## **Introduction**
Turkey, straddling southeastern Europe and western Asia, has served as a bridge between civilizations
for millennia. Its strategic location has made it a cradle of empires and a pivotal player in global politics.
From ancient Anatolian cultures and classical antiquity to the Ottoman Empire and modern republic,
Turkey’s history is a story of continuity, transformation, and resilience. This brief outlines the key
historical phases that have shaped modern Turkey.
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## **1. Ancient Anatolia and Classical Antiquity (c. 7500 BCE – 330 CE)**
Human civilization in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) dates back to the Neolithic period, with early
settlements such as **Çatalhöyük** among the world’s oldest known towns. Throughout antiquity, the
region was inhabited by a variety of cultures including the **Hittites**, **Phrygians**, **Urartians**,
and **Lydians**.
By the 6th century BCE, Anatolia fell under the **Persian Achaemenid Empire**, and later, Alexander
the Great’s conquests spread Hellenistic culture across the region. Subsequently, it became part of the
**Roman Empire**, and later the **Byzantine Empire**, which preserved Greco-Roman traditions and
introduced Christianity as a dominant religion.
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## **2. The Byzantine and Seljuk Periods (330 – 1299)**
The city of **Byzantium** (later **Constantinople**, now Istanbul) became the capital of the Eastern
Roman (Byzantine) Empire in 330 CE under Emperor Constantine. It flourished as a center of Orthodox
Christianity and imperial administration.
In the 11th century, Turkic tribes, particularly the **Seljuk Turks**, migrated into Anatolia. The Seljuks
defeated the Byzantines at the **Battle of Manzikert** in 1071, initiating a steady Turkish expansion
into the region. The **Seljuk Sultanate of Rum** ruled large parts of Anatolia until the rise of Mongol
influence in the late 13th century.
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## **3. The Ottoman Empire (1299 – 1922)**
The **Ottoman Empire**, founded by **Osman I** around 1299, emerged from the fragmented
Anatolian beyliks and expanded rapidly. In **1453**, **Mehmed II** conquered Constantinople,
making it the Ottoman capital and a major center of Islam, culture, and trade.
At its height in the 16th and 17th centuries under rulers like **Suleiman the Magnificent**, the empire
spanned Southeastern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. The Ottomans developed
sophisticated legal, military, and architectural traditions, but by the 19th century, internal decline and
European encroachment weakened the empire.
The 19th and early 20th centuries were marked by reform efforts (Tanzimat), nationalism, and military
defeats. The empire’s involvement in **World War I** on the side of the Central Powers led to its
eventual collapse.
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## **4. The Republic of Turkey (1923 – Present)**
Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, nationalist leader **Mustafa Kemal Atatürk** led the
**Turkish War of Independence** (1919–1922), resulting in the abolition of the sultanate and the
establishment of the **Republic of Turkey** on **October 29, 1923**.
Atatürk implemented sweeping reforms to modernize Turkey: adopting a secular legal system, Latin
alphabet, Western dress codes, and women’s suffrage. His vision of a secular, unitary, and nationalist
state laid the foundation of modern Turkey.
Throughout the 20th century, Turkey experienced periods of military coups (1960, 1971, 1980), political
instability, and economic reform. It joined NATO in 1952 and has pursued EU membership since the
1980s.
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## **5. 21st Century: Politics, Economy, and Regional Influence**
Under the leadership of **Recep Tayyip Erdoğan**, first as prime minister (2003–2014) and then as
president, Turkey has undergone significant political and constitutional changes. In 2017, a referendum
transitioned the country from a parliamentary to a presidential system, concentrating executive power.
Turkey has seen strong economic growth and infrastructure development but also increasing political
polarization, press restrictions, and tension with Western allies. The failed **coup attempt in July
2016** marked a turning point, leading to mass arrests, a state of emergency, and institutional
restructuring.
Regionally, Turkey has played an assertive role in Syria, Libya, and the Eastern Mediterranean,
positioning itself as a key player in Middle Eastern and NATO geopolitics.
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## **Conclusion**
