, and are measured as a proportion of the
original sample.
Percentage of soluble material expressed in terms of total weight of the sample – give
the proportion of actual binder in the bitumen or tar

Functional Tests

Functional tests are

o Flush point test
o Specific gravity test

Flush Point Test – For pen grade bitumen and cutbacks

The flashpoint of an asphalt cement is the lowest temperature at which volatile

materials separate from a sample in sufficient concentration to "flash" in the
presence of an open flame.
Flashpoint must not be confused with firepoint,' which is the lowest temperature at
which the asphalt cement will catch fire and burn. Flashpoint involves only
instantaneous combustion of the volatile fractions separating from the asphalt.
 The flashpoint of an asphalt cement is determined to identify the maximum
temperature at which it can be handled and stored without danger of flashing. This
is important information since asphalt cement is usually heated in storage to keep
its viscosity low enough so that the material can be pumped.
The basic procedure for determining flashpoint is to gradually heat a sample of
asphalt cement in a brass cup while periodically holding a small flame over the
surface of the sample. The temperature at which an instantaneous flashing of
vapors occurs across the surface is taken to be the flashpoint.
The Cleveland Open Cup Test is the most common procedure for determining
flashpoint; however, the
A sample of bitumen is heated at a uniform rate while periodically a small flame is
passed across its surface.
The temperature at which the vapour given off from the binder first starts to burn with
a brief flame is called flashpoint
If the heating is continued, a temperature is reached which the vapour given off will
continue to burn for at least 5 seconds. This temperature is known as the fire point.

Significance

Flash point indicates the maximum temperature to which the binder can be heated
(safely heated) without fire hazard.
Specific Gravity Test – For bituminous binders

Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of any volume of a material to the weight of
an equal volume of water, both at a specified temperature.
Binder forms one of the constituents of asphalt paving mix.
The specific gravity of each component need to be established to facilitate a mix
design process.
 The specific gravity of an asphalt cement is not normally indicated in the job
specifications. Nonetheless, knowing the specific gravity of the asphalt cement being
used is important for two reasons.
o Asphalt expands when heated and contracts when cooled. This means that the
volume of a given amount of asphalt cement will be greater at higher
temperatures than at lower ones. Specific gravity measurements provide a
yardstick for making temperature-volume corrections, which are discussed
later.
o Specific gravity of the asphalt is essential in the determination of the
percentage of voids (air spaces) in the compacted pavement.
For a given volume of mixed material the contribution by weight of each constituent
shall depend on the specific gravity of respective constituent
The cost of haulage can be determined in terms of volume or weight depending on
which of the two is restricting factors based on specific gravity. And volume/tonnage
capacity of the transporting facility.
For bituminous materials the specific gravity is determined at a specified temperature
Specific gravity is usually determined by the pycnometer method (AASHTO T 228).
Because specific gravity varies with the expansion and contraction of asphalt cement
at different temperatures, results are normally expressed in terms of Sp. Gr. (Specific
Gravity) at a giiren temperature for both the material and the water used in the test.

Special Tests – Fo Emulsions

Special tests are:

o Residue by evaporation – for emulsions
o Sieve test
o Settlement test
o Stone coating test
o Particle charge test

Residue by Evaporation test – For emulsions

This is a simple method for determining the amount and character of bitumen in a
bitumen emulsion. The results are similar to those gained by distillation
Sieve Test – For emulsions
The sieve test compliments the settlement test and has somewhat similar purpose. It is
used to determine quantitatively the percentage of asphalt cement present in the form
of pieces strings or relatively large globules.
Such nondispersed particles of asphalt might log equiment and would tend to provide
non uniform coatings of asphalt on aggregate particles. This non uniformity might not
be detected by the settlement test which is of value in this regard only when there is a
sufficient diffference in the specific gravity of asphalt and water to allow settlement.
A sample of emulsion (1000g) is sieved through 850μm (0.85mm) sieve and the
percentage by weight that fails to pass is determined.
For anionic emulsified asphalts the sieve and retained asphalt are rinsed with a mild
sodium oleate solution For cationic emulsified asphalts rinsing is with distilled water
Significance:
o A measure of storage stability as during storage bitumen globules may separate
based on size differences
o Detection of foreign matter with which the emulsion may have been
contaminated

Settlement Test – For stable and semi-stable emulsions

The settlement test detects the tendency of asphalt globules to “settle out” during
storage of emulsified asphalts. It provides the user an element of protection against
separation of ashalt and water in unstable asphalt emulsions that may be stored for a
period of time.
A 500 ml sample is placed in each of the two tall graduated glass cylinders, stopped,
and allowed to stand undisturbed for 5 days.
Small samples are then taken from the top and bottom parts of each for bitumen
content determination.
Bitumen content is determined by heating the samples to evaporation and weighing
the residues.
The difference in bitumen content in the upper and lower portions of the graduated
cylinder is the settlement value.
Significance:
o To evaluate storage stability
Stone Coating Test – For stable emulsions

A 35 gm sample of emulsion is mixed with 465 gm of reference stone for 3 minutes

and stability and coat under specific condition is determined
The stability/breaking characteristic is determined by rinsing with water. There should
be a minimum of 90% of aggregate coat after rinsing.

Particle charge test – For Cationic Emulsions

This is an identification test for rapid– and medium–setting grades of cationic asphalt
emulsions.
A positive electrode (anode) and a negative electrode cathode) are immersed in a
sample of emulsified asphalt and connected to a controlled direct–current electrical
source.
After 30 minutes or after the current has dropped to 2 mill amperes the two electrodes
are examined to determine which one has an asphalt deposit. An asphalt deposit on the
cathode identifies a cationic emulsified asphalt.
Thin Film Oven (TFO) Test and Rolling Thin Film Oven (RTFO) Test
These tests are not true tests. They are procedures that expose a sample of asphalt to
conditions that approximate those that occur during hot-mix plant operations.
Viscosity or penetration tests made on the sample after TFO or RTFO procedures are
used to measure the anticipated hardening of the material during construction and
pavement service.
The TFO procedure involves placing a measured sample of asphalt cement into a flat-
bottomed pan so that the sample covers the pan bottom to a depth of about 3 mm. The
sample and pan are then placed on a rotating shelf in an oven and kept at a temperature
of 325°F (163oC) for five hours. The artificially-aged and hardened sample is then
tested for its viscosity value, penetration value, or both.
The equipment required for a RTOF test includes a speciallydesigned oven and a
specially-designed bottle used as a container for the test sample. The asphalt cement
sample is placed in the bottle. The bottle is placed on its side on a rotating shelf, which
rolls the bottle continuously in the oven (kept at 325°F (163°C)). The rotation of the
bottle continuously exposes fresh films of asphalt cement. Once during each rotation,
the bottle opening passes an air jet which removes accumulated vapors from the bottle.
The advantages of the RTFO test over the TFO tests are that the RTFO oven
accommodates a larger number of samples than the TFO oven, and less time is
required to harden the samples in the RTFO test than in the TFO test.
 Thin Film Oven Test

Rolling Thin Film Oven Test

 TEMPERATURE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF ASPHALT CEMENTS

Stiffness temperature Relationship of Asphalt Cement

The changes in stiffness with temperature are fundamentally dissociated with change
of viscosity.
The greater the rate of change of change of stiffness with temperature, the more
temperature susceptible the asphalt cements.
It is more liable to fracture at low temperatures or deform excessively at high
temperature.
All asphalts are thermoplastic; that is, they become harder (more viscous) as their
temperature decreases and softer (less viscous) as their temperature increases. This
characteristic is known as temperature susceptibility, and is one of asphalt's most
valuable assets.
Temperature susceptibility varies among asphalts from differing petroleum
sources, even if the asphalts are of identical grade.
The figure above illustrates this point. The figure shows the temperature
susceptibilities of two asphalts (Asphalt A and Asphalt B) that are of identical
penetration grade but are from different crude sources. Note that at 77°F (25°C),
the viscosities of the two asphalts match. At all other temperatures, however, their
viscosities are different. This is because the two asphalts have different
temperature susceptibilities
The same can be true also of two asphalts of identical viscosity grade, but derived
from different crude sources. The next figure, for example, shows that Asphalt C
and Asphalt D have identical viscosities at the viscosity test temperature of 140°F
(60°C). At all other temperatures, however, their viscosities differ.

The conclusion is that asphalts derived from different sources can have different
temperature susceptibilities regardless of the grading system utilized.
 Knowing the temperature susceptibility of the asphalt being used in a paving
mixture is important because it indicates the proper temperature at which to mix
the asphalt with aggregate and the proper temperature at which to compact the
mixture on the roadbed.
Referring to the figures 2.above,, you can see that at any temperature above 77 oF
(25°C)-which includes all construction temperatures – Asphalt A will be less viscous
(more fluid) than Asphalt B. As a result, the temperature required to make Asphalt A
fluid enough to properly coat all the aggregate particles in the mix is lower than the
temperature needed to get the same results from Asphalt B. The same is true of proper
compaction temperatures. It might be necessary to compact a mix with Asphalt A at a
lower temperature than a mix with Asphalt B.
It should be understood that it is vitally important for an asphalt to be temperature
susceptible. It must be fluid enough at elevated temperatures to permit it to coat the
aggregate particles during mixing and to allow these particles to move past each other
during compaction. It must then become viscous enough at normal air temperatures to
hold the aggregate particles in place in the pavement.

Quantification
Temperature susceptibility of asphalt cement has been quantified in a number of ways
o o o
o Penetration Ratios (Pen 0 C:Pen 25 C:Pen 46 C)

o Penetration Susceptibility Factor

o Viscosity Susceptibility Coefficient
o Penetration Index (PI)

Penetration Ratios
o o o
Penetration Ratios (Pen 0 C:Pen 25 C:Pen 46 C)
o
Penetration at 0 C
Asphalt A= o
=X
Penetration at 25 C

o
Penetration at 0 C
Asphalt B= o
=Y
Pene tration at 25 C
 If X > Y, then B is more temperature susceptible than A

Penetration Susceptibility Factor

Penetration susceptibility Factor (PsF)
o o
Penetration at 46 C−Penetrationat 0 C
PsF= o
=Y
Penetrationat 25 C
Let PsF = X and PsF = Y
1 2

If X > Y, then 1 is more temperature susceptible than 2

Viscosity Susceptibility Coefficient

This is indicated absolutely by the slope of the viscosity temperature plot on a log-log
paper

3 5

3 0

2 5
Viscosity

2 0

1 5

1 0

0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5 3 3 .5

o
Temperature ( C)

B is less temperature susceptible than A

Penetration Index (PI)

A quite widely employed method of identifying temperature susceptibility based on

the rate of change of penetration with temperature over the range of 25 oC to R & B
softening point which corresponds to a penetration of about 800.
 20−PI 50 ( log 800−log Pen )
=
10+ PI T RB−T

o Where TRB = The end Ring and ball softening point temperature
o Pen = Penetration at temperature T
Asphalt with PI less than zero (negative) are considered to be inferior in terms of
temperature susceptibility