SOCIALISM IN EUROPE
AND THE
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
What is Socialism?
An Ideology that treats everyone equal. According to this ideology,
money and property must be divided equally among all the people.
This ideology was opposite to ideology of capitalism.
Russia was the first country that adopted this ideology.
THE AGE OF
SOCIAL CHANGE
Recall the story of French Revolution- The ideas of Liberty,
Equality and
Democratic Rights.
The ideas of French Revolution
People started discussing
created a possibility of change in
the possibility for change.
the society.
But the idea for change varied all over in Europe.
Some wanted gradual change , where as some wanted the
change radically.
So we can say there were different political traditions such as
-
1. Liberals
2. Radicals
3. Conservatives
The different political traditions played a very important role in
influencing change in the history of Europe and world.
Liberals- Upper- Middle Class
Equality among the religions and nation should tolerate all the
religions.
Opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers.
Liberal believed that individual’s rights should be protected against
government.
Argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government.
Supported judiciary which must be well trained and independent.
❖ However, they were not democrats.
Because they did not believe in Universal Adult Franchise and wanted
only men with property should have the right to vote.
They did not support the granting of voting rights to women.
Radicals- Lower- strata Democrats
Wanted a government which must be based on majority.
They supported Women Suffragette movement.
They opposed the privileges of great landowners and wealthy factory
owners.
Because they disliked concentration of property in the few hands.
According to them, it was creating disparity in the society.
Therefore. They wanted radical changes.
Conservatives-
Group of ruling class and person in power who initially opposed the
change (Liberals and Radicals)
But after French Revolution, they were ready for the changes.
Because they understood that the change was inevitable.
Condition- The past had to be respected and the change had to be
brought about through a slow process.
All these differing ideas played an important role in world politics.
Industrial Society and Social Change
Society was changing. (Nineteenth century)
New cities with industries and industrial
Socio- Economic Changes
regions, expanding railways.
Industrial
Industrialisation brought
men, women and children to Revolution
factories.
❖ However industrialisation had brought many problems.
Long working hours and poor wages.
Unemployment during the low demand for industrial goods.
Problem of Housing and Sanitation as towns were growing rapidly.
❖ Liberals and Radicals wanted a change in the society.
Educated and healthy population= Greater profits for them
But they had a problem of old aristocracy and Conservative regime
established in Europe after 1815.
❖ Conservative regimes established after 1815. (connected with the
fall of Napoleon Bonaparte)
Revolutionaries from France, Italy, Germany and Russia worked to
overthrow existing monarchs
▪ They talked of Nations (Nationalist)
▪ Equality among citizens.
▪ Eg. Italian nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini.
The Coming of Socialism in Europe
❖The idea of Socialism-
By mid- nineteenth century the idea of Socialism attracted
widespread attention and those followed this idea came to be
known as Socialist.
❖ Socialists were against private property, they considered private
property as the root cause of all the problems in the society.
❖ Reason- Individuals own private property and workers work under
them.
❖Individuals are concerned with personal gains (profit) only and not
with the welfare of those who made the property production
(workers) .
❖ Therefore, socialists wanted a society as a whole should control the
property.
The idea of Socialism was brought in by a few philosophers-
1. Robert Owen
2. Louis Blanc
3. Karl Marx
4. Friedrich Engels
Ideas of Robert Owen and Louis Blanc
❖ Socialists had a different vision of the future- some believed in the
idea of cooperatives.
❖ Cooperatives- Association of people working together; earning
profit; dividing profit according to the work done.
❖ Sought to build a cooperative
Robert Owen- community ; New Harmony in
Indiana, USA
(1771- 1858) ❖ Through collective individual
initiative.
❖ He supported government
Louis Blanc- encouraged cooperatives to
replace capitalist enterprise.
(1813- 1882) ❖Government should be there to
facilitate cooperatives.
Ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
❖ They added some more arguments in the idea of socialism.
• Industrial Society- ‘Capitalist’
Owners invested capital in factories and profit was produced by the
workers.
• But the profit goes into the hands of owner and condition of
workers would remain same (main motive personal gain and not
the welfare of workers).
❖Therefore, Marx believed that the workers are required to free
themselves from capitalist exploitation. Workers had to construct a
radically socialist society.
❖ How?
By overthrowing rule of private property and controlling the
property socially.
Communist
Society
Support for Socialism
❖ By 1870s, --- Socialist ideas spread through Europe.
Formation of International body - Second International
❖ Similar associations were being formed everywhere in the Europe.
GERMANY-
Social Democratic Party (SPD)
ENGLAND-
Labour Party by 1905
FRANCE-
Socialist Party
These socialist associations fight for-
❖ better living and working conditions.
❖Set up funds to help the members.
❖Demanded a reduction in number of working hours.
❖Right to Vote
❖ However till 1914--- Socialists never succeeded in forming a
government in Europe.
❖ But their ideas did shaped the legislation.
❖ Under the government run by conservatives, liberals and radicals.
The Russian Revolution
KING---- TSAR NICHOLAS II
RUSSIA----- Fall of Monarchy in
February 1917
Socialists took over the
government in Russia through
the October revolution in 1917.
The Russian Empire in 1914
❖ Emperor– Tsar Nicholas II
❖ Russia and is Empire --- Present day Finland,
Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland,
Ukraine and Belarus.
❖ Majority Religion was Russian Orthodox
Christianity -which had grown out of the Greek
Orthodox Church - but the empire also included
Catholics, Protestants, Muslims and Buddhists.
Russian Economy
❖ It was mainly Agriculturalist Economy
❖ 85% population was engaged in agriculture sector.
❖ It was much higher than other European countries.
Industries were found in pockets.
❖ St. Petersburg and Moscow were the major Industrial areas. But
most of the production was carried on by small craftsmen.
❖ 1890s --- Railways Expanded
❖Foreign Investment increased
❖ More industries started setting up in Russia.
❖Coal production doubled and Iron and Steel output quadrupled.
❖ By the 1900s, in some areas factory workers and craftsmen were
almost equal in number
❖ Let us see something about these growing industries.
❖ Most of the industries were private property of Industrialists.
❖ Main motive --- Profit Maximisation
❖ Was the government there to regulate?
❖ Government worked to ensure minimum wages and limited hours of
work.
❖ Often these rules were broken.
❖ Long working hours- 14- 16 hours a day
❖ Accommodation varied from rooms to dormitories.
Russian Society
❖ Workers migrated from village to settle in cities.
❖ They were divided by skills.
For eg. Metal workers considered themselves as aristocrats among
other workers.
❖ Women made up to 31% of the factory labour force by 1914.
❖ But they were paid less than men.
❖ No doubt division was there but workers did unite to strike work.
❖ Against the employers on the dismissals of their demand or work
conditions.
Eg., strikes in textile (1896-97) ; metal industry (1902)
Russian Society in country- side (rural areas)
❖ Peasants cultivated most of the land.
❖ But most of the property was owned by nobility, the crown and
orthodox church.
❖ Like workers peasants were also divided.
Working on own Working as worker
land on others field
❖ Peasants had no respect for nobility.
❖ In Russia , except in few cases , peasants had no respect for nobility.
Unlike as it was observed in French Revolution in Brittany, where
peasants respected nobles and fought for them.
❖ Because Russian peasants wanted the land of nobles.
❖They refused to pay the rent and murdered the nobles.
❖Russian peasants were different from other European peasants in
another way.
❖ Peasants pooled their land together and their commune (mir)
divide the land among peasants according to the needs of the
individuals (idea of Socialism)
Commune- a group of people, not from the same family, who
live together and share their property and responsibilities
Socialism in Russia
❖Before 1914 all political parties were illegal in Russia.
❖Formation of Russian Social Democratic Workers Party in 1898.
(Due to govt policies, it worked secretly as an illegal organisation)
❖Idea of Russian socialist regarding Russian peasants:
Natural Socialist
❖Because of their custom of dividing the land periodically.
❖ It was believed that peasants would be the main force of
revolution.
❖ Thinkers pump the peasants and they secretly formed their own
party, named
Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900
❖ Social Democrats disagreed with Socialist Revolutionaries over the
fact that Russian peasants are Naturally Socialist.
❖ Lenin felt that peasants were not one united group.
❖ Some were rich and some were poor.
❖ Some worked as labourers while others were capitalists who
employed workers.
❖ This ‘differentiation’ within them didn’t allow peasants to be a part
of socialist movement.
Bolsheviks and Mensheviks
Russian Social Democratic Workers Party
Bolsheviks Mensheviks
❖ Majority fraction headed by ❖ Another fraction of the party
Vladimir Lenin. was headed by Julius Martov.
❖ He believed that party should ❖ They believed that the party
be disciplined and should should be open to all (as in
control the number and quality Germany) .
of its members.
A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution
❖ Russia was an autocracy, Tsar was not subjected to Parliament.
❖ Were citizens happy with this?
❖No, Liberals, Social Democrats and Social Revolutionaries wanted to
end this system and demanded a constitution.
❖ They were supported by Nationalists and Jadidists.
❖Jadidists- Muslim reformers in Russian Empire who wanted to modernize Islam.
❖Autocratic rule along with bad economic conditions made the time
more turbulent.
❖ During 1904– prices of essential goods increased = Real wages declined
❖Worker’s membership in workers association rose (Power increased)
❖One day when four members of Assembly of Russian workers were
removed at Putilov Iron works.
❖10,000 workers in St. Petersburg went on strike.
❖Demanding a reduction in working hours to eight hours.
❖ Increase in wages, improvement in working conditions.
Bloody Sunday and 1905 Revolution
❖During the turbulent time when the change was demanded.
❖A procession of workers led by Father Gapon reached the Winter Palace.
❖Procession was attacked by the Police and Cossacks.
❖Over 100 workers were killed and 300 wounded.
❖All this happened on 22nd January, 1905, Day was Sunday
❖Therefore, this whole incident came to be known as Bloody Sunday
❖Strikes all over the country.
❖ Universities were closed down.
❖ Lawyers, doctors, engineers and other middle class workers
demanded constitution.
Impact and Aftermath of 1905 Revolution
❖Under pressure of revolution– Tsar allowed creation of an elected
consultative parliament or Duma.
❖It was a consultative body with quasi- legislative functions.
However within 75 days Duma was dissolved and second Duma was
elected.
After a period of time second Duma was also dissolved and third
Duma was formed.
Third Duma completed the tenure of 5 years because Third Duma
was packed with conservative politicians ; liberals and
revolutionaries were kept out.
What were trade unions and committees doing?
The First World War and the
Russian Empire
Central Powers Allied Powers
France
Germany Britain
Austria Russia
Turkey later Italy and Romania
The war was fought outside Europe as well as in Europe.
❖ Relation between First World war and Russian Empire
Initially war was supported--- means Tsar was supported
Over a period of time, support to Tsar went down.
❖ Reasons-
Tsar refused to consult the main parties in Duma.
Rasputin (a monk who was the adviser to Tsar) made the autocracy
unpopular.
German origin of Tsarina Alexandra
❖War was fought on two fronts:
❖ war on eastern front was
different from that on western
front.
❖ Casualties were more on
eastern front as compared to
western front.
❖ The defeat was shocking and
demoralizing.
❖ The first world war had a great
impact on Russia.
Impact of First World War on Russia
❖ Russia’s army lost badly to Germany and Austria.
❖Leading to large casualties. (7 million casualties by 1917)
❖ As Russian army retreat, there was destruction of crops and
building leading to 3 million refugees in Russia.
❖Soldiers didn’t wish to fight such a war.
❖The war also had a severe impact on industries.
❖German control of Baltic sea.
❖Russia was cut- off from supplies.
❖Leading to Industrial Equipment disintegration.
❖ Impact was severe in Russia.
❖Able- bodied men were forced to participate in the war.
❖Shortage of labour in agriculture and industries.
❖Small workshops producing essential goods were shutdown.
❖Large supplies of grains were sent to feed the army.
❖Bread and flour became scarce leading to riots at bread shops
frequently.
The February Revolution in Petrograd
❖ Layout of the capital city Petrograd.
❖On the left bank were the
fashionable areas, the Winter
Palace and official building,
Duma.
❖The workers quarters and
factories were located on the
right bank of River Neva.
❖Situation in city-
▪ Food Shortage
▪ Bad harvest
▪ Tsar was having a desire to dissolve Duma, and the
parliamentarians were not happy with this.
The February Revolution in Petrograd:
Background
❖22nd February ❖Lockout at a factory ❖Strike by workers
❖Many women also headed the strike.
❖ This day came to be recognised as International Women’s Day.
❖Demonstration reached to the centre of the capital ‘Nevskii Prospekt’
❖As the workers reached there, government imposed curfew.
❖Demonstrators dispersed.
❖Then they again came back on 24th and 25th.
❖Police and cavalry was appointed to keep an eye on them.
How did the revolution broke?
The February Revolution in Petrograd:
Outbreak
❖On 25th February 1917, the government(Tsar) suspended the Duma.
❖Politicians criticised this, Demonstrators returned on the streets on 26 th.
❖On 27th February, Police headquarters were ransacked.
❖ Protest for bread, wages, better hours and democracy.
❖Government called the cavalry to control the situation.
❖But the cavalry refused to fire on the demonstrators.--- Mutiny
❖ Soldiers and striking workers formed ‘soviet or council’.
Petrograd Soviet
❖A delegation went to Tsar.
❖Tsar’s Military Commander advised him to abdicate.
❖He abdicated on 2nd March.
❖After this, Soviet leader and Duma leaders formed a Provisional
Government.
❖Constituent assembly was formed on the basis of Universal adult suffrage.
❖Finally February Revolution had brought down the monarchy.
After February
❖ Dominated by Army officials,
landowners and industrialist.
Provisional ❖ Liberals and socialists also
Government worked towards the elected
government.
❖ Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed.
❖ Soviets like Petrograd soviet were formed everywhere.
❖ In April 1917, the Bolshevik leader Vladmir Lenin returned from exile.
❖ He believed that it was the time for soviet to take over the power.
❖ Vladmir Lenin gave April Theses.
Lenin’s April Theses
❖After returning from exile, Lenin presented three demands which came to
be known as April Theses-
1. War should be brought to an end.
2. Land to be transferred to Peasants.
3. Banks to nationalised.
❖ He also argued to rename Bolshevik party as Communist party.
❖ To indicate its new radical aims (Connect with the idea of Karl Marx)
❖ However many other members of Bolshevik party were initially surprised
by the April Theses.
❖ They thought it was not the right time for socialist revolution; and the
provisional government should be supported.
❖ But the development of subsequent months changed their attitude.
Reasons for October Revolution
❖ Workers movement grew --- Trade unions and factory committees started
questioning the industrialists.
❖ Soldiers committees were formed in the army.
❖ In June, about 500 soviets sent representatives for All Russian Congress of
Soviet.
❖Provisional government was not happy with this.
❖All this was seen as the growing influence of Bolshevik to take power
against provisional government.
❖ To control the growing discontent Provisional Government took the
following steps:
• Controlled workers by arresting their leaders.
• Demonstrations staged by the Bolshevik in July 1917 were Sternly
suppressed.
• Many Bolshevik leaders had to go into hiding or flee.
❖ What was the situation in Country- side?
❖ Peasants and socialist revolutionary leaders pressed for a redistribution
of land.
❖ Land committees were formed.
❖ Peasants seized the land between July and September 1917 .
❖ This all provided a fertile ground for October Revolution. (Revolution by
Bolshevik)
The Revolution of October 1917
❖Conflict between the provisional government and Bolshevik grew and the
attitude of provisional government feared Lenin that they may set up a
dictatorship.
❖ Therefore, with Bolsheviks supporters in army, soviet and factory
workers, Lenin started a planning against provisional government.
❖Lenin persuaded the Petrograd soviet and Bolshevik party to agree to a
socialist seizure of power. (socialist revolution)
❖Appointment of Military Revolutionary Committee under Leon Trotskii to
organise the seizure.
❖The date of uprising was kept a secret.
❖The uprising began on 24th October.
❖Military Revolutionary Committee seize government offices and arrested
ministers.
❖ Ship Aurora shelled the Winter Palace many other vessels sailed took
over military point.
❖By night city was under military control.
What Government had done?
❖ Sensing trouble, Prime Minister Kerenskii summoned troops.
❖ Military men loyal to the government seized the building of two
Bolshevik newspaper.
❖ Telephone and telegraph offices were taken over by pro government.
But all this was of no use.
Bolshevik action was given approval by majority soviet at All Russian
Congress in Petrograd.
There were fights in Moscow---- but by December the Bolshevik
controlled the Moscow Petrograd area.
What changed After October?
❖ Implementation of April theses-
Banks were nationalised by November 1917 (ownership and
management by government)
Peasants took over the land of nobility, as it was declared as social
property.
Large houses were partitioned according to the size of family.
Use of old titles of aristocracy was banned. (equality)
To show the change, new uniforms were designed for the army officials.
Eg. Budenovka hat.
Bolshevik party was renamed as Russian Communist party.
❖Was everything so smooth after October Revolution?
No, there were problems also
Problems After October Revolution
❖ In November 1917, election to Constituent Assembly by Bolsheviks.
❖ But they failed to gain majority support.
❖ In January 1918, Assembly rejected Bolsheviks measures.
❖ Lenin dismissed the assembly.
❖He argued that Assembly was elected in uncertain conditions and Russian
Congress of Soviet was more democratic.
❖Despite opposition, in March 1918 Bolshevik made peace with Germany
at Brest Litovsk.
❖ Over the period of time, Russia became a one party state.
❖ Trade unions were kept under control, secret police (Cheka first, OGPU
and NKVD) punished those who criticized the Bolsheviks.
❖All these steps taken by Bolsheviks was creating tension among the
Russian society.
❖ People (writers and artists) joined and supported Bolshevik because they
stood for the socialism and change.
❖ But many became disillusioned because of the censorship the party
encouraged.
❖ So this attitude of Bolshevik party alone with other factors created a
situation of civil war in Russia.
The Civil War
❖ Changing attitude of Bolshevik Party.
❖ Non- Bolshevik socialist, liberals and supporters of autocracy organised
troops to fight the Bolsheviks.
Reds VS Greens Whites
Socialist Pro- Tsarists
Bolsheviks revolutionaries
❖ Greens and Whites-
• They controlled most of the Russian Empire.
• They were supported by French, American and British to control the
growth of Socialism.
❖ What was the army of Bolsheviks doing?
Army began to disintegrate due to land redistribution.
❖ Due to all these reasons, there was a Civil War, looting, banditry and
famine became common.
❖ Situation during Civil war
White’s- Atrocities on Peasants– Made them unpopular
Bolsheviks- gained support from non Russian nationalist and Muslim
jadidists
At the same time many were confused about the objectives of
Bolsheviks.
❖ To remedy all this, Non Russian nationalist
❖ Incident in Khiva, Central Asia. were given political autonomy in USSR.
❖ Massacring local nationalist in
name of defending socialism. ❖ Still there were some unpopular policies
of Bolsheviks. Eg. Harsh discouragement of
Nomadism
Making of Socialist Society
❖Banks and industries were nationalised, collective work was performed by
peasants on Confiscated land.
❖Centralised Planning was introduced.
❖Five Year Plans: to set target for economy for upcoming five years.
Eg. first two five year plans. (1927-32) and (1933- 38).
❖ The government fixed all prices to promote industrial growth during the
first two plans.
❖Result-
❑ Centralised Planning led to economic growth.
❑ Industrial production increased by 100 percent of oil, coal and steel.
❑ New factory and cities came into being.
❖However there was a dark side to it-
❑ Rapid construction led to poor working condition.
❑ Workers lived hard lives.
❑ Frequent stoppages eg. 550 stoppages of work in the first year alone.
❖Are there any efforts made by government to improve this situation?
❖ Government took following steps to improve the condition-
• An extended schooling system for worker and peasants.
• Crèches were established in factories for children of women workers.
• Cheap public health care was provided.
• Model living quarters were set up for workers.
❖ Although, the effect of all this was uneven, since government resources
were unlimited.
Stalinism and Collectivisation
❖The time period when the Russian Communist Party
Stalinism- was headed by Stalin. His ideas dominated the USSR
and that period came to be known as Stalinism.
Joseph Stalin
Collectivisation-
Combining land of various farmers and then
performing the agricultural activities on a collective
basis.
Reasons for Collectivisation
❖By 1927, Soviet Russia was facing shortage of food. (especially in towns)
❖ To overcome this, government fixed prices at which grain must be sold.
❖ But peasants refused to sell the grains to government at these prices.
❖ Stalin believed that rich peasants (Kulaks) and traders in country side
were holding stocks in the hope of higher prices.
❖ Therefore, Speculation had to be stopped and supplies confiscated.
❖ Grain producing areas were toured by party, supervising enforced grain
collections and raiding kulaks.
❖Despite of all this, shortage continues.
❖Argument was given that small size of land holdings was also a reason for
grain shortage.
❖ Small sized peasants farms could not be modernised – to modernize
farms.
Farms should be run on Industrial lines with machinery.
It was necessary to ‘eliminate Kulaks.’
Large state controlled farms must be established.
❖Were people ready for that-
No, there were many problems in collectivisation programme.
Problems during Collectivisation
❖ From 1929, Peasants were forced to cultivate in (Kolkoz) collective farms
and then profit was shared.
❖ Enraged peasant resisted the authorities and destroy their livestock.
❖ Those who resisted collectivisation were severely punished, many were
deported and exiled.
❖ Russian Peasants = Natural Socialist
❖ Did the situation of food shortage improved after collectivisation?
Answer. No
❖ In spite all the collectivisation, production did not increased immediately.
❖ You cannot win over the nature.
Bad harvest (1930- 1933) – Devastating famines (4 million deaths)
❖ Due to all this, there were criticism of planned economy and
collectivisation.
Such critics were charged with conspiracy against socialism.
Eg. Over 2 million were in prisons or labour camps.
Many were forced to make false confessions.
❖ Then executed (including talented professionals also)
The Global Influence of the
Russian Revolution and the USSR
❖ Not all socialist parties in Europe were on the same position.
❖ The support for socialism was due to the possibilities of a worker’s state.
❖ Many communist parties were formed. Eg. Communist party of Great
Britain.
❖ Bolsheviks also encouraged colonial peoples to follow their experiment.
Conference of people of the East (1920)
Comintern (an international union of Pro- Bolshevik socialist parties)
❖ Education in the USSR’s communist university of the workers of the east.
❖By second world war, USSR had given socialism a global face and a global
stature.
❖However by 1950s it was observed that the style of government in USSR
was not in keeping with the ideals of Russian Revolution.
❖No doubt a backward country had become a great power. It’s industries
and agriculture had developed and poor were being fed.
❖ But it had denied the essential freedoms to its citizens and carried out its
developmental projects through repressive policies.
❖ The international reputation of the USSR as a socialist country had
declined.
❖ However the socialist ideals still enjoyed respect amongst its people.
