Physics – Unit 1

1. Physical Quantity
A physical quantity is any quantity that is measurable and understandable but not directly
observable or touchable. These quantities are used in physics to describe natural
phenomena.

Examples include: length, mass, time, speed, acceleration, force, work, pressure etc.

2. Types of Physical Quantities

Physical quantities are broadly classified into:

 i) Fundamental (Base Quantities)

 ii) Derived Quantities

3. Fundamental Quantities
Fundamental quantities are those physical quantities which do not depend upon any other
quantity for their definition. These are independent and form the base for all other derived
quantities.

Quantity SI Unit
Length m
Mass kg
Time s
Amount of Substance mole
Luminous Intensity cd (candela)
Electric Current A (ampere)
Temperature K (kelvin)

4. Derived Quantities
Derived quantities are those which depend on fundamental quantities for their definition.
They are obtained by combining two or more fundamental quantities.

Examples include: speed, density, volume, force, pressure, etc.

5. Definitions of SI Units
1. Metre:

The metre is the length equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the energy levels 2p10 and 5d5 of krypton-86
atom.

2. Kilogram:

The mass of one liter of pure water at 4°C is defined as 1 kg.

3. Second:

The second is defined as 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation corresponding to the transition

between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of cesium-133 atom.

4. Mole:

One mole of substance is equal to 6.022 × 10^23 units of that substance (atoms, molecules,
etc.), also called Avogadro's constant (NA).

5. Candela:

6. Ampere:

The ampere is defined as the constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length and negligible cross-section, placed one meter apart in
vacuum, would produce a force of 2 × 10^-7 newton per meter of length.

7. Kelvin:

6. Units of Derived Quantities

Derived Unit Formula SI Units Symbol Dimension
Formula
Area length × breadth meter² m² L²
Volume length × breadth meter³ m³
L³
× height
Density mass / volume kg / meter³ kg/m³ M·L⁻³
Speed distance / time meter / second m/s L·T⁻¹
Velocity displacement / meter / second m/s
L·T⁻¹
time
Acceleration change in meter / second² m/s²
L·T⁻²
velocity / time
Force mass × kg·meter / kg·m/s²
M·L·T⁻²
acceleration second² = Newton
Momentum mass × velocity kg·meter / second kg·m/s M·L·T⁻¹
Work (energy) force × distance newton·meter = J
M·L²·T⁻²
joule
Pressure force / area newton / meter² Pa (N/m²)
M·L⁻¹·T⁻²
= pascal
Power work / time joule / second = W
M·L²·T⁻³
watt
Impulse force × time newton·second N·s M·L·T⁻¹
 Frequency vibration / hertz Hz
T⁻¹
second
Surface Tension force / length newton / meter N/m M·T⁻²
Viscosity F×t/A×v pascal·second Pa·s M·L⁻¹·T⁻¹
Elasticity stress / strain newton / meter² N/m² M·L⁻¹·T⁻²

In physics, physical quantities are properties of matter or energy that can be measured.
These are broadly classified into two main types:

1. Scalar Quantities

 Definition: Physical quantities that have magnitude only (no direction).

 Examples:

Quantity Unit Example

Mass Kilogram (kg) 5 kg

Temperature Celsius (°C) or Kelvin (K) 25°C

Speed m/s 60 m/s

Time Second (s) 10 seconds

Energy Joule (J) 200 J

Distance Meter (m) 100 m

2. Vector Quantities

 Definition: Physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction.

Quantity Unit Example

Displacement Meter (m) 50 m North

Velocity m/s 20 m/s East

 Quantity Unit Example

Acceleration m/s² 9.8 m/s² downward (gravity)

Force Newton (N) 10 N to the right

Momentum kg·m/s 30 kg·m/s forward

Weight Newton (N) 50 N downward (gravity force)

 Examples:

Key Differences Between Scalar and Vector

Feature Scalar Vector

Direction No Yes

Representation Only magnitude Magnitude + Direction (→)

Example Speed = 60 km/h Velocity = 60 km/h north

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better understanding.

What is a Dimensional Formula?

A dimensional formula expresses a physical quantity in terms of the base quantities (or
fundamental units) from which it is derived. These base quantities are:

 Mass (M)
 Length (L)
 Time (T)
 Electric current (I)
 Thermodynamic temperature (Θ)
 Amount of substance (N)
 Luminous intensity (J)

Each physical quantity can be represented using these fundamental dimensions. The
dimensional formula shows how these base dimensions combine to represent the
physical quantity.
Why Dimensional Formula is Important

1. Checking the correctness of equations (Dimensional Analysis)

2. Converting units
3. Deriving relationships between physical quantities
4. Understanding dependency of one quantity on others

Format of a Dimensional Formula

[M⁰ L¹ T⁻¹]

How to Derive a Dimensional Formula

🌟 Example 1: Velocity (v)

Definition:
v=Displacement Time=LT v = \frac{\text{Displacement}}{\text{Time}} = \frac{L}
{T}v=TimeDisplacement=TL

Dimensional Formula:
Velocity=[L1T−1]\text{Velocity} = [L^1 T^{-1}]Velocity=[L1T−1]

✅ No mass involved, so M0M^0M0.

🌟 Example 2: Acceleration (a)

Definition:
a=Change in velocityTime=LT−1Ta = \frac{\text{Change in velocity}}{\text{Time}} = \
frac{L T^{-1}}{T}a=TimeChange in velocity=TLT−1

Dimensional Formula:
a=[L1T−2]a = [L^1 T^{-2}]a=[L1T−2]

✅ No mass involved, so M0M^0M0.

🌟 Example 3: Force (F)

Formula (from Newton's Second Law):

F=m⋅aF = m \cdot aF=m⋅a
  Mass = [M]
 Acceleration = [L T⁻²]

F=[M][LT−2]=[M1L1T−2]F = [M][L T^{-2}] = [M^1 L^1 T^{-2}]F=[M][LT−2]=[M1L1T−2]

Dimensional Formula:
Force=[M1L1T−2]\text{Force} = [M^1 L^1 T^{-2}]Force=[M1L1T−2]

🌟 Example 4: Work or Energy (W)

Formula:
W=Force×DisplacementW = \text{Force} \times \
text{Displacement}W=Force×Displacement

 Force = [M L T⁻²]
 Displacement = [L]

W=[MLT−2]⋅[L]=[M1L2T−2]W = [M L T^{-2}] \cdot [L] = [M^1 L^2 T^{-

2}]W=[MLT−2]⋅[L]=[M1L2T−2]

Dimensional Formula:
Work or Energy=[M1L2T−2]\text{Work or Energy} = [M^1 L^2 T^{-
2}]Work or Energy=[M1L2T−2]

🌟 Example 5: Pressure (P)

Formula:
P=ForceAreaP = \frac{\text{Force}}{\text{Area}}P=AreaForce

 Force = [M L T⁻²]
 Area = [L²]

P=[MLT−2][L2]=[M1L−1T−2]P = \frac{[M L T^{-2}]}{[L^2]} = [M^1 L^{-1} T^{-2}]P=[L2]

[MLT−2]=[M1L−1T−2]

Dimensional Formula:
Pressure=[M1L−1T−2]\text{Pressure} = [M^1 L^{-1} T^{-2}]Pressure=[M1L−1T−2]
🌟 Example 6: Power (P)

Formula:
P=WorkTimeP = \frac{\text{Work}}{\text{Time}}P=TimeWork

 Work = [M L² T⁻²]
 Time = [T]

P=[ML2T−2][T]=[M1L2T−3]P = \frac{[M L^2 T^{-2}]}{[T]} = [M^1 L^2 T^{-3}]P=[T]

[ML2T−2]=[M1L2T−3]

Dimensional Formula:
Power=[M1L2T−3]\text{Power} = [M^1 L^2 T^{-3}]Power=[M1L2T−3]

Let’s take force as an example.

We know:

Force=Mass×Acceleration\text{Force} = \text{Mass} \times \text{Acceleration}

 Mass = [M]
 Acceleration = [L T⁻²]

So:

Force=[M][LT−2]=[M1L1T−2]\text{Force} = [M][L T^{-2}] = [M^1 L^1 T^{-2}]

Examples of Dimensional Formulas

Quantity Dimensional Formula

Velocity [M⁰ L¹ T⁻¹]

Acceleration [M⁰ L¹ T⁻²]

Force (F = ma) [M¹ L¹ T⁻²]

Work/Energy (F × d) [M¹ L² T⁻²]

Pressure (F/A) [M¹ L⁻¹ T⁻²]

Power (Energy/time) [M¹ L² T⁻³]

 Quantity Dimensional Formula

Electric Charge (I × t) [I¹ T¹]

Electric Potential (Work/Charge) [M¹ L² T⁻³ I⁻¹]

Dimensional Homogeneity

An equation is dimensionally homogeneous if all terms have the same dimensional

formula.

Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

 Cannot give dimensionless constants (like π, ½)

 Cannot distinguish between vector and scalar quantities
 Only applies to quantities with physical dimensions

The interconversion of units between MKS (SI) and CGS systems involves converting
quantities from the Meter-Kilogram-Second system (MKS or SI units) to the
Centimeter-Gram-Second system (CGS units), and vice versa. Here's a guide to help
you with common physical quantities:

✅ Basic Unit Conversions

Quantity SI (MKS) Unit CGS Unit Conversion

Length meter (m) centimeter (cm) 1 m = 100 cm

Mass kilogram (kg) gram (g) 1 kg = 1000 g

Time second (s) second (s) 1 s = 1 s (same)

✅ Derived Quantity Conversions
Quantity SI Unit (MKS) CGS Unit Conversion

Velocity m/s cm/s 1 m/s = 100 cm/s

Acceleration m/s² cm/s² 1 m/s² = 100 cm/s²

Force newton (N) = kg·m/s² dyne = g·cm/s² 1 N = 10⁵ dyne

Work/Energy joule (J) = N·m erg = dyne·cm 1 J = 10⁷ erg

Power watt (W) = J/s erg/s 1 W = 10⁷ erg/s

Pressure pascal (Pa) = N/m² barye (Ba) = dyne/cm² 1 Pa = 10 Ba

Electric Charge coulomb (C) statcoulomb (esu of charge) 1 C ≈ 3 × 10⁹ statC

Electric Field V/m statV/cm 1 V/m ≈ 300 statV/cm

Magnetic Field tesla (T) gauss (G) 1 T = 10⁴ G

Units and Measurements

10. Conversion of Units

➤ Convert Density from MKS to CGS:

Density (ρ) = Mass / Volume

In MKS: ρ = kg/m³

In CGS: ρ = g/cm³

Conversion:

1 kg = 1000 g

1 m = 100 cm → 1 m³ = (100 cm)³ = 10⁶ cm³

So, 1 kg/m³ = (1000 g) / (10⁶ cm³) = 10⁻³ g/cm³

➤ Convert Work from MKS to CGS:

Work = Force × Distance = Newton × meter

1 N = 1 kg·m/s²

So:

1 N·m = (kg·m/s²) × m = kg·m²/s²

Conversion to CGS:

1 kg = 1000 g, 1 m = 100 cm

= 1000 g × (100 cm)² / s²

= 10⁷ g·cm²/s² = 10⁷ dyne·cm = 10⁷ erg

• Interconversion of units – MKS to cgs and vice versa:

1. Convert MKS units of area into cgs unit

o Area = length × length = L × L = L²
o In MKS system, unit of length is metre, and in cgs system, unit of length
is centimetre

1 m=100 cm1 \, m = 100 \, cm

MKS → cgs

(1 m)2=(100 cm)2=(102)2 (cm)2=104 cm2(1\, m)^2 = (100 \, cm)^2 = (10^2)^2 \,

(cm)^2 = 10^4 \, cm^2

2. Convert MKS units of volume into cgs unit

o Volume = length × length × length = L × L × L = L³
o In MKS system, unit of length is metre, and in cgs system, unit of length
is centimetre

1 m=100 cm1 \, m = 100 \, cm

MKS → cgs

(1 m)3=(100 cm)3=(102)3 (cm)3=106 cm3(1 \, m)^3 = (100 \, cm)^3 = (10^2)^3 \,

(cm)^3 = 10^6 \, cm^3

3. Convert MKS units of density into cgs unit

o Unit of mass in MKS and cgs systems is kg and gm respectively
 1 m3=106 cm31 \, m^3 = 10^6 \, cm^3

Density = massvolume\frac{mass}{volume}
MKS → cgs

kgm3=103 g106 cm3=10−3 gcm3\frac{kg}{m^3} = \frac{10^3 \, g}{10^6 \, cm^3} =

10^{-3} \, \frac{g}{cm^3}

4. Acceleration due to gravity g=9.8 ms2g = 9.8 \, \frac{m}{s^2}

cms2\frac{cm}{s^2} 9.8 ms2=9.8 100 cms2=980 cms29.8 \, \frac{m}{s^2} = 9.8 \, \

frac{100 \, cm}{s^2} = 980 \, \frac{cm}{s^2}

5. Convert MKS units of force into cgs unit

o Unit of force in MKS and cgs system is N and dyne respectively

N=kg⋅ms2,dyne=g⋅cms2N = \frac{kg \cdot m}{s^2}, \quad dyne = \frac{g \cdot cm}

{s^2}

o Force = mass × acceleration

MKS → cgs

1 N=kg⋅ms2=103 g⋅102 cms2=105 g⋅cms21 \, N = \frac{kg \cdot m}{s^2} = \

frac{10^3 \, g \cdot 10^2 \, cm}{s^2} = 10^5 \, \frac{g \cdot cm}{s^2} 1 N=105
dyne1 \, N = 10^5 \, dyne

6. Conversion of speed units

36 kmh=…ms\frac{36 \, km}{h} = \dots \frac{m}{s} 36 kmh=36×1000 m60×60

s=36×10003600 m/s=10 ms\frac{36 \, km}{h} = \frac{36 \times 1000 \, m}{60 \
times 60 \, s} = \frac{36 \times 1000}{3600} \, m/s = 10 \, \frac{m}{s}

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7. SI Prefixes
Factor Name Symbol
10¹ deca da
10² hecto h
10³ kilo k
10⁶ mega M
10⁹ giga G
10¹² tera T
10¹⁵ peta P
10¹⁸ exa E
10²¹ zetta Z
10²⁴ yotta Y
10⁻¹ deci d
10⁻² centi c
10⁻³ milli m
10⁻⁶ micro μ
10⁻⁹ nano n
10⁻¹² pico p
10⁻¹⁵ femto f
10⁻¹⁸ atto a
10⁻²¹ zepto z
10⁻²⁴ yocto y

7. Vernier Caliper
A Vernier caliper is a precision instrument used to measure internal and external
dimensions, as well as depths, with great accuracy.

A vernier caliper is used to measure:

 External dimensions (e.g. length, diameter)

 Internal dimensions (e.g. inner diameter of a pipe)
 Depth of an object
 Part Name Description Use
Used to measure external
Two larger jaws (one fixed,
Outside Jaws dimensions like length, width, or
one movable).
diameter.
Used to measure internal
Inside Jaws Two smaller jaws at the top. dimensions like the diameter of a
hole.
Thin rod protruding from the Used to measure depth of holes,
Depth Rod (or Blade)
end of the caliper. slots, or steps.
The long-fixed scale on the
Main Scale body, graduated in cm/mm or Provides the main reading.
inches.
A smaller movable scale that Provides the fractional (precise)
Vernier Scale
slides over the main scale. reading to improve accuracy.
Small screw on the sliding Locks the movable part to hold
Lock Screw / Clamp
part. the measurement in place.
Thumb Screw / Fine A small wheel or knob below Used to finely adjust the jaws for
Adjustment Screw the jaws. accurate reading.
The main structure connecting
Body / Beam Supports the scales and jaws.
all parts.

3. Measurement Formula:

Total Reading=Main Scale Reading (MSR)+Vernier Scale Reading (VSR)×Least Count (LC)

Example:

If MSR = 2.2 cm, Vernier division that matches = 4, and Least Count = 0.01 cm,
Then Actual Reading = 2.2 + (4 × 0.01) = 2.24 cm

4.Least Count (LC) Formula:

The least count of a Vernier caliper is the smallest value that can be measured using the
instrument. It is calculated using the formula:

Least Count (LC)=Value of 1 main scale division−Value of 1 vernier scale division

Or

Number of divisions on vernier scale

LC=
Smallest division on main scale
 5.Zero Error

Zero error occurs when the zero on the Vernier scale does not coincide with the zero on the
main scale when the jaws are completely closed.

 Types of Zero Error:

1. Positive Zero Error – Vernier zero is ahead of main scale zero. This means the
instrument reads more than zero even when it should read zero.
Correction can be done by Subtract the zero error from the final reading.
Correct reading=Observed Reading−Positive zero error

2. Negative Zero Error – Vernier zero is behind the main scale zero. This means the
instrument reads less than zero — a negative error.
Correction can be done by Add the zero error to the final reading.
Correct reading=Observed reading Negative zero error

12. Micrometer Screw Gauge

A micrometer screw gauge is a precision measuring instrument used to measure small

dimensions with high accuracy — typically in the range of 0.01 mm (10 microns). It is
widely used in mechanical engineering and metalworking to measure the diameter or
thickness of small objects.
 Part Name Description Use
Holds the anvil and barrel rigidly
Frame C-shaped metallic body.
in place. Provides support.
Small fixed cylinder on one end of Object to be measured is placed
Anvil
the frame. against it.
Movable cylindrical rod opposite Moves toward or away from the
Spindle
the anvil. anvil to hold the object.
Lock Nut / Locks the spindle in place after
Lever or nut near the thimble.
Locking Lever measurement.
Fixed cylindrical part marked with
Sleeve (Barrel) Main scale is read from here.
main scale (in mm or inches).
Allows precise movement of the
Rotating part attached to the
Thimble spindle and provides fractional
spindle, with a circular scale.
readings.
Knob at the end of the thimble,
Ensures uniform pressure is
Ratchet Stop usually clicks when spindle touches
applied while measuring.
the object.
Scale (Main & Markings on the sleeve and thimble Used to read the exact
Circular) (main scale and circular scale). measurement value.
Least Count (LC) = Pitch Distance / Total number of divisions on circular scale

Reading = MSR + (LC × CSD) where CSD is the Circular Scale Division matching the reference
line

 Error Conditions:
 • If zero is above the base line → Negative error (–VE)
 • If zero is below the base line → Positive error (+VE)

Formula: Correct Reading = MSR + (LC × CSD) ± Zero Error

As shown in the figure to determine the value of a positive error:

 Determine which division of the circular scale (starting from zero) is aligned with
the baseline.
 As shown in the figure, the 2nd division on the circular scale is aligned with the
baseline of the main scale.

Positive Error=2×Least Count=2×0.01mm=0.02mm=0.002cm

Hence, correction = -0.002 cm

As shown in the figure To determine the value of a negative error:

  Determine which division of the circular scale (starting from zero) is aligned with
the baseline.
 As shown in the figure, the 3rd division on the circular scale is aligned with the
baseline of the main scale.

Negative Error=−3×Least Count=−3×0.01mm=−0.03mm=−0.003cm

Hence, correction = +0.003 cm

Examples of Vernier calipers and Micrometer screw gauge

1. The main scale of a Vernier caliper is calibrated in millimeters. if 19

divisions of the main scale are equal to 20 divisions of the Vernier scale,
what is it`s Least count ?
Solution:
19
20 division of Vernier scale = 19 Divisions of Main scale ∴ 1 VSD = 20
MSD
Now, Least count = [1 MSD – 1 VSD]
19
= 1 mm −¿ 20 mm
1
= 20 mm
= 0.05 mm (0.005 cm & 5× 10−5 m
2. The LC of a micrometer screw gauge is 5 × 10−6m. If there are 100
divisions in its circular scale, find the pitch of the device.
Solution:
Pitch
For a micrometer screw, LC = Total Divisions on circular scale

Pitch = LC × Total CSD

= 5× 10−6 × 100

= 5× 10−4m

3. Holding a rod between the two jaws of the Vernier calipers, the zero
mark of Vernier caliper lies between 10.3 and 10.4 cm on main scale. If
the 15th division of the Vernier scale matches any main scale division,
find the length of the rod. There is 20 divisions on the Vernier scale and
the main scale is calibrated in millimeters.
Solution:
M
For Vernier calipers, LC = n

1mm
= 20

= 0.05mm (0.005cm & 5× 10−5 m )

Main scale Reading = 10.3 cm.

Vernier scale Reading = Vernier scale coinciding mark × LC

= 15 × 0.005

= 0.075 cm

Length of the rod = MSR + VSR

= 10.3 + 0.075

= 10.375 cm

4. When a tiny iron sphere is held in a micrometer screw, it is observed that

the edge of the edge of the circular scale lies between 7 and 8 mm of the
main scale and the 65th division of the circular scale coincides with the
 horizontal line of the main scale. Find the diameter of the sphere if the
patch is 1 mm and has a total of 100 circular scale divisions.
Solution:
Pitch
For a micrometer screw, LC = Total Divisions on circular scale

1mm
= 100

= 0.01 mm (0.001 cm )

Main scale Reading = 7 mm = 0.7 cm

Circular scale Reading = [ Circular scale coinciding mark × LC ]

= 65 × 0.001

= 0.065 cm

Diameter of the sphere = MSR + CSR

= 0.7 + 0.065

= 0.765 cm

5. Calculate the least count of a micrometer screw gauge with ½ mm pitch

and 100 divisions on its circular scale.
Solution:
Pitch
For a micrometer screw, LC = Total Divisions on circular scale
1/2
= 100
0.5
= 100

= 0.005 mm ( 5× 10−4 c m)

6. Find the area of the thin glass plate when the following observations of
its length and width were made by Vernier Calipers.
1) On the main scale, 1 cm = 10 divisions.
 2) 20 divisions of the main scale equal to 19 divisions of the Vernier
scale.
3) There is a Negative error of 2 divisions.
4) Length: the zero mark of the Vernier Scale is between 2.7 and 2.8 on
the main scale; and the 14 th division of the Vernier scale coincides
with any division of the main scale.
5) Width: the zero mark of the Vernier Scale sets between 1.2 and 1.3 on
the main scale; and the 6th division of the Vernier scale coincides with
any division of the main scale.
Solution:
1 MSD
For Vernier calipers, LC = Total number of VSD

1
= 20
= 0.05 mm (0.005 cm)
Negative Error = Coinciding Mark × LC
= −¿(2×0.005)
= −¿0.01 cm;
Correction of error = +0.01 cm
Length = 2.7 + (14 × 0.005)
= 2.7 + 0.07
= 2.77 cm.
Correction length = 2.77 + 0.01 = 2.78 cm
Width = 1.2 + (6 × 0.005)
= 1.2 + 0.03
= 1.23 cm
Correction width = 1.23 + 0.01 = 1.24 cm
Area of the glass plate = L × B
= 2.78 × 1.24
= 3.4472 cm2
7. LC of the micrometer screw is 0.001 cm. when a tiny metal sphere is
hold between its two ends, the main scale reading is observed between
1.3 cm and 1.4 cm by the edge of its circular scale; and the 60 th division
of the circular scale coincides with the horizontal line of the main scale.
Find the diameter and volume of the metal sphere. This error is zero.
 Solution:
LC = 0.001 cm & Error = 0

Circular scale Reading = [ Circular scale coinciding mark × LC ]

= 60 × 0.001
= 0.06 cm
Diameter of the metallic sphere = [main scale reading] + [circular scale reading] ± Error

= 1.3 + 0.06 cm

= 1.36 cm
D
Radius = 2

1.36
= 2

= 0.68 cm
4
Volume of the sphere V = 3 π r3

( )
4 22
= 3 7 (0.68)3

= 1.317 cm3

8. Calculate the volume of the cube based on the following observations:

1. The smallest division on the main scale = 1.0 mm
2. The number of division on the Vernier = 10
3. The 2nd division of the Vernier coincides with the zero on the main
scale.
4. Observations of cubes – 1.50 cm on the main scale; and the 7 th
Vernier division coincides with on the main scale.
Solution:
smallest division onthe main scale
LC = Total number of division onthe vernier scale
 1.0
= 10 mm

= 0.1mm ( 0.01 cm)

Error Type = Positive Error

Error = 2 × 0.01 cm = 0.02 cm; & Correction of Error = −¿0.02 cm

Length = [Main scale reading] + [Vernier scale reading] ± Error

= [1.50] + [7 × 0.01] – 0.02

= 1.5 + 0.07 −¿ 0.02 = 1.55 cm

Volume of the cube = L3 = (1.55)3 = 3.72 cm3

Accuracy and Precision:

 Accuracy = Correctness

 Precision = Consistency

Accuracy How close a measured value is to the true or actual value.

How close the measured values are to each other, regardless of the true
Precision
value.

Feature Accuracy Precision

Closeness of repeated measurements
Definition Closeness to the actual/true value
to each other
Target Hitting the correct value Getting consistent results
Error Type
Affected by systematic errors Affected by random errors
Affected
One measurement close to actual Many similar measurements (even if
Indicator
value incorrect)
Required For Correctness Repeatability
Example Measuring 100.1 cm for an actual Measuring 99.8, 99.9, 99.8, 99.9 cm
 Feature Accuracy Precision
100 cm object repeatedly

Types of Errors

Measurement is the foundation of all experimental science and technology.

The measuring process is essentially a process of comparison.
To measure any physical quantity, we compare it with a standard (unit) of that quantity.
No measurement is perfect, as the errors involved in the process cannot be removed
completely.
Hence, in spite of our best efforts, the measured value of a quantity is always somewhat
different from its actual or true value.

Error of Measurement

Types of Errors in Measurement

🔹 Definition

The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is called
an error of measurement.

Errors in measurement can be broadly classified as:

 Systematic Errors
 Random Errors

📘 1. Systematic Errors

Errors that occur consistently in one direction (either always high or always low).

🔹 Causes:

1. Instrumental Errors:
o Faulty or poorly calibrated instruments.
o Example: Worn-out meter scale.
2. Procedural Errors:
o Imperfections in experimental methods.
o Example: Taking body temperature under the armpit.
3. Personal Errors:
o Observer’s mistakes or carelessness.
 oExample: Reading scale without proper eye alignment.
4. External Factors:
o Environmental influences like temperature, humidity, pressure.

✅ Minimization of Systematic Errors:

 Use calibrated instruments.

 Improve experimental techniques.
 Take necessary corrections.

📙 2. Random Errors

Errors that occur unpredictably due to uncontrollable factors.

🔹 Causes:

 Fluctuations in temperature, voltage, vibrations, etc.

✅ Minimization of Random Errors:

 Repeat measurements multiple times.

 Take the average (mean) of all readings.

Estimation of Errors
(a) Absolute Error
The difference between the true value and the measured value of a physical quantity. When
the true value is unknown, the average of multiple readings is taken as the true value.

Let:
- a₁, a₂, a₃, ..., aₙ be the measured values
- ā = (a₁ + a₂ + ... + aₙ) / n is the average (true) value
- Absolute error for each reading = Δaᵢ = |aᵢ - ā|
(b) Mean Absolute Error
Defined as the average of all absolute errors.
Formula:
( Σ| Δaᵢ|)
Mean Absolute Error (Δaₘₑₐₙ) =
n

(c) Relative Error

Ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value.

Formula:
Relative Error = Δaₘₑₐₙ / ā

(d) Percentage Error

Relative error expressed as a percentage.
Formula:
Percentage Error = (Δaₘₑₐₙ / ā) × 100%

Example

The reflexive index of a glass is measured to be 1.36, 1.29, 1.33, 1.34, 1.35,
1.31 and 1.34 in different attempts of an experiment. Find the average
refractive index and calculate the mean absolute error, relative error and
percentage error.
Solution:
(1.36+1.29+ 1.33+1.34+1.35+1.32+1.31+1.34 )
Average refractive index n =
8
10.34
= 8
= 1.33
Absolut error for each observation are given below:
∆ n1 = 1.33 – 1.36 = −¿0.03
∆ n2 = 1.33 – 1.29 = 0.04
∆ n3 = 1.33 – 1.33 = 0.0
∆ n4 = 1.33 – 1.34 = −¿0.01
∆ n5 = 1.33 – 1.35 = 0.02
∆ n6 = 1.33 – 1.32 = 0.01
∆ n7 = 1.33 – 1.31 = 0.02
 ∆ n8 = 1.33 – 1.34 = −¿0.01

|∆ n 1|+|∆ n 2|+|∆ n 3|+|∆ n 4|+|∆ n 5|+|∆ n 6|+|∆ n 7|+|∆ n 8|

∆n =
8
0.03+0.04+ 0.0+0.01+0.02+ 0.01+ 0.02+ 0.01
= 8
0.14
= 8
= 0.0175
∆n
Relative Error = δ n = n
0.0175
= 1.33
δ n = 0.01315
Percentage Error = δ n × 100
= 0.01315 × 100
= 1.3%

Combination of Errors

1. Sum or Difference
Let x = a ± b,
and errors in a and b are Δa and Δb:
Δx = Δ a + Δ b

Maximum absolute error is the sum of individual absolute errors.

2. Product or Division
Let x = a × b or x = a / b:
Then relative error is:
Δx / x = Δ a / a + Δ b / b

3. Power of a Quantity
If x = aⁿ, then:
Δx / x = n × (Δa / a)

So, larger powers amplify the measurement error.

Example

EX:1 In an experiment two capacitors measured are (1.3 ±0.1) μF and (2.4±
0.2) μF . Calculate the total capacity in parallel with percentage error.

Solution:- Here C1 = (1.3±0.1) μF & C2 = (2.4±0.2) μF

In parallel Cp = C1 + C2

=1.3 + 2.4

=3.7 μF
∆ Cp = ± (∆ C1 + ∆ C2)

= ± (0.1 + 0.2)

=±0.3
0.3
Percentage error = ± 3.7 × 100

= ± 8.1 %

Hence, Cp = (3.7 ± 0.3) μF ±8.1%

EX:2 The lengths of two cylinders are measured to be l 1=(5.62 ± 0.01) cm

and l2 = (4.34 ± 0.02) cm. Calculate difference in lengths with error limits.

Solution:- Here l1= (5.62 ± 0.01) cm

l2 = (4.34 ± 0.02) cm

l = l 1 – l2

= 5.62 – 4.34

= 1.28 cm
 ∆ r = ± (∆ l1 + ∆ l2)

= (0.01 + 0.02)

= ± 0.03
0.03
Percentage error = ± 1.28 × 100

= ± 2.34 %

Hence, difference in length = (1.28 ± 0.03) = 1.28 cm & 2.34 %

EX:3 The length of a rectangular lamina are measured to be (2.3 ± 0.2) cm

and (1.6 ± 0.1) cm. Calculate area of lamina with error limits.

Solution:- Here l = (2.3 ± 0.2) cm & b = (1.6 ± 0.1) cm.

A = l× b

= 2.3 × 1.6

= `3.86 cm2
∆A
A
∆l
( ) ( )
∆b
=± l + b

( 0.2
= ± 2.3 + 1.6
0.1
)
0.55
= ± 3.68

0.55
∆A = ± ×A
3.68

0.55
= ± 3.68 ×3.68

= ± 0.55 ∴ A = (3.68 ± 0.55) cm2

 2 l
EX:4 Calculate percentage error in the determination of g = 4 π 2 when l and
l
t are measured with ± 2 % and ± 3 % errors respectively.
2 l
Solution:- Here g = 4 π 2
l

∆g
∴ × 100
g

= ( ∆gg × 100+2 ∆t t × 100)

= ± (2 ± 2 × 3) %

=±8%

Rounding Off Rules

1.19 Rounding Off
The result of computation with approximate numbers, which contain more than one
uncertain digit, should be rounded. The following rules are used by convention when
rounding off measurements:

Rule 1: If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the preceding digit remains unchanged.
Example: 7.82 → 7.8, 3.94 → 3.9

Rule 2: If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, the preceding digit is increased by one.
Example: 6.87 → 6.9, 12.78 → 12.8

Rule 3: If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, the preceding digit
is raised by one.
Example: 16.351 → 16.4, 6.758 → 6.8

Rule 4: If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, and the preceding digit is even,
it remains unchanged.
Example: 3.250 → 3.2, 12.650 → 12.6
Rule 5: If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, and the preceding digit is odd,
it is increased by one.
Example: 3.750 → 3.8, 16.150 → 16.2

Examples

Carry out the following addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division

applying the rules of significant figures and represent after rounded –off:
a) 1.457+83.2 b) 0.0367 – 0.004322 c) 4.36 ×0.00013 d) 12.300 ÷
0.0230
Solution:
1.457
a) +83.2 After rounded off 84.7
84.657

0.0367
b) −0.004322 After rounded off 0.0324
0.032378

4.36
c) × 0.00013 After rounded off 0.00057
0.0005668

12300
d) 0.0230 After rounded off 535
¿ 534.78261

Rules for Significant Figures

Rule 1: All non-zero digits are significant.

Example: 1234 has 4 significant figures, 189 has 3.

Rule 2: All zeros occurring between two non-zero digits are significant.
Example: 1007 has 4; 1.0809 has 5.
Rule 3: Zeros to the right of decimal and left of first non-zero digit are not significant.
Example: 0.005704 has 4 significant figures (the zeros before 5 are not significant).

Rule 4: In numbers without a decimal point, trailing zeros are not significant.
Example: 3210 has 3 significant figures.

Rule 5: In numbers with a decimal point, trailing zeros are significant.

Example: 3.500 has 4; 0.0069000 has 5.

Rule 6: Change of units does not change the number of significant figures.
Example: 5.608 cm = 56.08 mm = 0.05608 m = 0.00005608 km = 56080 μm — all have
4 significant figures.

Rule 7: Zero on the left of a decimal for numbers less than 1 is never significant.
Example: 9.3570 has 4 significant figures (zero is not significant).

Rule 8: Exact numbers (like constants or counts) have infinite significant figures.
Example: In diameter d=2rd = 2rd=2r, the factor 2 is exact and has infinite significant
figures.

Examples:

9. Write down n number of significant figures/ digits in the following :

Solution:

Number Significant Number Significant Number Significant

digits digits digits
48956 5 0.0003 1 0.1270 4
3.531 4 8.3000 5 0.02030 4
6.007 4 9.1× 10−31 2 9.23× 10−31 3

10.Obtain the total surface area and volume of a cube having 7.206 m length
of its one side, considering significant figures.
Solution:
For a cube, L = 7.206m , where significant digits = 4
Total area = 6L2
= 6(7.206)2
= 311.5586 m3
Volume of the cube = L3
 = (7.206)3
= 374.1819 m3
= 374.2 m3
Here, we have rounded off the answers up to 4 significant digits.