EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

UNIT-I
Performance characteristics of Instruments & DC and AC Meters
Performance characteristics of instruments: Static characteristics - Accuracy, Resolution,
Precision, Expected value, Error, Sensitivity. Dynamic Characteristics - speed of response,
Fidelity, Lag, and Dynamic error.
Types of Errors in Measurement and their analysis
Design of DC Voltmeters - Multi-range, Range extension
Design of AC voltmeters - Multi range, range extension, shunt.
Ohmmeters: series type and shunt type using D’ Arsonval movement
True rms meter

Concept-1: To understand the Static characteristics of instruments

Concept-2: To understand the Dynamic characteristics of instruments
Concept-3: To understand and analyze the Errors in Measurement
Concept-4: To understand and analyze the PMMC movement
Concept-5: To understand and evaluate the DC voltmeters and their range extension
Concept-6: To understand and evaluate the AC voltmeters and their range extension
Concept-7: To understand the True rms meter
Concept-8: To understand and evaluate the series type and shunt type Ohmmeters and their
range extension

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Electronic Instrumentation, 2nd Edition – H. S. Kalsi, Tata McGraw Hill, 2004.
2. Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques – A.D. Helfrick and
W.D. Cooper, PHI, 5th Edition, 2002.

1. 1. 0. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS

Instrument: A device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.

Measurement: The process of determining the amount, degree, or capacity by comparison
(direct or indirect) with the accepted standards of the system units being used.

Knowledge of the performance characteristics of an instrument is essential for selecting the

most suitable instrument for specific measuring jobs.
It consists of two basic characteristics; static and dynamic.

1. 1. 1. STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
The static characteristics of an instrument are considered for instruments that are used to
measure an unvarying process condition.
All the static performance characteristics are obtained by a process called calibration.
These are stated below:

a. Accuracy: Closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of
the variable being measured.
b. Resolution: The smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument will
respond.
c. Precision: A measure of the reproducibility of the measurements; i.e., given a fixed
value of a variable, precision is a measure of the degree to which successive
measurements differ from one another.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 1 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

d. Expected value: The design value, i.e., the most probable value that calculations
indicate one should expect to measure,
e. Error: The deviation of the true value from the desired value. Deviation from the
true value of the measured variable.
f. Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output (response) of the instrument to a change
of input or measured variable.

1. 1. 1. 0. ACCURACY Vs PRECISION
Accuracy refers to the degree of closeness or conformity to the true value of the quantity
under measurement. Precision refers to the degree of agreement within a group of
measurements or instruments.

To illustrate the distinction between accuracy and precision, two voltmeters of the same make
and model may be compared. They may therefore be read to the same precision. If the value
of the series resistance in one meter changes considerably, its readings may be in error by a
fairly large amount. Therefore, the accuracy of the two meters may be quite different.
Precision is composed of two characteristics: conformity and the number of significant
figures to which a measurement may be made.

For example, a resistor, whose true resistance is 1,384,572 Ω, is measured by an ohmmeter

which consistently and repeatedly indicates 1.4 MΩ. But we can’t read the true value from
the scale. We estimate from the scale reading a value of 1.4 MΩ. This is as close to the true
value as we can read the scale by estimation. Although there are no deviations from the
observed value, the error created by the limitation of the scale reading is a precision error.

The above example illustrates that conformity is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for
precision because of the lack of significant figures obtained. Similarly, precision is a
necessary, but not sufficient, condition for accuracy.

1. 1. 1. 1. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
An indication of the precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant
figures in which the result is expressed. Significant figures convey actual information
regarding the magnitude and the measurement precision of a quantity.
The more significant figures, the greater the precision of measurement.

For example, if a resistor is having a resistance of 68 Ω, its resistance should be closer to 68

Ω than to 67 Ω or 69 Ω. If the value of the resistor is described as 68.0 Ω, it means that its
resistance is closer to 68.0 Ω than it is to 67.9 Ω or 68.1 Ω. In 68 Ω there are two significant
figures; in 68.0 Ω there are three. The latter, with more significant figures, expresses a
measurement of greater precision than the former.

Example for the distinction of ACCURACY Vs PRECISION

The below example gives the best distinction between Accuracy and Precision:
Consider the game of Bull’s Eye (Bullseye) or Archery in which the darts or arrows are to be
aimed at the target, i.e., at the center.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 2 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

The figure shows the hits of darts or arrows by

four different people.
The Hits are compared with an instrument’s
consecutive readings.
The Hits at the center (Bullseye/target) are said to
be “Good Accuracy and Good Precision”.
The Hits that are away from the center and are
close is said to be “Poor Accuracy and Good
Precision”.
The Hits that are randomly hit in the second
concentric circle are said to be “Good Accuracy
and Poor Precision”.
The Hits that are randomly hit all around are said
to be “Poor Accuracy and Poor Precision”.

1. 1. 2. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Practically, instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes in the measured variables.
They exhibit slowness or sluggishness due to such things as mass, thermal capacitance, fluid
capacitance, or electric capacitance.
In addition to this, pure delay in time is often encountered where the instrument waits for
some reaction to take place.

The dynamic behaviour of an instrument is determined by subjecting its primary clement

(sensing clement) to some unknown and predetermined variations in the measured quantity.
The three most common variations in the measured quantity are as follows:
1. Step change, in which the primary element is subjected to an instantaneous and finite
change in the measured variable.
2. Linear change, in which the primary element is following a measured variable,
changes linearly with time.
3. Sinusoidal change, in which the primary element follows a measured variable, the
magnitude of which changes by a sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.

The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are (i) speed of response, (ii) fidelity, (iii) lag,
and (iv) dynamic error.

(i) Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes
in the measured quantity.

(ii) Fidelity: It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the
measured variable without dynamic error (faithful reproduction)

(iii) Lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the
measured variable.

(iv) Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the true value of a quantity changing
with time and the value indicated by the instrument, if no static error is assumed.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 3 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Performance characteristics of instruments:

Static characteristics, Accuracy, Resolution, Precision, Expected value, Error,
Sensitivity.
1. Define the following terms: [R20 Reg S2 Jan 2023 7M]
(i) Linearity (ii) Sensitivity (iii) Repeatability (iv) Accuracy
2. Define and explain any five static characteristics of an instrument.
[R19 Sup Jan 2023 7M]
3. Explain the following terms in detail:
(i) Accuracy (ii) Resolution (iii) Precision (iv) Expected value [8]
4. What are different static performance characteristics of an instrument? Discuss. [8]
5. What is the significance of the number of significant figures in a stated quantity?
Give some examples. [8]
6. Define the terms Precision and Resolution of an instrument. [4]
7. Define the terms Accuracy and Resolution. [3]
8. Distinguish between accuracy and precision. [3]
9. Define sensitivity and precision of an instrument. [3]
10. What is the difference between accuracy and precision? [2]
11. Define any two static characteristics. [2]

Dynamic Characteristics - speed of response, Fidelity, Lag, and Dynamic error.

1. Explain the static and dynamic characteristics of measuring instruments.
[R20 Reg S1 Jan 2023 7M]
2. Describe the static and dynamic characteristics of measuring instruments.
[R19 Reg Feb 2022 8M]
3. What are the dynamic characteristics of measurement systems? Explain.
[R20 Reg S3 Jan 2023 7M] [R20 Reg S4 Jan 2023 7M]
4. What are the different standard inputs for inputs for studying the dynamic response
of a system? Define and sketch them. [R19 Sup Jan 2023 7M]
5. Explain about the dynamic response of a second order instrument.
[R20 Sup Jul 2023 7M]
6. Explain about the Lag and dynamic error. [7]
7. Define the following:
(i) Response (ii) Fidelity (iii) Lag (iv) Dynamic error [8]
8. Explain the following terms in detail:
(i) speed of response (ii) Fidelity (iii) Lag and Dynamic error. [8]
9. Define Fidelity and Lag. [2]
10. What are the dynamic characteristics of measurement systems? Explain. [8]
11. Compare static and dynamic characteristics of measurement systems. [4]

1. 2. 0. ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity with an accepted standard
quantity.

No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy, but it is important to find out what the
accuracy is and how different errors have entered into the measurement.
Some factors that affect the measurements are related to the measuring instruments
themselves.
Other factors are related to the person using the instrument.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 4 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

The degree to which a measurement nears the expected value is expressed in terms of the
error of measurement.
The error may be expressed either as absolute or as a percentage of error.

The accuracy and precision of measurements depend not only on the quality of the measuring
instrument but also on the person using it.
However, whatever the quality of the instrument and the case exercised by the user, there is
always some error present in the measurement of physical quantities.

1. 2. 1. TYPES OF STATIC ERROR

The static error of a measuring instrument is the numerical difference between the true value
of a quantity and its value as obtained by measurement, i.e., repeated measurement of the
same quantity gives different indications.

Static errors are categorized as gross errors or human errors, systematic errors, and random
errors.
STATIC ERRORS

Gross/Human Errors Systematic Errors Random Errors

Instrumental Errors

Environmental Errors

Observational Errors

1. 2. 1. 1. Gross errors: largely human errors, among them, misreading of instruments,

incorrect adjustment and improper application of instruments, and computational mistakes.
These errors are mainly due to human mistakes in reading or in using instruments or errors in
recording observations.
Errors may also due to incorrect adjustment of instruments and computational mistakes.
The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible, but one can minimize them. Some
errors are easily detected while others may be elusive.
One of the basic gross errors that occur frequently is the improper use of an instrument. The
error can be minimized by taking proper care in reading and recording the measurement
parameter

Ex.: Errors caused by the loading effect of the voltmeter can be avoided by using it
intelligently.

A large number of gross errors can be attributed to carelessness or bad habits, such as the
improper reading of an instrument, recording the result that differs from the actual reading
taken, or adjusting the instrument incorrectly.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 5 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

A gross error may also occur when the instrument is not set to zero before the measurement is
taken; then all the readings are off.

1. 2. 1. 2. Systematic Errors
These errors occur due to shortcomings of the instrument, such as defective or worn parts, or
aging, or effects of the environment on the instrument or the user
These errors are sometimes referred to as bias, and they influence all measurements of a
quantity alike. A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a
systematic error.
There are three types of systematic errors – (i) Instrumental, (ii) Environmental, and (iii)
Observational.

(i) Instrumental Errors

Instrumental errors are inherent in measuring instruments, because of their mechanical
structure.
For example, in the d’Arsonval movement, friction in the bearings of various moving
components, irregular spring tensions, stretching of the spring, or reduction in tension due to
improper handling or overloading of the instrument will result in errors.
Other instrumental errors are calibration errors, causing the instrument to read high or low
along its entire scale. (Failure to set the instrument to zero before making a measurement has
a similar effect.)

Instrumental errors can be avoided by

(a) selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement applications
(b) applying correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental error.
(c) calibrating the instrument against a standard.

(ii) Environmental Errors

Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device, including
conditions in the area surrounding the instrument, such as the effects of change in
temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, or of magnetic or electrostatic fields.

These errors can also be avoided by (i) air conditioning, (ii) hermetically sealing certain
components in the instruments, and (iii) using magnetic shields.

Corrective measures to reduce these effects include air conditioning, hermetically sealing
certain components in the instrument, use of magnetic shields, and the like.

(iii) Observational Errors

Observational errors are errors introduced by the observer.
The most common error is the parallax error introduced in reading a meter scale, and the
error of estimation when obtaining a reading from a meter scale.
These errors are caused by the habits of individual observers. For example, an observer may
always introduce an error by consistently holding his head too far to the left while reading a
needle and scale reading.

In general, systematic errors can also be subdivided into static and dynamic errors. Static
errors are caused by limitations of the measuring device or the physical laws governing its
behaviour.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 6 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Systematic Errors

Static Errors

Dynamic Errors

Dynamic errors are caused by the instrument not responding fast enough to follow the
changes in a measured variable.

1. 2. 1. 3. Random errors:
These are due to causes that cannot be directly established because of random variations in
the parameter or the system of measurement.
These are errors that remain after gross and systematic errors have been substantially reduced
or at least accounted for.

Random errors are generally an accumulation of a large number of small effects and may be
of real concern only in measurements requiring a high degree of accuracy. Such errors can
be analyzed statistically.

These errors are due to unknown causes, not determinable in the ordinary process of making
measurements. Such errors are normally small and follow the laws of probability. Random
errors can thus be treated mathematically.

1. 2. 2. SOURCES OF ERROR
The sources of error, other than the inability of a piece of hardware to provide a true
measurement, are as follows:
1. Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions
2. Poor design
3. Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets, etc.
4. Poor maintenance
5. Errors caused by the person operating the instrument or equipment
6. Certain design limitations

1. 2. 3. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The statistical analysis of measurement data is important because it allows an analytical
determination of the uncertainty of the final test result.
To make statistical analysis meaningful, a large number of measurements is usually required,
Systematic errors should be small compared to random errors, because statistical analysis of
data cannot remove a fixed bias contained in all measurements.
Arithmetic Mean
The most probable value of a measured variable is the arithmetic mean of the number of
readings taken. The best approximation is possible when the number of readings of the same
quantity is very large. The arithmetic mean of n measurements at a specific count of the
variables is given by the expression
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛=1 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑥̅ = = (1)
𝑛𝑛 th 𝑛𝑛
where 𝑥𝑥̅ = Arithmetic mean 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = n reading taken, and n = total number of readings

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 7 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Deviation from the Mean

This is the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings. If
the deviation of the first reading, 𝑥𝑥1 is called 𝑑𝑑1 and that of the second reading 𝑥𝑥2 is called
𝑑𝑑2 , and so on,
The deviations from the mean can be expressed as
𝑑𝑑1 = 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑥̅ , 𝑑𝑑2 = 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥̅ , … … … , 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 − 𝑥𝑥̅ (2)
The deviation may be positive or negative. The algebraic sum of all the deviations must be
zero.

Average Deviations
The average deviation is an indication of the precision of the instrument used in
measurement, Average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of the deviation
divided by the number of readings. The absolute value of the deviation is the value without
respect to the sign.
The average deviation may be expressed as

|𝑑𝑑1 | + |𝑑𝑑2 | + |𝑑𝑑3 | + ⋯ + |𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 | ∑𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛=1|𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 |

𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = (3)
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
where 𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = average deviation
|𝑑𝑑1 |, |𝑑𝑑2 |, |𝑑𝑑3 |, … , |𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 | = Absolute value of deviations
and n = total number of readings
Highly precise instruments yield a low average deviation between readings,

Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of an infinite number of data is the Square root of the sum of all the
individual deviations squared, divided by the number of readings. It may be expressed as
𝑑𝑑12 + 𝑑𝑑22 + 𝑑𝑑32 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛2 ∑ 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖2
𝜎𝜎 = � = � (4)
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
where 𝜎𝜎= standard deviation

The standard deviation is also known as root mean square deviation and is the most important
factor in the statistical analysis of measurement data. Reduction in this quantity effectively
means an improvement in measurement.
For small readings (n < 30), the denominator is frequently expressed as (𝑛𝑛 − 1) to obtain a
more accurate value for the standard deviation.
In practice, of course, the possible number of observations is finite.

The standard deviation of a finite number of data is given by

𝑑𝑑12 + 𝑑𝑑22 + 𝑑𝑑32 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛2 ∑ 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛2

𝜎𝜎 = � =� (5)
𝑛𝑛 − 1 𝑛𝑛 − 1

Another expression for essentially the same quantity is the variance or mean square deviation,
which is the same as the standard deviation except that the square root is not extracted.

Therefore
variance (V) = mean square deviation = 𝜎𝜎 2

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 8 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

The variance is a convenient quantity to use in many computations because variances are
additive. The standard deviation, however, has the advantage of being of the same units as the
variable, making it easy to compare magnitudes. Most scientific results are now stated in
terms of standard deviation.

1. 2. 4. Limiting Errors
Most manufacturers of measuring instruments specify accuracy within a certain % of full-
scale reading. For example, the manufacturer of a certain voltmeter may specify the
instrument to be accurate within ± 2% with full-scale deflection. This specification is called
the limiting error. This means that a full-scale deflection reading is guaranteed to be within
the limits of 2% of a perfectly accurate reading; however, with a reading less than full scale,
the limiting error increases.

Ex. A 600 V voltmeter is specified to be accurate within ± 2% at full scale. Calculate the
limiting error when the instrument is used to measure a voltage of 250 V.
Solution
The magnitude of the limiting error is 0.02 × 600 = 12 V.
Therefore, the limiting error for 250 V is (12/250) × 100 = 4.8%

Errors in Measurement
1. List out the different types of errors in measurements and discuss them in detail.
[R20 Reg S1 Jan 2023 7M]
2. Explain in detail the different types of errors in measuring instruments.
[R19 Sup Jul 2022 8M]
3. Give the classification of errors and explain them. [R20 Reg S4 Jan 2023 7M]
4. By using a micrometer screw, the following readings were taken of a certain length:
1.34, 1.38, 1.56, 1.47, 1.42, 1.44, 1.53, 1.48, 1.40, and 1.59 mm. Formulate the
necessary equations and calculate the following:
i) Arithmetic mean
ii) Average deviation
iii) Standard deviation and
iv) Variance
[R20 Reg S1 Jan 2023 7M] [R19 Reg Feb 2022 8M]
5. What are the different types of errors in measurement? Explain. [8]
6. What are the different types of errors in measurement? Explain briefly. [7]
7. Explain the procedure how to find Errors in Measurement with example. [4]
8. Define and derive static and Dynamic error. [4]
9. What is dynamic error? Plot it with respect to time delay. [3]
10. What are the possibilities of errors in PMMC ammeter? [4]
11. The following values are obtained from the measurements of the value of a
resistor: 147.2 Ω, 147.4 Ω, 147.9 Ω, 147.1 Ω, 147.5 Ω, 147.6 Ω, 147.4 Ω, 147.6 Ω,
147.5 Ω.
Calculate (a) Arithmetic mean (b) Average deviation (c) Standard Deviation [8]

Similar Example:

Ex.1. Ten measurements of the resistance of a resistor gave 101.2 Ω, 101.7 Ω, 101.3 Ω, 101.0
Ω, 101.5 Ω, 101.3 Ω, 101.2 Ω, 101.4 Ω, 101.3 Ω, and 101.1 Ω.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 9 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Assume that only random errors are present. Calculate (a) the arithmetic mean; (b) the
standard deviation of the readings; (c) the probable error.
Solution
With a large number of readings, a simple tabulation of data is very convenient and avoids
confusion and mistakes.
� 𝑥𝑥 �|𝑑𝑑| � 𝑑𝑑 2
Deviation
Reading, x = 1013.0 = 1.4 = 0.36
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 2
101.2 -0.1 0.01
101.7 0.4 0.16 (a) Arithmetic mean,
101.3 0.0 0.00 ∑ 𝑥𝑥 1013.0
𝑥𝑥̅ = = = 101.3 Ω
101.0 -0.3 0.09 𝑛𝑛 10
101.5 0.2 0.04 (b) Standard deviation,
101.3 0.0 0.00 ∑ 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛2 0.36
101.2 -0.1 0.01 𝜎𝜎 = � =� = 0.2 Ω
𝑛𝑛 − 1 9
101.4 0.1 0.01
l01.3 0.0 0.00 (c) Probable error,
101.1 -0.2 0.04 𝑟𝑟 = ±0.6745𝜎𝜎 = 0.6745 × 0.2
= 0.1349 Ω

Ex. 2. A set of independent current measurements was taken by six observers and recorded as
12.8 mA, 12.2 mA, 12.5 mA, 13.1 mA, 12.9 mA, and 12.4 mA.
Calculate (a) the arithmetic mean; (b) the deviations from the mean, and (c) Average
deviation
Solution
(a) The arithmetic mean is given by
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 12.8 + 12.2 + 12.5 + 13.1 + 12.9 + 12.4
𝑥𝑥̅ = = = 12.65 mA
𝑛𝑛 6

(b) The deviations are calculated as

𝑑𝑑1 = 12.8 − 12.65 = 0.15 mA

𝑑𝑑2 = 12.2 − 12.65 = −0.45 mA
𝑑𝑑3 = 12.5 − 12.65 = −0.15 mA
𝑑𝑑4 = 13.1 − 12.65 = 0.45 mA
𝑑𝑑5 = 12.9 − 12.65 = 0.25 mA
𝑑𝑑6 = 12.4 − 12.65 = −0.25 mA

Note that the algebraic sum of all the deviations equals zero.

(c)The Average deviation is given by

|𝑑𝑑1 | + |𝑑𝑑2 | + |𝑑𝑑3 | + ⋯ + |𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 |
𝐷𝐷 =
𝑛𝑛
0.15 + 0.45 + 0.15 + 0.45 + 0.25 + 0.25
𝐷𝐷 = = 0.283 mA
6

12. A set of independent current measurements were recorded as 10.03, 10.10, 10.11 and
10.08 A. Calculate the range of an error. [4]

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 10 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Similar Example:
Ex. A set of independent voltage measurements taken by four observers was recorded as
117.02 V, 117.11 V, 117.08 V, and 117.03 V. Calculate (a) the average voltage; (b) the range
of error.

Solution
𝐸𝐸 +𝐸𝐸 +𝐸𝐸 +𝐸𝐸 117.02+117.11+117.08+117.03
(a) 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 1 2 𝑁𝑁 3 4 = 4
= 117.06 V

(b) Range = 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 117.11 − 117.06 = 0.05 V

but also
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 117.06 − 117.02 = 1.04 𝑉𝑉

The average range of error therefore equals

0.05 + 0.04
= ±0.05 V
2

1. 3. 0. PMMC or D’ ARSONVAL MOVEMENT

The figure shows the permanent-magnet moving-coil mechanism (PMMC), a modified
version of the Galvanometer. This was invented by d’ Arsonval. After his name, this
instrument is known as the d’ Arsonval
movement.

We have a coil, suspended in the magnetic field

of a permanent magnet, this time in the shape of
a horseshoe. The coil is suspended so that it can
rotate freely in the magnetic field. When current
flows in the coil, the developed electromagnetic
(EM) torque causes the coil to rotate.

The EM torque is counter­balanced by the

mechanical torque of control springs attached to
the movable coil. The balance of torques, and
therefore the angular position of the movable
coil, is indicated by a pointer against a fixed
reference, called a scale.

The equation for the developed torque, derived from the basic law for electromagnetic torque,
is
𝑇𝑇 = 𝐵𝐵 × 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐼𝐼 × 𝑁𝑁 (1)

where T = torque [newton-meter (N-m)]

B = flux density in the air gap [Webers/square meter (tesla)]
A = effective coil area [square meters (𝑚𝑚2 )]
I = current in the movable coil [amperes (A)]
N = turns of wire on the coil

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 11 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Equation (1) shows that the developed torque is directly proportional to the flux density of
the field in which, the coil rotates, the current in the coil, and the coil constants (area and
turns). Since both flux density and coil area are fixed parameters for a given instrument, the
developed torque is a direct indication of the current in the coil.
This torque causes the pointer to deflect to a steady-state position where it is balanced by the
opposing control-spring torque.

The motion of a moving coil in a magnetic field is characterized by three quantities:

(a) The moment of inertia (J) of the moving coil about its axis of rotation
(b) The opposing torque (S) developed by the coil suspension
(c) The damping constant (D)

𝑑𝑑2 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇 = 𝐽𝐽
2
+ 𝐷𝐷 + 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The PMMC movement is almost the basic movement for all the Ammeters, Voltmeters, and
Ohmmeters.

1. 3. 1. AMMETERS
An ammeter (ampere meter) is a measuring instrument used to measure the current in
a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name.
The ammeter is usually connected in series with the circuit in which the current is to be
measured (the flow of current within the series circuit is the same.). An ammeter usually has
low resistance so that it does not cause a significant voltage drop in the circuit being
measured.
Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the
milliampere or microampere range, are designated
as milliammeters or microammeters. It is generally
represented by the letter 'A' in a circle.
The main principle of an ammeter is that it must
have very low resistance and also inductive reactance.
The basic movement is the PMMC movement. For extending the range, a low-value shunt
resistance is usually connected.
For an ideal ammeter, it must have zero impedance so that it has zero voltage drop across it
so the power loss in the instrument is zero. But the ideal is not achievable practically.

1. 3. 1. 1. Classification or Types of Ammeter

Depending on the type of measurement:
1. DC Ammeter and 2. AC Ammeter.

Depending on the constructing principle:

1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) ammeter.
2. Electrodynamometer type Ammeter.
3. Moving Iron (MI) Ammeter.
4. Rectifier type Ammeter.
5. Hotwire
6. Digital
7. Integrating
8. Rectifier and
9. Thermocouple

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 12 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Moving Coil
Used to measure both AC & DC. (AC measurement is after converting the same to DC).
This device uses magnetic deflection where the flow of current through a coil will make it
move within the magnetic field. The coil in this device moves freely moves between
permanent magnet poles.

Electrodynamic
This type of ammeter includes a moving coil to rotate in the generated field through a fixed
coil. The main function of this device is to measure AC & DC with an accuracy of 0.1 to
0.25%. The accuracy of this device is high when compared with the moving coil &
permanent magnet moving coil. The device calibration is the same for AC & DC.

Moving-iron
This type of ammeter is used to calculate alternating currents & voltages. In this device, the
movable system includes specially created soft iron pieces, which move as acted upon
through the electromagnetic force of a fixed coil of wire. These types of devices are classified
into two types like repulsion and attraction. This device includes different components like
moving elements, coil, control, damping & reflective torque.

Hot Wire
This is used to measure AC or DC by transmitting it through a wire to make the wire heated
and expand is known as a hot wire. The working principle of this device is to increase the
wire by providing heat effect from the current supply through it. This is used for both AC &
DC.

Digital Ammeter
This type of device is used to measure the flow of current in amperes & displays the values
on a digital display. The designing of this device can be done by using a shunt resistor to
generate a calibrated voltage that is proportional to the flow of current.

Integrating
In this device, the flow of current is summed over time and gives the product of time &
current. These devices calculate the whole energy supplied through the circuit in a specified
interval of time. The best example of this integrating device is the watt-hour meter as it
measures the energy directly in watt-hour.

Applications:
• Laboratories
• Industries
• used to measure the current flow in the buildings to ensure that the flow is not too low
or too high.
• used in manufacturing and instrumentation companies to check the functionality of
the devices
• used with a thermocouple to check the temperature.
• to check the faults of the circuits in the building by electricians.
Direct-current ammeters are commercially available in a large number of ranges, from 20 µA
to 50 A full-scale for a self-contained meter and to 500 A for a meter with an external shunt.
Laboratory-type precision ammeters are provided with a calibration chart, so that the user
may correct his readings for any scale errors.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 13 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

1. 3. 2. DC AMMETERS
The PMMC galvanometer constitutes the basic
movement of a dc ammeter. Since the coil winding of a
basic movement is small and light it can carry only
very small currents. When large currents are to be
measured, it is necessary to bypass a major part of the
current through a resistance called a shunt, as shown in
Fig. Fig. Basic dc Ammeter

The resistance of the shunt can be calculated using conventional circuit analysis.
Referring to Fig.,
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = internal resistance of the movement.
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠ℎ = shunt current
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = full-scale deflection current of the movement
𝐼𝐼 = full-scale current of the ammeter + shunt (i.e., total current)
Since the shunt resistance is in parallel with the meter movement drop across the shunt and
movement must be the same.
Therefore 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠ℎ = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
∴ 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠ℎ 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 ⇒ 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ =
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠ℎ
But, 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠ℎ = 𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
Hence,
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ =
𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
For each required value of full-scale meter current, we can determine the value of shunt
resistance.

Ex. A 1 mA meter movement with an internal resistance of 100 Ω is to be converted into a 0

– 100 mA. Calculate the value of shunt resistance required.
Solution
Given 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 100 Ω, 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 1 mA and 𝐼𝐼 = 100 mA
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 1 mA × 100 Ω 100 mAΩ
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ = = = = 1.01 Ω
𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 (100 − 1)mA 99 mA

1. 3. 2. 1. SHUNT RESISTANCE
The shunt resistance used with a basic movement may consist of a length of constant
temperature resistance wire within the case of the instrument. Alternatively, there may be an
external (manganin or constantan) shunt having very low resistance.
The general requirements of a shunt are as follows:
1. The temperature coefficients of the shunt and instrument should be low and nearly
identical.
2. The resistance of the shunt should not vary with time.
3. It should carry the current without excessive temperature rise.
4. It should have a low thermal emf.

Manganin is usually used as a shunt for the instruments, since it gives a low value of thermal
emf with copper.
Constantan is a useful material for ac circuits, since it's comparatively high thermal emf,
being unidirectional, is ineffective on these circuits.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 14 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Shunts for low currents are enclosed in the meter casing, while for currents above 200 A, they
are mounted separately.

Ex. A 100 µA meter movement with an internal resistance of 500 Ω is to be used in a 0 – 100
mA Ammeter. Find the value of the required shunt.
Solution
The shunt can also be determined by considering current I to be 'n' times larger than 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 . This
is called a multiplying factor and relates the total current and meter current.
Therefore, 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑛𝑛𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
Therefore, the equation for
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ = = = =
𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 − 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 (𝑛𝑛 − 1) (𝑛𝑛 − 1)
Given:
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 100 μA and𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 500 Ω

𝐼𝐼 100 mA
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑛𝑛𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 ⇒ 𝑛𝑛 = = = 1000
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 100 μA
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 500 Ω 500 Ω
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ = = = = 0.50 Ω
(𝑛𝑛 − 1) (1000 − 1) 999

1. 3. 3. MULTI RANGE AMMETERS

The current range of the dc ammeter may be further extended by a number of shunts, selected
by a range switch. Such a meter is called a multirange ammeter, shown in below Fig.

The circuit has four shunts 𝑅𝑅1 , 𝑅𝑅2 , 𝑅𝑅3 , and 𝑅𝑅4 which can be
placed in parallel with the movement to give four different
current ranges. Switch S is a multiposition switch, (having
low contact resistance and high current carrying capacity,
since its contacts are in series with low resistance shunts).
Make before break type switch is used for range changing.
This switch protects the meter movement from being
damaged without a shunt during range changing.
Fig. Multirange ammeter

If we use an ordinary switch for range changing, the meter does not have any shunt in parallel
while the range is being changed, and hence full current passes through the meter movement,
damaging the movement.

Hence a make before break type switch is used. The switch is so designed that when the
switch position is changed, it makes contact with the next terminal (range) before breaking
contact with the previous terminal. Therefore, the meter movement is never left unprotected.
Multirange ammeters are used for ranges up to 50 A.

When using a multirange ammeter, first use the highest current range, then decrease the range
until a good upscale reading is obtained. The resistances used for the various ranges are of
very high precision values, hence the cost of the meter increases.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 15 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Ex. A 1 mA meter movement having an internal resistance of 100 Ω is used to convert into a
multirange ammeter having the range 0 – 10 mA, 0 – 20 mA, and 0 – 50 mA. Determine the
value of the shunt resistance required.

Solution Given𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 1 mA and 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 100 Ω

Case 1: For the range 0 – 10 mA

𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 1 mA × 100 Ω 100 Ω
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ1 = = = = 11.11 Ω
𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 10 mA − 1 mA 9

Case 2: For the range 0 – 20 mA

𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 1 mA × 100 Ω 100 Ω
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ1 = = = = 5.2 Ω
𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 20 mA − 1 mA 19

Case 3: For the range 0 – 50 mA

𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 1 mA × 100 Ω 100 Ω
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ1 = = = = 2.041 Ω
𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 50 mA − 1 mA 49

1. 3. 3. 1. THE AYRTON SHUNT or UNIVERSAL SHUNT

The Ayrton shunt eliminates the possibility of having the meter in the circuit without a shunt.
This advantage is gained at the price of slightly higher overall resistance.

Fig. shows a circuit of an Ayrton shunt ammeter. In

this circuit, when the switch is in position "1",
resistance Ra is in parallel with the series combination
of Rb, Rc, and the meter movement. Hence the current
through the shunt is more than the current through the
meter movement, thereby protecting the meter
movement and reducing its sensitivity.
If the switch is connected to position "2", resistance Ra
and Rb are together in parallel with the series
combination of Rc and the meter movement. Now the
current through the meter is more than the current
through the shunt resistance. Fig. Ayrton shunt

If the switch is connected to position "3" Ra, Rb and Rcare together in parallel with the meter.
Hence maximum current flows through the meter movement and very little through the shunt.
This increases the sensitivity.

Ex. 1. Design an Ayrton shunt to provide an ammeter

with a current range of 0 – 1 mA, 10 mA, 50 mA, and
100 mA. A d’ Arsonval movement with an internal
resistance of 100 Ω and a full-scale current of 50 µA is
used.

Solution
Given 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 50 μA and 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 100 Ω

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 16 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

For the range 0 – 1 mA

𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠ℎ 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚

∴ 950 μA (𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 ) = 50 μA × 100 Ω

50 μA × 100 Ω 5000 Ω
⇒ 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 = = = 5.26 Ω (1)
950 μA 950
For 0 – 10 mA
9950 μA (𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 ) = 50 μA. (100 + 𝑅𝑅4 ) Ω (2)
For 0 – 50 mA
49950 μA (𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 ) = 50 μA. (100 + 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 ) Ω (3)
For 0 – 100 mA
99950 μA (𝑅𝑅1 ) = 50 μA. (100 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 ) Ω (4)
But 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 = 5.26 − 𝑅𝑅4

Substituting in Eq. (2),

9950μA. (5.26 − 𝑅𝑅4 ) = 50 μA. (100 + 𝑅𝑅4 )

⇒ 9950μA × 5.26 − (9950𝑅𝑅4 ) = 5000μA + 50𝑅𝑅4

⇒ (9950 × 5.26 − 5000)μA = 9950𝑅𝑅4 + 50𝑅𝑅4 = 10000𝑅𝑅4

(9950 × 5.26 − 5000)μA

⇒ 𝑅𝑅4 = = 4.737 Ω
10mA

Substituting for 𝑅𝑅4 = 4.74 Ω in Eq. (1) we get

𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 = 5.26 − 4.74 Ω = 0.52 Ω ⇒ 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 = 0.52 − 𝑅𝑅3

Substituting in Eq. (3), we have

49950 µA (0.52 − 𝑅𝑅3 ) = 50 µA (𝑅𝑅3 + 4.74 + 100)

⇒ 49950 µA × 0.52 − 49950 µ𝐴𝐴 × 𝑅𝑅3 = 50 µA × 𝑅𝑅3 + 50 µA × 104.74

⇒ 49950 µA × 0.52 − 50 µA × 104.74 = 49950 µA × 𝑅𝑅3 + 50 µA × 𝑅𝑅3

(20737)µA
⇒ (20737)µA = 50000𝑅𝑅3 ⇒ 𝑅𝑅3 = = 0.4147 = 0.42 Ω
50000µA
But 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 = 0.52 − 𝑅𝑅3
∴ 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 = 0.52 − 0.4147 = 0.10526 or 𝑅𝑅2 = 0.10526 − 𝑅𝑅1 (5)

Therefore, From Eq. (4)

99950 μA (𝑅𝑅1 ) = 50 μA. (100 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 )Ω

But 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 = 5.26 − 𝑅𝑅1 from Eq (1)

Substituting in Eq. (4)

99950 μA (𝑅𝑅1 ) = 50 μA. (100 + 5.26 − 𝑅𝑅1 )

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 17 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

50 × 105.26
⇒ 99950 μA (𝑅𝑅1 ) + 50 μA(𝑅𝑅1 ) = 50 μA. (105.26) ⇒ 𝑅𝑅1 = = 0.05263 Ω
100000
Therefore, from Eq. (5), we have
𝑅𝑅2 = 0.10526 − 𝑅𝑅1 ⇒ 0.10526 − 0.05263 = 0.05263Ω
Hence the values of shunts are
𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅2 = 0.05263 Ω, 𝑅𝑅3 = 0.4147 Ω, and 𝑅𝑅4 = 4.737 Ω

Ex. 2 Calculate the value of the shunt resistors for the circuit shown below.

Solution
The total shunt resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ is determined by
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ1 = (𝑛𝑛−1) where 𝑛𝑛 = 𝐼𝐼
𝑚𝑚

Given 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 100 µA and 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 1000 Ω

For 10 mA range:
𝐼𝐼 10 mA
𝑛𝑛 = = = 100
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 100 μA

𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 1000 Ω 1000 Ω

𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ1 = = = = 10.1 Ω
(𝑛𝑛 − 1) (100 − 1) 99
When the meter is set on the 100-mA range, the resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 and 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 provides the shunt.
The shunt can be found from the equation

𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 (𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 + 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ1 ) 100 μA(1000 + 10.1)

𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ2 = 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 + 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 = = = 1.01 Ω
𝐼𝐼 100 mA

The resistor which provides the shunt resistance on the 1A range can be found from the
equation
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 (𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 + 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ1 ) 100 μA(1000 + 10.1)
𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 = = = 0.101 Ω
𝐼𝐼 1000 mA

But
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 + 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 = 1.01 Ω
⇒ 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 = 1.01 − 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 = 1.01 − 0.101 = 0.909 Ω

Resistor 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 is found by

𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 = 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ − (𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 + 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 ) = 10.1 − (0.909 + 0.101) = 10.1 − 1.01 = 9.09 Ω
Hence
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 = 9.09 Ω, 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 = 0.909 Ω, 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 = 0.101 Ω

1. 3. 3. 2. REQUIREMENTS OF A SHUNT
The type of material that should be used to join the shunts should have two main properties.
1. Minimum Thermo Dielectric Voltage Drop: Soldering of joint should not cause a
voltage drop.

2. Solderability: Resistance of different sizes and values must be soldered with

minimum change in value.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 18 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

1. 3. 3. 3. Precautions while using Ammeter

The following precautions should be observed when using an ammeter for measurement:
1. Never connect an ammeter across a source of emf. Because of its low resistance, it
would draw a high current and destroy the movement. Always connect an ammeter in
series with a load, capable of limiting the current.
2. Observe the correct polarity. Reverse polarity causes the meter to deflect against the
mechanical stopper, which may damage the pointer.
3. When using a multirange meter, first use the highest current range, then decrease the
current range until substantial deflection is obtained. To increase the accuracy, use the
range that will give a reading as near full-scale as possible.
4.

1. 4. 0. VOLTMETERS
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the electric potential difference between
two points in an electric circuit. It is connected in parallel. It usually has high resistance so
that it takes negligible current from the circuit.
Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage measured;
digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog-to-digital
converter.
It works on the principle that the torque is generated by the current which induces because of
measure and voltage and this torque deflects the pointer of the instrument.
Symbolic Representation of voltmeter
The voltmeter is represented by the alphabet V inside
the circle along with the two terminals.

1. 4. 1. Types of Voltmeter
Based on the construction, the voltmeter is of the following types:

Voltmeters Analog Voltmeter

Classification based on o/p or display

Digital Voltmeter

DC Voltmeter
Classification based on measurement or signal

AC Voltmeter

PMMC

Classification based on the principle of operation Moving Iron

Attraction Electrodynamometer

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONICRepulsion Induction

MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION
Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 19 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

The PMMC voltmeter uses for DC measurement.

It works on the principle that the current-carrying conductor, placed in the magnetic field, and
because of the current the force acting on the conductor. The current induces in the PMMC
instrument because of the measurand voltage, and this current deflects the pointer of the
meter.
The accuracy of the instrument is very high and having low power consumption. The only
disadvantage of the instrument is that it is very costly. The range of the PMMC voltmeter
increases by connecting the resistance in series with it.

MI Voltmeter
The MI instrument means moving iron instrument. This instrument uses for the measurement
of AC voltages. In this type of instrument, the deflection is directly proportional to the
voltage of the coil.

The moving iron instrument is classified into two types.

• Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument
• Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instrument

Electro-dynamometer Voltmeter
The electro-dynamometer voltmeter is used for measuring the voltage of both AC and DC
circuits. In this type of instrument, the calibration is the same both for the AC and DC
measurements.

Rectifier voltmeter
This type of instrument is used in AC circuits for voltage measurement. The rectifier
instrument converts the AC quantity into the DC quantity with the help of the rectifier. And
then the DC signal is measured by the PMMC instrument.

The following are the classification of instruments regarding the displays of output reading:

Analogue Voltmeter
It displays the reading through the pointer which is fixed on the calibrated scale. The
deflection of the pointer depends on the torque acting on it. The magnitude of the developed
torque is directly proportional to the measuring voltage.

Digital Voltmeter
The voltmeter which displays the reading in the numeric form is known as the digital
voltmeter. The digital voltmeter gives an accurate result.

The instrument which measures the direct current is known as the DC voltmeter, and the AC
voltmeter is used in the AC circuit for alternating voltage measurement.

1. 4. 2. Use of d’ Arsonval movement as an analog DC/AC Ammeter/Voltmeter

The most commonly used dc meter is based on the fundamental principle of the motor. The
motor action is produced by the flow of a small amount of current through a moving coil

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 20 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

which is positioned in a permanent magnetic field. This basic moving system, often called the
d’ Arsonval movement, is also referred to as the basic meter.

Different instrument forms may be obtained by starting with the basic meter movement and
adding various elements, as follows:

1. The basic meter movement becomes a dc instrument, measuring

i. dc current, by adding a shunt resistance, forming a microammeter, a
milliammeter, or an ammeter.
ii. dc voltage, by adding a multiplier resistance, forming a millivoltmeter,
voltmeter or kilovoltmeter.
iii. resistance, by adding a battery and resistive network, forming an ohmmeter.

2. The basic meter movement becomes an ac instrument, measuring

i. ac voltage or current, by adding a rectifier, forming a rectifier type meter for
power and audio frequencies.
ii. RF voltage or current, by adding a thermocouple-type meter for RF.
iii. Expanded scale for power line voltage, by adding a thermistor in a resistive
bridge network, forming an expanded scale (100 – 140 V) ac meter for power
line monitoring.

1. 4. 2. 1. BASIC METER AS A DC VOLTMETER

To use the basic meter as a dc voltmeter, it is necessary to know the amount of current
required to deflect the basic meter to full scale. This current is known as full-scale deflection
current (𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ).
For example, suppose a 50 µA current is required for full-scale deflection.
This full-scale value will produce a voltmeter with a sensitivity of 20,000 Ω per V. The
sensitivity is based on the fact that the full-scale current of 50 µA results whenever 20,000 Ω
of resistance is present in the meter circuit for each voltage applied.

Sensitivity = 1 /𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 1 / 50 µA = 20 kΩ /V
Hence, a 0 – 1 mA would have a sensitivity of 1 V/1 mA = 1 kΩ or 1000 Ω.

1. 4. 3. DC VOLTMETER
A basic d 'Arsonval movement can be converted into a dc voltmeter by adding a series
resistor known as the multiplier, as shown in below Fig. The function of the multiplier is to
limit the current through the movement so that the current does not exceed the full-scale
deflection value. A dc voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points in a dc
circuit or a circuit component.
To measure the potential difference between two points in a dc circuit or a circuit component,
a dc voltmeter is always connected across them with the
proper polarity.
The value of the multiplier required is calculated as
follows:
Referring to Fig.,

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 21 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = full-scale deflection current of the movement (𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 )

𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = internal resistance of movement
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = multiplier resistance
𝑉𝑉 = full range voltage of the instrument. Fig. Basic dc voltmeter
From the circuit of Fig.,
𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 (𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 ) = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 + 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉
⇒ 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = = − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉
Therefore, 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼𝐼 − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚
The multiplier limits the current through the movement, to not exceed the value of the full-
scale deflection (𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 )
The above equation is also used to further extend the range in the DC voltmeter.

Ex. 1. A basic d’ Arsonval movement with a full-scale deflection of 50 µA and internal

resistance of 500 Ω is used as a voltmeter. Determine the value of the multiplier resistance
needed to measure a voltage range of 0 – 10 V
𝑉𝑉−𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉 10
Solution Given 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = = 𝐼𝐼 − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 50 µA − 500 = 200 𝑘𝑘 − 500 = 199.5 kΩ
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚

1. 4. 3. 1. Sensitivity The sensitivity or Ohms per Volt rating of a voltmeter is the ratio of the
total circuit resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 to the voltage range. Sensitivity is essentially the reciprocal of the
full-scale deflection current of the basic movement. Therefore,

𝑆𝑆 = 1/ 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 Ω /V.
The sensitivity ' S ' of the voltmeter has the advantage that it can be used to calculate the
value of multiplier resistors in a dc voltmeter. As

𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 = total circuit resistance [𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 ]

S = sensitivity of voltmeter in ohms per volt
V = voltage range as set by range switch
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = internal resistance of the movement
Since 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 and 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 = 𝑆𝑆 × 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆 × 𝑉𝑉 − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚

Ex. 2. Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance on the 50 V range of a dc voltmeter,
which uses a 200 µA meter movement with an internal resistance of 100 Ω.
Solution
As 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆 × Range − internal resistance, and 𝑆𝑆 = 1/ 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
The sensitivity of the meter movement is
1 1
𝑆𝑆 = = = 5 kΩ /V
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 200 µA
The value of multipliers 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 is calculated as
kΩ
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆 × 𝑉𝑉 − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 5 × 20𝑉𝑉 − 100 Ω = 250 kΩ − 100 Ω = 249.5 kΩ
V

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 22 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

1. 4. 4. MULTIRANGE VOLTMETER
As in the case of an ammeter, to obtain a multirange ammeter, several shunts are connected
across the movement with a multi-position switch. Similarly, a dc voltmeter can be converted
into a multirange voltmeter by connecting several resistors (multipliers) along with a range
switch to provide a greater number of workable
ranges.
The Figure shows a multirange voltmeter using a
three-position switch and three multipliers
𝑅𝑅1 , 𝑅𝑅2 , and 𝑅𝑅3 for voltage values 𝑉𝑉1 , 𝑉𝑉2 , and 𝑉𝑉3 .

This can be further modified to the below shown,

which is a more practical arrangement of the
multiplier resistors of a multirange voltmeter.

Fig. Multi-range voltmeter

In this arrangement, the

multipliers are connected in a
series string, and the range
selector selects the appropriate
amount of resistance required in
series with the movement.

Fig. Multipliers connected in a series string

This arrangement is advantageous compared to the previous one, because all multiplier
resistances except the first have the standard resistance value and are also easily available in
precision tolerances.
The first resistor or low range multiplier, 𝑅𝑅4 , is the only special resistor that has to be
specially manufactured to meet the circuit requirements.

Ex. 1. A d’ Arsonval movement with a full-scale deflection current of 50 µA and internal

resistance of 500 Ω is to be converted into a multirange voltmeter. Determine the value of
multiplier required for 0 – 20 V, 0 – 50 V, and 0 – 100 V
Solution
Given𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 50 µA and 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 500 Ω

Case 1: For range 0 – 20V

𝑉𝑉 20
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = − 500 = 400 k − 500 = 399.5 kΩ
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 50 × 10−6

Case 2: For range 0 – 50 V

𝑉𝑉 50
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = − 500 = 1000 k − 500 = 999.5 kΩ
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 50 × 10−6

Case 3: For range 0 – 100 V

𝑉𝑉 100
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = − 500 = 2000 k − 500 = 1999.5 kΩ
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 50 × 10−6

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 23 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Ex. 2. Convert a basic d’ Arsonval movement with an

internal resistance of 100 Ω and a full-scale deflection
of 10 mA into a multirange dc voltmeter with ranges
from 0 – 5 V, 0 – 50 V, and 0 – 100 V.

Solution Given 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 10 mA and 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 100 Ω

For a 5 V (𝑉𝑉3 ) the total circuit resistance is

𝑉𝑉 5
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 = = = 0.5 kΩ
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 10 mA

Therefore 𝑅𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 500 Ω − 100 Ω = 400 Ω

For a 50 V (𝑉𝑉2 ) position

𝑉𝑉 50
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 = = = 5 kΩ
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 10 mA

Therefore 𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 − (𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 ) = 5 kΩ − (400 Ω + 100 Ω) = 4.5 kΩ

For a 100 V range (𝑉𝑉1 ) position

𝑉𝑉 100
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 = =
= 10 kΩ
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 10 mA
Therefore 𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 − (𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 ) = 10 kΩ − (4.5 kΩ + 400 Ω + 100 Ω) = 5 kΩ

Hence it can be seen that 𝑅𝑅3 has a non-standard value.

1. 4. 5. LOADING EFFECT-VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS

When selecting a meter for certain voltage measurements, it is important to consider the
sensitivity of a dc voltmeter. A low sensitivity meter may give a correct reading when
measuring voltages in a low resistance circuit, but it is certain to produce unreliable readings
in a high resistance circuit.

A Voltmeter when connected across two points in a highly resistive circuit, acts as a shunt for
that portion of the circuit, reducing the total equivalent resistance of that portion as shown in
below Fig. The meter then indicates a lower reading than what existed before the meter was
connected. This is called the loading effect of an instrument and is caused mainly by low-
sensitivity instruments.

Ex. 1. The Figure shows a simple series circuit of 𝑅𝑅1 and

𝑅𝑅2 connected to a 100 V dc source. If the voltage across 𝑅𝑅2
is to be measured by voltmeters having
(a) a sensitivity of 1000 Ω/V, and
(b) a sensitivity of 20,000 Ω/V, find which voltmeter
will read the accurate value of voltage across 𝑅𝑅2 .
Both the meters are used in the 50 V range.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 24 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Solution
Inspection of the circuit indicates that the voltage across the 𝑅𝑅2 resistance is
10 k
× 100 V = 50 V
10 k + 10 k
This is the true voltage across 𝑅𝑅2 .

Case 1
Using a voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1000 Ω/V.
It has a resistance of 1000 × 50 = 50 kΩ on its 50 V range.
Connecting the meter across 𝑅𝑅2 causes an equivalent parallel resistance given by
10 k × 50 k 500 M
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = = = 8.33 kΩ
10 k + 50 k 60 k

Now the voltage across the total combination is given by

𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 8.33 kΩ
𝑉𝑉1 = × 𝑉𝑉 = × 100 V = 45.43 V
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 10 kΩ + 8.33 kΩ

Hence, this voltmeter indicates 45.43 V.

Case 2
Using a voltmeter having a sensitivity of 20,000 Ω/V.
Therefore, it has a resistance of 20,000 × 50 = 1000 kΩ = 1 MΩ.
This voltmeter when connected across 𝑅𝑅2 produces an equivalent parallel resistance given
by
10 k × 1 M 1000 M
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = = = 9.9 kΩ
10 k + 1 M 1.01 M

Now the voltage across the total combination is given by

𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 9.9 kΩ
𝑉𝑉2 = × 𝑉𝑉 = × 100 V = 49.74 V
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 10 kΩ + 9.9 kΩ
Hence this voltmeter will read 49.74 V.
This example shows that a high sensitivity voltmeter should
be used to get accurate readings.

Ex. 2. Find the voltage reading and % error of each

reading obtained with a voltmeter on (i) 5 V range, (ii) 10 V
range, and (iii) 30 V range, if the instrument has a 20 kΩ/V
sensitivity and is connected across 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 of Fig.
Solution
The voltage drop across 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 without the voltmeter connected is
calculated using the voltage divider equation.
Therefore,
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 5k 5k
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 = × 𝑉𝑉 = × 50 V = × 50 V = 5 V
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 45 k + 5 k 50 k

(i) On the 5 V range, (meter sensitivity S = 20 kΩ/V)

Therefore, the total resistance it presents to the circuit
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 𝑆𝑆 × range = 20 kΩ/V × 5 = 100 kΩ.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 25 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

The total resistance across 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 is, 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 in parallel with meter resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚

𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 × 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 100 k × 5 k 500 k

𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = = = = 4.76 kΩ
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 + 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 100 k + 5 k 105

Therefore, the voltage reading is

𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 4.76 k 4.76 k
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 = × 𝑉𝑉 = × 50 V = × 50 V = 4.782V
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 4.76 k + 45 k 49.76 k
The error in the reading of the 5 V range voltmeter is given as:

Actual voltage − Voltage reading observed in meter

% Error = × 100 %
Actual voltage
5 V − 4.782V 0.217V
∴ voltmeter % Error = 5V
× 100 % = 5V × 100 % = 4.34 %
(i) On the 10 V range, (meter sensitivity S = 20 kΩ/V)

Therefore, the total resistance it presents to the circuit

kΩ
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 𝑆𝑆 × range = 20 × 10 V = 200 kΩ.
V

The total resistance across 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 is, 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 in parallel with meter resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 × 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 200 k × 5 k 1000 k
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = = = = 4.87 kΩ
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 + 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 200 k + 5 k 205

Therefore, the voltage reading is

𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 4.87 k 4.76 k
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 = × 𝑉𝑉 = × 50 V = × 50 V = 4.88V
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 4.87 k + 45 k 49.87 k

The error in the reading of the 10 V range voltmeter is given as:

Actual voltage − Voltage reading observed in meter

% Error = × 100 %
Actual voltage
5 V − 4.88V 0.12V
∴voltmeter % Error = 5V
× 100 % = 5V
× 100 % = 2.34 %

(iii) On the 30 V range, (meter sensitivity S = 20 kΩ/V)

Therefore, the total resistance it presents to the circuit

𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 𝑆𝑆 × range = 20 kΩ/V × 30 = 600 kΩ.

The total resistance across 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 is, 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 in parallel with meter resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚

𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 × 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 600 k × 5 k 3000 k

𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = = = = 4.95 kΩ
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 + 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 600 k + 5 k 605

Therefore, the voltage reading is

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 26 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 4.95 k 4.95 k

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 = × 𝑉𝑉 = × 50 V = × 50 V = 4.95V
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 4.95 k + 45 k 49.95 k

The error in the reading of the voltmeter is given as:

Actual voltage − Voltage reading observed in meter

% Error = × 100 %
Actual voltage
5 V − 4.95 V 0.05V
∴Voltmeter % Error = 5V
× 100 % = 5V × 100 % = 1 %
In the above example, the 30 V range introduces the least error due to loading. However, the
voltage being measured causes only a 10% full-scale deflection, whereas on the 10 V range
the applied voltage causes approximately one-third of the full-scale deflection with less than
3% error.

DC Voltmeters - Multi-range, Range extension/Solid-state and differential voltmeters

1. What is meant by PMMC? Explain the working of PMMC meter with help of
diagram. [R20 Reg S3 Jan 2023 7M]
2. Derive the equation for deflection of a PMMC in spring controlled.
[R19 Sup Jan 2023 8M]
3. Illustrate the types of analog ammeter used for instrumentation.
[R19 Reg Feb 2022 7M]
4. How are basic instruments converted into higher range ammeter? Illustrate the types
of analog ammeter used for instrumentation.
[R20 Reg S2 Jan 2023 7M] [R20 Reg S3 Jan 2023 7M] [R19 Reg Feb 2022 7M]
5. Discuss the sensitivity of voltmeters in detail [R19 Sup Jul 2023 8M]
6. Discuss in detail about the range extension of differential voltmeters.
[R20 Reg S3 Jan 2023 7M]
7. Explain with neat circuit diagram the working of any one type of digital voltmeter.
[R19 Sup Jul 2022 7M]
8. Describe in detail about working principle of a potentiometer type digital voltmeter.
[R20 Sup Jul 2023 7M]
9. A basic D’Arsonval movement with a full deflection of 50 µA and internal resistance
of 500 Ω is used as voltmeter. Formulate the necessary equation and calculate the
value of multiplier resistance needed to measure a voltage range of 0-10 V.
[R19 Sup Jul 2022 8M]
10. Two ammeters are joined in series in a circuit carrying 105A. One ammeter has a
resistance of 10000 Ω shunted by 0.10 Ω while the other ammeter has a resistance of
100 Ω shunted by 0.02 Ω. If the shunts are interchanged what would be the readings
of the instruments? [R20 Reg S4 Jan 2023 7M]
11. Two ammeters are joined in series in a circuit carrying 100 A. one ammeter has a
resistance of 10000 ohm shunted by 0.10 ohm while the other ammeter has a
resistance of 150 ohm shunted by 0.02 ohm. If the shunts are interchanged what
would be the readings of the instruments. [R20 Sup Jul 2023 7M]
12. A basic D’Arsonval moment with a full-scale deflection of 50 µA and an internal
resistance of 1800 is available. It is to be converted into a 0-1 V, 0-5 V, 0-25 V and
0-225 V multi range voltmeter using individual multipliers for each range. Calculate
the values of the individual resistors. [R20 Reg S2 Jan 2023 7M]

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 27 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

13. List out different DC voltmeters and explain any one voltmeter in detail [8]
14. Give a classification of voltmeters [4]
15. Explain how the range of DC voltmeter is extended. [4]
16. Explain the working of a basic DC voltmeter. How can its range be extended? [10]
17. Calculate the value of multiplier resistance on the 50 V range of a dc voltmeter that
uses a 200 µA meter movement with an internal resistance of 100 Ω. [4]

Similar Example:
Ex. 1. Calculate the value of multiplier resistance on the 50V range of a dc voltmeter that
uses a 500 µA meter movement with an internal resistance of 1 kΩ.
Solution
The sensitivity of 500 µA meter movement is given by
𝑆𝑆 = 1/𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 1/500 µ𝐴𝐴 = 2kΩ /V.

The value of the multiplier resistance can be calculated by

𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆 × range − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 2 kΩ /V × 50 𝑉𝑉 − 1 kΩ = 100 kΩ − 1 kΩ = 99 kΩ

18. A basic D’ Arsonval moment with a full-scale deflection of 50 μA and an internal

resistance of 1800 Ω is available. It is to be converted into a 0-1 V, 0-5 V, 0-25 V,
and 0-225 V multi-range voltmeter using individual multipliers for each range.
Calculate the values of the individual resistors. [8]

Similar Example:
Ex. A d’ Arsonval movement with a full-scale deflection current of 50 µA and internal
resistance of 500 Ω is to be converted into a multirange voltmeter. Determine the value of
multiplier required for 0 – 20 V, 0 – 50 V, and 0 – 100 V

Solution
Given𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 50 µA and 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 500 Ω

Case 1: For range 0 – 20V

𝑉𝑉 20
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = − 500
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 50 × 10−6
= 400 k − 500 = 399.5 kΩ

Case 2: For range 0 – 50 V

𝑉𝑉 50
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = − 500
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 50 × 10−6
= 1000 k − 500 = 999.5 kΩ

Case 3: For range 0 – 100 V

𝑉𝑉 100
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = − 500 = 2000 k − 500 = 1999.5 kΩ
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 50 × 10−6

19. *A Voltmeter having a sensitivity

of 30 kΩ/V reads 80 V on a 100 V
scale, when connected across an
unknown resistor. The current
through the resistor is 2 mA.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 28 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Calculate the % of error due to loading effect. [8]

20. A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1 kΩ/V is connected across, an unknown

resistance in series with a milli ammeter, reads 80 V on 150 V scale. When the milli
ammeter reads 10 mA, Calculate the (i) apparent resistance of the unknown resistor
(ii) Actual resistance of the unknown resistor, and (iii) Error due to the loading effect
of the voltmeter? [8]

Similar Problem:
Ex. A voltmeter, having a sensitivity of 1,000 Ω/V, reads 100 V on its 150 – V scale when
connected across an unknown resistor in series with a milliammeter. When the milliammeter
reads 5 mA, calculate (a) the apparent resistance of the unknown resistor; (b) the actual
resistance of the unknown resistor; (c) the error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter.

Solution
(a) The total circuit resistance equals

𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 100 V
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 =
= = 20 kΩ
𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 5 mA
Neglecting the resistance of the milliammeter, the value of the unknown resistor is 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 =
20 kΩ

(b)
Ω
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 = 1000 × 150 V = 150 kΩ
V

Since the voltmeter is in parallel with the unknown resistance, we can write
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 . 𝑅𝑅𝑣𝑣 20 × 150
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = = = 23.05 kΩ
𝑅𝑅𝑣𝑣 − 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 150 − 20
actual −apparent 23.05−20
(c) % Error = actual
× 100% = 23.05
× 100% = 13.23 %

1. 5. 1. AC VOLTMETER USING RECTIFIERS

Rectifier-type instruments generally use a PMMC movement along with a rectifier
arrangement. Silicon diodes are preferred because of their low reverse current and high
forward current ratings. Figure (a) gives an ac voltmeter circuit consisting of a multiplier, a
bridge rectifier, and a PMMC movement.

The bridge rectifier provides a full-wave pulsating dc.

Due to the inertia of the movable coil, the meter indicates a steady deflection proportional to
the average value of the current (Fig. (b)). The meter scale is usually calibrated to give the
RMS value of an alternating sine wave input.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 29 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Fig. (a) ac voltmeter, (b) Average and RMS value of current & (c) Diode characteristics
(Forward)
Practical rectifiers are non-linear devices particularly at low values of forward current (Fig.
(c)). Hence the meter scale is non-linear and is generally crowded at the lower end of a low
range voltmeter.
In this part, the meter has low sensitivity because of the high forward resistance of the diode.
Also, the diode resistance depends on the temperature.
The rectifier exhibits capacitance properties when reverse biased, and tends to bypass higher
frequencies. The meter reading may be in error by as much as a 0.5% decrease for every 1
kHz rise in frequency.

A general rectifier type ac voltmeter arrangement is given in the below Fig.

Diode 𝐷𝐷1 conducts during the positive half of the input cycle and causes the meter to deflect
according to the average value of this half cycle.

The meter movement is shunted by a resistor, 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ , to

draw more current through the diode 𝐷𝐷1 and move the
operating point into the linear portion of the
characteristic curve. In the negative half cycle, the
diode 𝐷𝐷2 conducts and the current through the
measuring circuit, which is in an opposite direction,
bypasses the meter movement.
Fig. General rectifier type ac voltmeter

1. 5. 1. 1. AC VOLTMETER USING HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

If a diode 𝐷𝐷1 is added to the dc voltmeter, as shown in Fig., we have an ac voltmeter using a
half-wave rectifier circuit capable of measuring ac voltages.

The sensitivity of the dc voltmeter is given by

𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1/𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 1/1 mA = 1 kΩ

A multiple of 10 times this value means a 10 V dc input would cause exactly full-scale
deflection when connected with proper
polarity.
Assume 𝐷𝐷1 to be an ideal diode with
negligible forward bias resistance. If this dc
input is replaced by a 10 V rms sine wave
input. The voltages appearing at the output are
due to the +𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 half-cycle due to rectifying
action.
Fig. ac voltmeter using a half-wave rectifier

The peak value of 10 V rms sine wave is

= 10 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 × 1.414 = 14.14 𝑉𝑉 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

The dc will respond to the average value of the ac input, therefore

𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐸𝐸𝑃𝑃 × 0.636 = 14.14 × 0.636 = 8.99 𝑉𝑉

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 30 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Since the diode conducts only during the positive half cycle, the average value over the entire
cycle is one-half the average value of 8.99 V, i.e., about 4.5 V.
Therefore, the pointer will deflect for a full-scale if 10 V dc is applied and 4.5 V when a 10 V
rms sinusoidal signal is applied. This means that an ac voltmeter is not as sensitive as a dc
voltmeter.
As
𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0.45 × 𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
∴The value of the multiplier resistor can be calculated as

𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 0.45 × 𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐼𝐼𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Ex. Calculate the value of the multiplier resistor for a 10 V rms range on the voltmeter shown
in Fig.

Solution
Method 1 Sensitivity of the meter
movement is
𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1/𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 1/1 mA = 1 kΩ/V

kΩ
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × range − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 1 × 0.45 × 𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
V
kΩ
=1 × 0.45 × 100 − 200 Ω = (4500 − 200)Ω = 4.3 kΩ
V
Method 2
0.45 × 𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠 0.45 × 10
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = − 200 = 4.5 k − 0.2 k = 4.3 kΩ
1 mA 1 mA

1. 5. 1. 1. AC VOLTMETER USING FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

Consider the circuit shown in Fig.
The peak value of a 10 V rms signal is
𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 = 1.414 × 𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 1.414 × 10
= 14.14 V
Average value is

𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐸𝐸𝑃𝑃 × 0.636 = 14.14 × 0.636

= 8.99 V ≅ 9 V

Fig. ac voltmeter using a full-wave rectifier

Therefore, we can see that a 10 V rms voltage is equal to a 9 V dc for full-scale deflection,
i.e., the pointer will deflect to 90% of full scale, or
Sensitivity (ac) = 0.9 × Sensitivity (dc)

Ex. Calculate the value of the multiplier resistor for a 50 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ac range on the voltmeter as
shown in Fig.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 31 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Solution
Given 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 100 μA, 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 100 Ω
The dc sensitivity is given by
𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1/𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 1/100 μA = 10 kΩ/V
Ac sensitivity = 0.9 × dc sensitivity
kΩ
𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0.9 × 𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0.9 × 10 = 9 kΩ/V
V

The multiplier resistor is given by

kΩ
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 × range − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 9 × 50 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 100 Ω = 450 kΩ − 100 Ω = 449.9 kΩ
V

1. 5. 2. PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED WHEN USING A VOLTMETER

The following general precautions should be observed when using a voltmeter:

a. Observe the correct polarity. The wrong polarity causes the meter to deflect against
the mechanical stop and this may damage the pointer.
b. Place the voltmeter across the circuit or component whose voltage is to be measured.
c. When using a multirange voltmeter, always use the highest voltage range and then
decrease the range until a good up-scale reading is obtained.
d. Always be aware of the loading effect. The effect can be minimized by using as high
a voltage range (and highest sensitivity) as possible. The precision of measurement
decreases if the indication is at the low end of the scale.

1. 5. 3. MULTIRANGE AC VOLTMETER
The figure shown is a circuit for
measuring ac voltages for different
ranges.

Resistances 𝑅𝑅1 , 𝑅𝑅2 , 𝑅𝑅3 , and 𝑅𝑅4 form a

chain of multipliers for voltage ranges of
1000 V, 250 V, 50 V, and 10 V
respectively.

On the 2.5 V range, resistance 𝑅𝑅5 acts as

a multiplier and corresponds to the
multiplier 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 shown in Fig. Fig. Multirange ac voltmeter
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ is the meter shunt and acts to improve the rectifier operation.

1. 5. 4. TRUE RMS VOLTMETER

Complex waveforms are most accurately measured with an rms voltmeter. This instrument
produces a meter indication by sensing waveform heating power, which is proportional to the
square of the rms value of the voltage. This heating power can be measured by amplifying
and feeding it to a thermocouple, whose output voltages is then proportional to the 𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 .

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 32 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

There exists a fundamental difference between the readings on a normal ac meter and a true
rms meter. The first uses a d’ Arsonval movement with a full or half-wave rectifier, and
averages the values of the instantaneous rectified current.

The rms meter, however, averages the squares of the instantaneous current values
(proportional, for example, to the instantaneous heating effect). The scale of the true rms
meter is calibrated in terms of the square roots of the indicated current values. The resulting
reading is therefore the square root of the average of the squared instantaneous input values,
which is the rms value of the
measured alternating current.
However, thermocouples are
non-linear devices. This
difficulty can be overcome in
some instruments by placing two
thermocouples in the same
thermal environment.

The figure shows a block

diagram of a true rms responding voltmeter. Fig. True RMS
voltmeter (Block diagram)

The effect of the non-linear behaviour of the thermocouple in the input circuit (measuring
thermocouple) is cancelled by similar non-linear effects of the thermocouple in the feedback
circuit (balancing thermocouple). The two couples form part of a bridge in the input circuit of
a dc amplifier.

The unknown ac voltage is amplified and applied to the heating element of the measuring
thermocouple. The application of heat produces an output voltage that upsets the balance of
the bridge.

The dc amplifier amplifies the unbalanced voltage; this voltage is fed back to the heating
element of the balancing thermocouple, which heats the thermocouple, so that the bridge is
balanced again, i.e., the outputs of both the thermocouples are the same.
At this instant, the ac current in the input thermocouple is equal to the dc current in the
heating element of the feedback thermocouple. This dc current is therefore directly
proportional to the effective or rms value of the input voltage, and is indicated by the meter in
the output circuit of the dc amplifier. If the peak amplitude of the ac signal does not exceed
the dynamic range of the ac amplifier, the true rms value of the ac signal can be measured
independently.

AC voltmeters - multi range, range extension, shunt.

1. Explain the methods for linearize of scale of repulsion type of moving iron
instrument. [R19 Sup Jan 2023 8M]
2. What is the principle and operation of a thermocouple type RF ammeter?
[R20 Sup Jul 2023 7M]
3. With neat block diagram, Explain the True rms meter. [R19 Sup Jul 2023 8M]
4. List out different AC voltmeters and explain the working of any one voltmeter in
detail.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 33 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

[8]
5. *Two ammeters are joined in series in a circuit carrying 100 A. One ammeter has a
resistance of 10000 ohm shunted by 0.10 ohm while the other ammeter has a
resistance of 150 ohm shunted by 0.02 ohm. If the shunts are interchanged what
would be the readings of the instruments? [8]
6. Differentiate between a true r.m.s meter and an average responding meter. [4]

1. 6. 0. OHMMETER
An ohmmeter (also known as an ohm meter) is an instrument that measures
 the electrical resistance of a material (resistance is a measure of the opposition to the
flow of electric current) and
 the continuity of the electrical circuit and its components.

Micro-ohmmeters (micro-ohmmeter or microhmmeter) and Milliohmmeters make low

resistance measurements, while Megohmmeters (a trademarked device by Megger) measure
large values of resistance. The unit of measurement for resistance is ohms (Ω).
Every device has electrical resistance. It may be large or small, and it increases with
temperature for conductors and decreases with temperature for semiconductors.

There are many types of ohmmeters. Three of the most common ohm meters are:
1. Series ohmmeter.
2. Shunt ohmmeter.
3. Multi-range ohmmeter.

Series ohmmeter
In a series ohmmeter, the measuring resistance component or circuit is connected in series
with the meter.

Shunt Type Ohmmeter

The meter in which the measuring resistance is connected in parallel with the battery is
known as the shunt ohmmeter. It is mainly used for measuring low-value resistances.
The circuit diagram of the shunt ohmmeter is shown in the figure below.

Multi-Range Ohmmeter
The range of this type of ohmmeter is very high. The meter has an adjuster which selects the
range according to need.

1. 6. 1. OHMMETER (SERIES TYPE OHMMETER/ Backward Reading Ohmmeter)

A d’ Arsonval movement is connected in series with a resistance 𝑅𝑅1 and a battery that is
connected to a pair of terminals A and B, across which the unknown resistance is connected.
This forms the basic type of series ohmmeter, as shown in Fig. (a).

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 34 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Fig. (a) Series type ohmmeter (b) Dial of a series ohmmeter

The current flowing through the movement then depends on the magnitude of the unknown
resistance. Therefore, the meter deflection is directly proportional to the value of the
unknown resistance.
Referring to Fig. (a)
𝑅𝑅1 = current limiting resistance
𝑅𝑅2 = zero adjust resistance
V = battery
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = meter resistance
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = unknown resistance

When the unknown resistor 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 0 (terminals A and B shorted), maximum current flows in
the circuit. Under this condition, the shunt resistor 𝑅𝑅2 is adjusted until the movement
indicates full-scale current (𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ).

The full-scale current position of the pointer is marked "0 Ω” on the scale. Similarly, when
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = ∞ (terminals A and B open), the current in the circuit drops to zero and the movement
indicates zero current, which is then marked "∞" on the scale. Intermediate markings may be
placed on the scale by connecting different known values of 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 to the instrument. The
accuracy of these scale markings depends on the repeating accuracy of the movement and the
tolerances of the calibrating resistors.

The series-type ohmmeter is a popular design and is used extensively in portable instruments
for general-service work.
The important disadvantage is the internal battery whose voltage decreases gradually with
time, so that the full-scale current drops and the meter does not read “0” when A and B are
shorted.
The variable shunt resistor 𝑅𝑅2 in Fig. provides an adjustment to counteract the effect of
battery change. Without 𝑅𝑅2 , it would be possible to bring the pointer back to full scale by
adjusting 𝑅𝑅1 , but this would change the calibration all along the scale. Adjustment by 𝑅𝑅2 is a
superior solution, since the parallel resistance of 𝑅𝑅2 and the coil 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 is always low compared
to 𝑅𝑅1 and therefore the change in 𝑅𝑅2 needed for adjustment does not change the calibration
very much.

Calibration of the Series Type Ohmmeter

To mark the "0" reading on the scale, the terminals A and B are shorted, i.e., the unknown
resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 0, maximum current flows in the circuit, and the shunt resistance 𝑅𝑅2 is
adjusted until the movement indicates full-scale current (𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ). The position of the pointer on
the scale is then marked " 0" ohms.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 35 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Similarly, to mark the "∞" reading on the scale, terminals A and B are open, i.e., the
unknown resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = ∞, no current flow in the circuit and there is no deflection of the
pointer. The position of the pointer on the scale, is then marked as "∞" ohms.

By connecting different known values of the unknown resistance to terminals A and B,

intermediate markings can be done on the scale. The accuracy of the instrument can be
checked by measuring different values of standard resistance, i.e., the tolerance of the
calibrated resistance, and noting the readings.
A major drawback in the series ohmmeter is the decrease in voltage of the internal battery
with time and age. Due to this, the full-scale deflection current drops and the meter does not
read "0" when A and B are shorted. The variable shunt resistor 𝑅𝑅2 across the movement is
adjusted to counteract the drop in battery voltage, thereby bringing the pointer back to "0"
ohms on the scale.
It is also possible to adjust the full-scale dc flection current without the shunt 𝑅𝑅2 in the
circuit, by varying the value of 𝑅𝑅1 to compensate for the voltage drop. Since this affects the
calibration of the scale, varying by 𝑅𝑅2 is a much better solution. The internal resistance of the
coil Rm is very low compared to 𝑅𝑅1 . When 𝑅𝑅2 is varied, the current through the movement is
increased and the current through 𝑅𝑅2 is reduced, thereby bringing the pointer to the full-scale
deflection position.

The series ohmmeter is a simple and popular design, and is used extensively for general
service work.
Therefore, in a series ohmmeter the scale marking on the dial, has "0" on the right side,
corresponding to full-scale deflection current, and "∞" on the left side corresponding to no
current flow, as given in Fig. (b).
Values of 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑅2 can be determined from the value of 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 which gives half the full-scale
deflection.
𝑅𝑅2 . 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅ℎ = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 ||𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 𝑅𝑅1 +
𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚

where 𝑅𝑅ℎ = half of full-scale deflection resistance.

The total resistance presented to the battery then equals 2𝑅𝑅ℎ and the battery current needed to
supply half-scale deflection is 𝐼𝐼ℎ, = 𝑉𝑉 /2 𝑅𝑅ℎ .

To produce full-scale current, the battery current must be doubled.

Therefore, the total current of the circuit, 𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉 /𝑅𝑅ℎ
The shunt current through 𝑅𝑅2 is given by 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
The voltage across shunt, 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠ℎ , is equal to the voltage across the meter.
𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
Therefore 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠ℎ = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 ⇒ 𝐼𝐼2 𝑅𝑅2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 ⇒ 𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐼𝐼 ⇒ 𝑅𝑅2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
2 −𝐼𝐼
𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑉𝑉
But 𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅
ℎ
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ
∴ 𝑅𝑅2 = ⇒ 𝑅𝑅2 =
𝑉𝑉/𝑅𝑅ℎ − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅ℎ

𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
As 𝑅𝑅ℎ = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅 2+𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 , we can write, 𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅ℎ − 𝑅𝑅 2+𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
2 𝑚𝑚 2 𝑚𝑚
Hence

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 36 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ × 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚

× 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅ℎ �𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅ℎ �
𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅ℎ − = 𝑅𝑅ℎ −
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ +𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 �𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅ℎ �
𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅ℎ +𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 �𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅 � 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ℎ

𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ × 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ × 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚

= 𝑅𝑅ℎ − = 𝑅𝑅ℎ −
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ +𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 �𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅ℎ � �𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ +𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉 − 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅ℎ �

𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ × 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ

= 𝑅𝑅ℎ − = 𝑅𝑅ℎ −
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅
Therefore,𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅ℎ − 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑉𝑉 ℎ
Hence, 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑅2 can be determined.
Ex. 1.Aseries ohmmeter uses a 50 Ω basic movement requiring a full-scale current of l mA.
The internal battery voltage is 3 V. The desired scale marking for half-scale deflection is
2,000 Ω. Calculate (a) the values of 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑅2 ;
(b) the maximum value of 𝑅𝑅2 to compensate for a 10% drop in battery voltage;
(c) the scale error at the half-scale mark (2,000 Ω) when 𝑅𝑅2 is set as in (b).

Solution
(a) The total battery current at full-scale deflection is
𝐸𝐸 3V
𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 = = = 1.5 mA
𝑅𝑅ℎ 2000 Ω

The current through the zero-adjust resistor 𝑅𝑅2 then is

𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 1.5 mA − 1 mA = 0.5 mA

The value of the zero-adjust resistor 𝑅𝑅2 is

𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 1 mA × 50 Ω
𝑅𝑅2 = = = 100 Ω
𝐼𝐼2 0.5 mA

The parallel resistance of the movement and the shunt (𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 ) is

𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 100 Ω × 50 Ω 100 Ω × 50 Ω

𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 = = = = 33.3 Ω
𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 100 Ω + 50 Ω 150 Ω

The value of the current-limiting resistor 𝑅𝑅1 is

𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅ℎ − 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 = 2000 − 33.3 = 1966.7 Ω

(b) At a 10% drop in battery voltage,

𝐸𝐸 = 3 V − 0.3 V = 2.7 V
The total battery current 𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 then becomes
𝐸𝐸 2.7 V
𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 = = = 1.35 mA
𝑅𝑅ℎ 2000 Ω
The current through the zero-adjust resistor 𝑅𝑅2 then is

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 37 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 1.35 mA − 1 mA = 0.35 mA

The value of the zero-adjust resistor 𝑅𝑅2 is

𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 1 mA × 50 Ω
𝑅𝑅2 = = = 143 Ω
𝐼𝐼2 0.35 mA

(c) The parallel resistance of the movement and the shunt (𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 ) is

𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 143 Ω × 50 Ω 140 Ω × 50 Ω

𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 = = = = 37 Ω
𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 143 Ω + 50 Ω 193 Ω

Since the half-scale resistance 𝑅𝑅ℎ is equal to the total internal circuit resistance, 𝑅𝑅ℎ will
increase to 𝑅𝑅ℎ = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 = 1966.7 Ω + 37 Ω = 2003.7 Ω
Therefore, the true value of the half-scale mark on the meter is 2003.7 Ω, whereas the actual
scale mark is 2000 Ω.
The percentage error is then
2000 − 2003.7
% error = × 100% = −0.185%
2003.7
The negative sign indicates that the meter reading is low.

The ohmmeter could be designed for other values of 𝑅𝑅ℎ , within limits. If 𝑅𝑅ℎ = 3,000 Ω, the
battery current would be 1 mA, which is required for the full-scale deflection current. If the
battery voltage would decrease owing to aging, the total battery current would fall below 1
mA and there would then be no provision for adjustment.

Ex. 2. Design a series type ohmmeter. The movement requires a 1 mA for full-scale
deflection and has an internal resistance of 100 Ω. The internal battery used has a voltage of 3
V The desired value for half-scale deflection is 2000 Ω. Calculate
(a) the values of 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑅2 . (b) range of 𝑅𝑅2 if the battery voltage varies from
2.8 V to 3.1 V (𝑅𝑅1 is the same as in (a).

Solution
Value of 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑅2 can be calculated as
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ 1 mA × 100 Ω × 2 kΩ 200 Ω
𝑅𝑅2 = = = = 200 Ω
𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ 3 𝑉𝑉 − 1 mA × 2 kΩ 1.00

The internal resistance of the ohmmeter is equal to half-scale resistance. Therefore,

𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 200 × 100
𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅ℎ − = 2000 Ω − Ω = 2000 – 66.6 = 1933.4 Ω
𝑅𝑅2 +𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 200 + 100

𝑅𝑅1 = 1933.4 Ω that is the series resistance

The value of resistance 𝑅𝑅2 when the battery is 2.7 V.

𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ 1 mA × 100 Ω × 2 kΩ 200 Ω
𝑅𝑅2 = = = = 285 Ω
𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ 2.7 𝑉𝑉 − 1 mA × 2 kΩ 0.7

The value of resistance 𝑅𝑅2 when the battery is 3.1 V.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 38 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ 1 mA × 100 Ω × 2 kΩ 200 Ω

𝑅𝑅2 = = = = 182 Ω
𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ 3.1 𝑉𝑉 − 1 mA × 2 kΩ 1.1

1. 6. 1. 1. Multirange Ohmmeter
To measure resistance over a wide
range of values, we need to extend the
ohmmeter ranges. This type of
ohmmeter is called a multirange
ohmmeter, shown in Fig.

1. 6. 2. SHUNT TYPE/ FORWARD READING OHMMETER

The shunt type ohmmeter given in below Fig.

consists of a battery in series with an adjustable
resistor 𝑅𝑅1 , and a d’ Arsonval movement.

The unknown resistance is connected in parallel

with the meter, across the terminals A and B,
hence the name shunt type ohmmeter.
In this circuit, it is necessary to have an ON/OFF
switch to disconnect the battery from the circuit
when the instrument is not used.

Calibration of the Shunt Type Ohmmeter

To mark the "0" ohms reading on the scale, terminals A and B are shorted, i.e., the unknown
resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 0, and the current through the meter movement is zero, since it is bypassed
by the short-circuit. This pointer position is marked as "0" ohms.

Similarly, to mark “∞” on the scale, the terminals A and B are opened, i.e., 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = ∞, and full
current flows through the meter movement; by appropriate selection of the value of 𝑅𝑅1 , the
pointer can be made to read full-scale deflection current. This position of the pointer is
marked "∞" ohms. Intermediate marking can be done by connecting known values of
standard resistors to terminals A and B.

This ohmmeter, therefore, has a zero mark at the left

side of the scale and a ∞ mark at the right side of the
scale, corresponding to full-scale deflection current as
shown in Fig.

The shunt type ohmmeter is particularly suited to the measurement of low values of
resistance. Hence it is used as a test instrument in the laboratory for special low resistance
applications.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 39 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Ex. A shunt-type ohmmeter uses a 10 mA basic d’ Arsonval movement with an internal

resistance of 50 Ω. The battery voltage is 3 V. It is desired to modify the circuit by adding
appropriate shunt resistance across the movement so that the instrument indicates 10 Ω at the
midpoint scale.
Calculate
(a) the value of shunt resistance (b) value of current limiting resistance 𝑅𝑅1 .

Solution
For half-scale definition
𝐼𝐼ℎ = 0.5 × 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 mA = 0.5 × 10 mA = 5 mA

The voltage across the movement

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 × 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 5 mA × 50 Ω = 250 mV

From the circuit diagram of a shunt-type ohmmeter, it is seen that voltage across unknown
resistance = Voltage across the meter movement
Therefore, the current through the unknown resistance
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 250 mV
𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 = = = 25 mA
𝑅𝑅ℎ 10 Ω

Current through the shunt

𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠ℎ = 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 − 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 25 mA − 5 mA = 20 mA

Therefore, the value of shunt resistance,

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 250 mV
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ = = = 12.5 Ω
𝑅𝑅ℎ 20 mA
(b) The total battery current
𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 + 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠ℎ = 25 mA + 5 mA + 20 mA = 50 mA

The voltage drop across the limiting resistor = 3 − 250 mV = 2.75 V

Therefore
2.75 V
𝑅𝑅1 = = 55 Ω
50 mA

1. 6. 3. Applications of Ohmmeter
The uses of the ohmmeter include the following.
• This meter can be used to ensure the continuity of the circuit which means if the
sufficient flow of current or huge flow of current through the circuit then the circuit
will be detached.
• These are broadly used in electronic labs in engineering to test the electronic
components.
• These are used for small ICs for debugging such as PCBs & other stuff which requires
to be executed in sensitive devices.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 40 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

1. 6. 4. Differences between Series and Shunt type Ohmmeters

1. Scale

2. Draw the circuit diagrams

3. Write the applications

Ohmmeters: series type and shunt type

1. Draw the circuit diagram of Ohmmeters series type, and shunt type and explain its
operation in detail. [R20 Reg S2 Jan 2023 7M]
2. Draw and explain in detail the shunt type Ohmmeter.[R20 Reg S4 Jan 2023 7M]
3. A 200 Ω basic movement is to be used as an ohmmeter requiring full scale deflection
of 1 mA and internal battery voltage of 5 V. A half scale deflection marking of 2 k is
desired. Calculate [R20 Reg S1 Jan 2023 7M]
i. The values of R1 and R2
ii. Maximum value of R to compensate for a 3% drop in battery voltage
4. Define the sensitivity of a multimeter. Explain the operation of a multimeter using a
simple block diagram. [R20 Sup Jul 2023 7M]
5. How is multi-meter used to measure different parameters? Explain.
[R19 Sup Jul 2022 7M]
6. Draw the circuit diagram of Ohmmeters series type, and shunt type and explain its
operation in detail. [8]
7. *Draw the series type Ohmmeter and explain its operation. [4]
8. Draw the series type Ohmmeter and explain its operation. [3]
9. Write notes on the following:
a) Series type Ohmmeters. [7]
b) Shunt type Ohmmeters. [7]
10. A 100 ῼ basic movement is to be used as an ohmmeter requiring a full-scale
deflection of 1 mA and internal battery voltage of 3 V. A half-scale deflection marking
of 2 k is desired. Calculate (i) Values of R1 and R2 (ii) maximum value of R2 to
compensate for a 5% drop in battery voltage. [7]
Solution
(i) Using the equations for 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑅2 we have,
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ
𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅ℎ − and𝑅𝑅2 =
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅ℎ
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ 1 mA × 100 Ω × 2 kΩ
𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅ℎ − = 2 kΩ −
𝑉𝑉 3 𝑉𝑉
200 Ω
= 2000 Ω − = 2000 Ω − 66.6 Ω = 1933.3 Ω
3

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 41 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ 1 mA × 100 Ω × 2 kΩ 200 Ω

𝑅𝑅2 = = = = 200 Ω
𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅ℎ 3 𝑉𝑉 − 1 mA × 2 kΩ 1.00

(ii) The internal battery voltage is 3 V, therefore 5% of 3 V is 0.15 V. The battery voltage
with 5% drop is 3 V − 0.15 V = 2.85 V.
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅ℎ 1 mA × 100 Ω × 2 kΩ 200 Ω
𝑅𝑅2 = = = = 235.29 Ω
𝑉𝑉 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅ℎ 2.85 𝑉𝑉 − 1 mA × 2 kΩ 0.85

6. A 100 Ω basic movement is to be used as an ohmmeter requiring full-scale deflection

of 1 mA and internal battery voltage of 3 V. A half-scale deflection marking of 1 k is
desired. Calculate.
(i) The values of R1 and R2
(ii) Maximum value of R to compensate for a 5% drop in battery voltage [8]
Solution
Same as above, but change 𝑅𝑅ℎ = 1 k

Beyond Syllabus

1. 7. 1. MULTIMETER or VOLT-OHM-MILLIAMMETER(VOM)
A multimeter consists of an ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter combined, with a function
switch to connect the appropriate circuit to the d’ Arsonval movement.

The ammeter, the voltmeter, and the ohmmeter all use a d’ Arsonval movement. The
difference between these instruments is the circuit in which the basic movement is used. It is
therefore obvious that a single instrument can be designed to perform the three measurement
functions. This instrument, which contains a function switch to connect the appropriate
circuits to the d’ Arsonval movement, is often called a multimeter or Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter
(VOM).

The basic movement of the multimeter shown in below Fig. has a full-scale current of 175
µA and internal resistance of 500 Ω.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 42 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Fig. Diagram of a multimeter

Ammeter section
A multimeter is basically a PMMC meter. To measure dc current the meter acts as an
ammeter with low series resistance.
Range changing is accomplished by shunts in such a way that the current passing through the
meter does not exceed the maximum rated value.

Microammeter
The below figures shows a circuit of a multimeter used as a microammeter and a multimeter
used as a dc ammeter.

Fig. Microammeter section Fig. dc ammeter section of a multimeter

DC voltmeter section
The below Figure shows the dc voltmeter section of a multimeter.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 43 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Fig. DC voltmeter section of a multimeter

AC Voltmeter Section
The figure shows the ac voltmeter section of
a multimeter.
To measure ac voltage, the output ac voltage
is rectified by a half-wave rectifier before
the current passes through the meter. Across
the meter, the other diode serves as
protection. The diode conducts when a
reverse voltage appears across the diodes, so
that current bypasses the meter in the
reverse direction.

Fig. AC voltmeter section of a multimeter

Ohmmeter Section
Referring to Fig. which shows the ohmmeter section of a multimeter, in the 10 k range the
102 Ω resistance is connected in parallel with the total circuit resistance, and in the 1 MΩ
range the 102 Ω resistance is disconnected from the circuit.

Therefore, on the 1 M range, the half-scale deflection is 10 k. Since on the 10-k range, the
102 Ω resistance is connected across the total resistance, therefore, in this range, the half-
scale deflection is 100 Ω.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 44 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

Fig. Ohmmeter section of a multimeter Fig. (a) Equivalent resistance on 1 MΩ range

The measurement of resistance is done by applying a small voltage installed within the meter.

For the l M range, the internal resistance is 10 kΩ, i.e., value at midscale, as shown in Fig. (a)
And for the 10-k range, the internal resistance is 100 Ω, i.e., value at mid-scale as shown in
Fig. (b).

The range of an ohmmeter can be changed by 100 Ω connecting the

switch to a suitable shunt resistance. By using different values of shunt
resistance, different ranges can be obtained.

By increasing the battery voltage and using a suitable shunt, the

maximum values which the ohmmeter reads can be changed.
Fig. (b) Half scale deflection is 100 Ω on 10 k range

Multimeter for Voltage, Current, and Resistance measurements.

1. Explain the measurement of the following parameters in a circuit using a multi- meter
a) Voltage [5]
b) Current [5]
c) Resistance [4]
2. Discuss the various steps involved in multimeter for voltage, current and resistance
measurements. [7]
3. Discuss the various steps involved for multimeter for voltage, current and resistance
measurements. [8]
4. Define the sensitivity of a multimeter. Explain the operation of a multimeter
using a simple block diagram. [8]

1. 7. 2. 0. Dynamic Response of Zero Order Instruments

1. 7. 2. 1. Dynamic Response of Zero Order Instruments

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 45 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

The relations between any input and output can, by using suitable simplifying assumptions,
be written as

𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛 −1 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜

𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
+ 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛−1 𝑛𝑛 −1
+ ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚 −1 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
= 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
+ 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 −1 𝑚𝑚 −1
+ ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏0 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 (1)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 = output quantity 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 = input quantity and t = time

a's and b's are combinations of systems physical parameters, assumed constant.
When all the a's and b's other than 𝑎𝑎0 and 𝑏𝑏0 are assumed to be zero, the differential equation
degenerates into the simple equation given as
𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 = 𝑏𝑏0 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 (2)
Any instrument that closely obeys the above Eq. over its intended range of operating
conditions is defined as a zero-order instrument.
The static sensitivity (or steady-state gain) of a zero-order instrument may be defined as
follows:
𝑏𝑏0
𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 = 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ⇒ 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 = 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝑎𝑎0
𝑏𝑏0
where K = 𝑎𝑎 = static sensitivity
0
Since the equation 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 = 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 is an algebraic equation, it is clear that no matter how 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 might
vary with time, the instrument output (reading) follows it perfectly with no distortion or time
lag of any sort.

∴ a zero-order instrument represents ideal or perfect dynamic performance.

A practical example of a zero-order instrument:displacement measuring potentiometer.

First-order systems involve only one kind of energy, e.g., thermal energy in the case of a
thermometer.

1. 7. 2. 2. Dynamic Response of a First Order Instrument

The relations between any input and output can, by using suitable simplifying assumptions,
be written as

𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛 −1 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜

𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
+ 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛−1 𝑛𝑛 −1
+ ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚 −1 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
= 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏0 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 (1)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚 −1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 = output quantity 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 = input quantity and t = time

a's and b's are combinations of systems physical parameters, assumed constant.
If in Eq. (1) all a's and b's other than 𝑎𝑎1 ,𝑎𝑎0 and 𝑏𝑏0 are taken as zero, we get
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜
𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 = 𝑏𝑏0 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Any instrument that follows this equation is called a first-order instrument.
By dividing by 𝑎𝑎0 , the equation can be written as

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 46 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

𝑎𝑎1 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 𝑏𝑏0

+ 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 = 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝑎𝑎0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎0
or
(𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1)𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 = 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 (3)
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
where 𝜏𝜏 = 𝑎𝑎 1 = time constant, and K = 𝑎𝑎 0 = static sensitivity. The time constant 𝜏𝜏 always
0 0
has the dimensions of time while the static sensitivity K has the dimensions of output/input.

The operational transfer function of any first-order instrument is

𝑥𝑥0 𝐾𝐾
= (4)
𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1
A practical example of a first-order instrument: mercury-in-glass thermometer.

1. 7. 2. 3. Dynamic Response of Second Order Instrument

The relations between any input and output can, by using suitable simplifying assumptions,
be written as

𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛 −1 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜

𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
+ 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛−1 𝑛𝑛 −1
+ ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚 −1 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
= 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏0 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 (1)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚 −1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 = output quantity 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 = input quantity and t = time

a's and b's are combinations of systems physical parameters, assumed constant.

If in Eq. (1) all a's and b's other than 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎1 ,𝑎𝑎0 and 𝑏𝑏0 are taken as zero, we get
𝑑𝑑2 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜
𝑎𝑎2 2
+ 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 = 𝑏𝑏0 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

A second-order instrument is defined as one that follows above the equation.

The above equations can be reduced as

𝐷𝐷2 2𝜉𝜉𝜉𝜉
� 2 + 𝑎𝑎1 + 1� 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 = 𝑏𝑏0 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 (3)
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛
𝑎𝑎
where 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 = �𝑎𝑎 0 = undamped natural frequency in radians/time
2
𝑎𝑎 1
2𝜉𝜉 = = damping ratio
�𝑎𝑎 0 𝑎𝑎 2
𝐾𝐾 = 𝑏𝑏0 /𝑎𝑎0 = static sensitivity
Practical example second-order instrument: spring balance.

The characteristic feature of the second-order system is an exchange between two types of
energy, e.g., electrostatic and electromagnetic energy in electrical LC circuits, moving coil
indicators, and electromechanical recorders.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 47 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

1. Explain the dynamic response of a second-order instrument. [8]

2. Draw the block diagram showing the basic functional elements of instrument and
explain the functions of each. [R19 Sup Jul 2023 7M]
3. Explain how an instrument is calibrated. [R19 Sup Jul 2023 7M]

1. 7. 3. 1. Why is an ammeter connected in series and a voltmeter in parallel in a circuit?

The ammeter is used to find the value of current in circuitry for accurate measurement of
current it should pass through the ammeter. So, it is connected in series in a circuit.
If we place it in parallel and its resistance is also less so all current will flow through it and
can damage this meter because we know that current always follows less resistance path.
So, it is always preferred to connect in series for current measurements.
The resistance of the voltmeter is high so if we place it in series then there will be less
amount of current will flow through the circuit due to this it uses in parallel to measure the
voltage across any element.

Why is Voltmeter connected in Parallel?

The voltmeter constructs in such a manner that their
internal resistance always remains high. If it connects in
series with the circuit, it minimizes the current which
flows because of the measurand voltage. The high
resistance of the voltmeter combines with the impedance
of the element across which it is to be connected. Thus,
disturb the reading of the voltmeter.

Why Voltmeter has High Resistance?

The voltmeter is constructed with very high internal resistance because it measures the
potential difference between the two points of the circuit. The voltmeter does not change the
current of the measuring device.
If the voltmeter has low resistance, the current passes through it, and the voltmeter gives the
incorrect result. The high resistance of the voltmeter does not allow the current to pass
through it and thus the correct reading is obtained.

1. 7. 3. 2. Digital Voltmeter and Ammeter

Quality Digital Voltmeter Digital Ammeter
A type of device through which the
An ammeter is used to measure
electrical potential difference
Definition electric current in any device (an
between two points is measured of
electric circuit)
any electric circuit.
Installation Always in parallel Always in series
The voltmeter measures the voltage An ammeter measures the current in
Measures
parallel to the current series.
Range in ammeter cannot be
Range The range can be changed
changed
More accurate than an analog More accurate than a digital
Accuracy
voltmeter voltmeter
Resistance The voltmeter has more resistance. Ammeter has less resistance.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 48 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

1. 7. 3. 2. Differences between Moving Iron and Moving Coil Instruments

Basis for Comparison Moving Iron Instrument Moving Coil Instrument

Definition In moving iron instruments, soft In moving-coil instruments, the

iron is used for the moving conductor coil is used for
mechanism. measuring the current and voltage.

Working Principle Magnetism Similar to the working principle

of DC Motor

Symbolic
Representation

Uses Both for AC and DC DC Measurement

measurement

Accuracy Less More

Scale Non-uniform Uniform

Damping Air Friction Damping Eddy Current Damping

Power Consumption High Low

Controlling Torque Gravity or spring Spring

Deflection Proportional to Current Square of current

Hysteresis Loss Not occurs Occurs

Can be used as Ammeter, Voltmeter and Voltmeter, ammeter,

Wattmeter galvanometer, ohmmeter

1. 7. 3. 1. 1. Advantages of Digital Voltmeter (DVM)

1. Eliminates Human Error: With the digitized numeric value, which is in decimal
form, a human can easily read the volts value without any chance of
misinterpretation.
2. More Accurate: A digital voltmeter can give a reliable and accurate result with a
minimum chance of operating error. In the general case, a DVM has an accuracy of
0.5% + 1 digit with a temperature between -5 ⁰C to 55 ⁰C.
3. Cost-Effective: A sophisticated DVM can cost less than Rs.1000 which is a small
price for this handy tool.
4. Smaller in size: They are generally available in various sizes. But majorly, the
general size of a DVM is about the size of a 6” smart phone. Moreover, they are also
slim and lightweight.
5. AC and DC Compatible: A digital voltmeter is capable to measure both types of
voltages i.e., AC and DC volts.
6. Store Reading: With the recent developments, the latest digital voltmeters can store
reading. So, that you can use them later for referencing the values.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 49 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

7. High Input Impedance: With this, you can measure high input impedance (opposite
of current), both static (resistance) and dynamic (reactance) values.

1. 7. 3. 1. 2. Disadvantages of Digital Voltmeter (DVM)

1. Unlike analog voltmeters, there is no need for external power sources. But if you have
a digital voltmeter, you have to add an external power source (battery) to get the
display output.
2. The optimum temperature of the digital voltmeter is −5 ⁰C to 55 ⁰C, so if the DVM is
constantly being employed, you might get a wrong reading because of overheating
issues.
3. A DVM can state the wrong value due to the noise of their integrated part such as the
A/D converter.
4. If the voltage value goes beyond the operation range, there is more chance that it
could get damaged.
5. A DVM is unable to read the fluctuation of the digital voltmeter.
6. Moreover, if you are employing it to find a peak voltage value then it might be hard
for you.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The closeness of values indicated by an instrument to the actual value is defined as
(a) repeatability (b) reliability (c) uncertainty (d) accuracy.
2. Precision is defined as
(a) repeatability (b) reliability (c) uncertainty (d) accuracy
3. The ratio of change in output to the change in the input is called
(a) precision (b) resolution (c) sensitivity (d) repeatability
4. The deviation of the measured value to the desired value is defined as
(a) error (b) repeatability (c) hysteresis (d) resolution
5. Improper setting of the range of a multimeter leads to an error called
(a) random error (b) limiting error (c) instrumental error (d) observational error
6. Errors that occur even when all the gross and systematic errors are taken care of are
called
(a) environmental errors (b) instrumental errors
(c) limiting errors (d) random errors.
7. A means of reducing environmental errors, is the regulation of ambient
(a) noise (b) temperature (c) light (d) mains voltage
8. The ability of an instrument to respond to the weakest signal is defined as
(a) sensitivity (b) repeatability (c) resolution (d) precision.
9. The difference between the expected value of the variable and the measured variable
is termed
(a) absolute error (b) random error (c) instrumental error (d) gross error
10. Accuracy is expressed as
(a) relative accuracy (b) % accuracy (c) error (d) % error
11. Error is expressed as
(a) absolute error (b) relative error (c) % error (d) % accuracy
12. Gross errors occur due to
(a) human error (b) instrumental error
(c) environmental error (d) random error

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 50 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

13. Static errors are caused due to

(a) measuring devices (b) human error
(c) environmental error (d) observational error
14. Dynamic errors are caused by
(a) instrument not responding fast (b) human error
(c) environmental error (d) observational error
15. To select the range, a multirange ammeter uses a
(a) double pole double throw switch (b) make before break type switch
(c) single pole double throw switch (d) simple switch
16. A d’ Arsonval movement is
(a) taut band (b) PMMC
(c) electrodynamometer (d) moving iron type
17. The instrument required to measure current is a/an
(a) voltmeter (b) ammeter (c) wattmeter (d) ohmmeter
18. Limiting errors are
(a) manufacturer's specifications of accuracy
(b) manufacturer's specifications of instrumental error
(c) environmental errors (d) random errors
19. To select a range, the Ayrton shunt uses a
(a) double pole double throw switch (b) make before break type switch
(c) single pole double throw switch (d) simple switch
20. Current in the RF range is measured by
(a) simple ammeter (b) ammeter using thermocouples.
(c) multirange ammeters. (d) Ayrton shunt.
21. Large current in RF range at low moderate frequencies is measured by
(a) simple ammeter (b) ammeter using thermocouples.
(c) using a current transformer (d) using Ayrton shunt.
22. To minimize skin effect at high RF range
(a) inductance is use (b) array of Shunts are used
(c) dielectric material is used (d) Ayrton shunt is used
23. At low and moderate RF using a secondary wound on a torridal ring, a current ratio is
obtained.
(a) 500 (b) 1000 (c) 2000 (d) 5000
24. A d’ Arsonval movement is
(a) taut band (b) PMMC
(c) electrodynamometer (d) moving iron type
25. The instrument required to measure voltage is
(a) ohmmeter (b) ammeter (c) voltmeter (d) wattmeter
26. To select the range, a multirange voltmeter uses
(a) double pole double throw switch (b) make before break type switch
(c) single pole double throw switch d) simple switch
27. The sensitivity of a voltmeter is defined as
(a) Ω/V (b) V/Ω (c) I/Ω (d) Ω/I
28. Loading effect in a voltmeter can be avoided by
(a) using an accurate and precise instrument(b) using a low sensitivity voltmeter
(c) using a high sensitivity voltmeter (d) using high voltage range
29. TVM is used to measure
(a) dc mV (b) dc µV (c) ac µV (d) ac mV
30. Chopper type voltmeter is used to measure
(a) dc µV, (b) dc mV, (c) ac µ V, (d) ac mV.

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 51 of 52
 EMI – UNIT-I – Performance Characteristics of Instruments and AC & DC Meters

31. The ac voltmeter using PMMC measures

(a) true RMS voltage (b) peak voltage
(c) average voltage (d) instantaneous voltage
32. To move the operating point of rectifier used in an ac voltmeter in the linear region,
the meter is shunted by
(a) capacitor (b) diode (c) inductor (d) resistor
33. A diode used as rectifier in ac voltmeter should have
(a) high forward current and low reverse currents
(b) high forward current and high reverse current
(c) low forward current and high reverse current
(d) low forward current and low reverse current
34. The input stage of TVM consists of
(a) UJT stage (b) FET stage (c) BJT stage (d) SCR stage
35. A true RMS voltmeter measures
(a) average value (b) instantaneous value
(c) RMS value (d) peak value
36. The ohms per volt rating on ac ranges as compared to the same rating on dc ranges is
(a) less (b) more (c) equal (d) none of the above
37. In a 20 kΩ/V sensitivity multimeter, the input resistance for measuring ac voltage in
10 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 is
(a) 200 kΩ (b) 20 kΩ (c) 10 kΩ (d) 2 kΩ
38. Ac measurement is achieved by connecting a/an in series with a PMMC.
(a) resistor (b) diode (c) inductor (d) capacitor
39. The internal resistance of an ohmmeter can be estimated from
(a) 0 deflection (b) full-scale deflection
(c) half-scale deflection (d) quarter deflection
40. Measurement in a ramp type DVM is performed during the
(a) negative slope (b) positive slope
(c) both of the slope (d) none of the above
41. Measurement by dual-slope DVM is performed during
(a) rising slope (b) falling slope
(c) rising and falling slope (d) none of the slope
42. The principle of voltage to time conversion is used in
(a) dual slope type DVM (b) successive approximation type DVM
(c) integrating type DVM (d) none of the above
43. SAR type DVM uses the principle of
(a) voltage to time conversion (b) voltage to frequency conversion
(c) voltage to binary conversion (d) voltage to current conversion
44. Dual slope operates on the principle of
(a) voltage to time conversion (b) voltage to frequency conversion
(c) frequency to voltage conversion(d) voltage to current conversion

Websites for Animated video’s on few concepts in Unit 1:

https://youtu.be/oAdNKL8SgNY on generalised measurement system
https://youtu.be/ZtBKC6WSjD0 on basic principle involved in meters
https://youtu.be/FBVeHziqNg4 on working of PMMC meter
https://youtu.be/LdAb3hUDTRY on working of Ammeter, Voltmeter and Ohmmeter

R20 – III-i – ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr. SJMR Page 52 of 52