Lesson 1: Biological 3.

Polysaccharides
Macromolecules
(CH2O)n
- They’re Organic.
Atoms: C, H, O
What’s an organic molecule?
Examples:
- Compounds made up of
 glucose
hydrocarbons
 sucrose
- Carbon and Hydrogen atoms  starch
 cellulose
- Living/once living (YOU are Organic!)
 chitin
(Not CO2. It's a gas!)
Monosaccharides
There are four classes of
biological macromolecules we will - It has one carbon chain or carbon
be looking at:
ring
 Proteins
- Glucose is the simplest molecule that
 Lipids
could be absorbed by the cells
 Carbohydrates
 Nucleic acids (This will be last) - C6H12O6 Atoms: C, H, O
What exactly is a macromolecule?
- A very, very large molecule
Biological Macromolecule
- All biological macro-molecule is
organic, meaning they all contain
hydrocarbons...Carbon atoms (with
attached Hydrogens!) Other elements Disaccharides

- made up of two rings of carbon

may include Oxygen, Nitrogen,
Phosphorus and Sulfur
resulting from the combination of
- We’re looking at Polymers. monosaccharides in a process known
POLY means MANY as dehydration synthesis

Polymers made up of single units - Glycosidic Bond

called MONOMERS
“Mono” means ONE so a polymer
is made up of many monomers
CARBOHYDRATES (C, H, O)
Classified into three:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides and
Examples: - Food source for seeds and plant
bulbs
 Sucrose
 Lactose Complex Carbs and Energy
 Maltose
► Starches, Cellulose and Glycogen
Polysaccharides are broken down by proteins called
enzymes (remember digestion in
►contain more than ten (10)
lysosomes!!??.....similar concept!)
monosaccharide units and can be
hundreds of sugar units ►Broken down into their monomers →
Glucose
►Below is a part of the polymer
► Glucose is further broken down
during cellular respiration in the
mitochondria for energy
►About 36 ATP molecules of energy
per each glucose molecule!!!
starch!!
Functions of Carbohydrates
Glycogen in Animals
1. Energy supply.
- A branched polymer made up of
numerous glucose monomers When broken down into glucose, they
provide energy directly to cells in the
- Long-term energy storage found in body such as the muscles, brain,
the liver heart, kidneys enabling the body to
perform its functions. Without energy
- Quickly broken down into glucose for
none of the other life processes are
Immediate energy
performed. For the indigestible
Starch portions of carbohydrates referred to
as dietary fiber, they increase the
- Found in: Grains (wheat, rice, com, physical bulk of the bowel for easy
oats, barley) Tubers such as potatoes movement through the colon out of
are rich in starch. the body.
Non-starch Polysaccharides 2. Energy storage.
►dietary fiber group - Excess glucose is stored. In the human
body it is stored in the form of glycogen in
►found in vegetables, fruits as well as
the muscles and in the liver while in plant
whole grains in the form of cellulose,
it is stored as starch. In times when the
hemicelluloses, pectin and gums. body uses up the glucose supply after
Cellulose excessive physical activity or prolonged
hunger this stored energy in the form of
- ALSO, a glucose polymer fat is converted back to glucose, therefore,
adequate glucose supply will prevent the
- Offers the plant support degradation of skeletal muscle and other
tissues such as the heart, liver, and
- Energy storage kidneys.
- Makes up cell wall
3. Building macromolecules.
- Some glucose is converted to ribose
and deoxyribose, which are forms of
sugar used as the building blocks of
RNA, DNA, and ATP.
PROTEINS (Made up of mostly C,
H, O, and N, and some Sulfur)
WHAT DO THEY DO? Made up of Amino Acid
Monomers!!!
They are the major structural
molecules in living things for growth - Remember protein synthesis????
and repair: muscles, ligaments, Transcription and translation?
tendons, bones, hair, skin, nails ...IN
FACT ALL CELL MEMBRANES have - A peptide bond bonds amino acids
protein in them together

✓ They make up antibodies in the - Creates a polypeptide

immune system
✓ They make up enzymes for helping
chemical reactions
✓ They makeup non-steroid hormones
which
THINK: Proteins membranes, enzymes,
antibodies, non-steroid hormones,
structural molecules, "MEANS"

Essential amino acids

- cannot be produced by the body and
therefore must come from the diet -9
of the 20 amino acids are essential
(phenylalanine, lysine, valine,
tryptophan, histidine, methionine,
✓Aside from the protein found in leucine, isoleucine and threonine)
animal sources...protein can also be
Non-essential amino acids
found in fruits, vegetables, grains, and
nuts. acids) - can be produced by the body and,
therefore, do not need to come from
the diet.
Insulin Functions of
Proteins
- Chemical signaler protein produced
in the pancreas 1. Antibodies.
- Causes cells in the liver, muscle, and - These are
fat tissue to take up glucose from proteins found in
blood and convert it to glycogen that
can be stored in the liver and muscles
- Diabetes is a condition when a
person has high blood glucose (blood
sugar), either because insulin
production is Inadequate, or because
the body's cells do not respond the blood made
properly to insulin, or both. by white blood cells called B cells.
Hemoglobin They help recognize and destroy
foreign pathogens in the immune
- A protein in red blood cells that system, thus, fight infections.
carries oxygen
2. Enzymes
Antibodies
- These proteins speed up chemical
- are part of the immune system reactions such as blood clotting to
DNA synthesis to digestion such that
- When something enters the body
reactions that would take years could
that isn’t supposed to be there, like
happen only in seconds. They do this
certain bacteria, antibodies find the
either by breaking down molecules
invader and stick themselves to it
into smaller pieces or by building up
- White blood cells destroy the large molecules without themselves
invaders (hopefully) being and without affecting the
reactants and products in the
Enzymes reactions they catalyze. There are
- Speed up the rate of chemical approximately 1300 different enzymes
reaction (a catalyst) by lowering the found in the human cell.
energy needed to begin the reaction 3. Hormones
- Re-usable - These are proteins used by the cell in
- Molecule specific – like a lock and key receiving and sending chemical
signals, thereby coordinating bodily
- Example. Only functions. For example, insulin controls
Lactase will our blood sugar concentration by
break down regulating the uptake of glucose into
lactose. It will cells. Hormones include insulin,
never break estrogen, testosterone, adrenaline,
down proteins. cortisol etc.
4. Transport
- These proteins move molecules ✓ They waterproof surfaces of
across cell membranes. For example, animals, plants, and fruits- these are
hemoglobin in the blood helps waxes!
transport oxygen to the different parts
THINK: Waterproof, insulate, steroids,
of the body
energy, cushion...
5. Contractile function
Remember the cell membrane?
- These are involved in muscle
- PhosphoLIPID bilayer of the cell
contraction enabling movement such
membrane? The fatty acid tails are
as walking, writing, chewing.
lipids! It's semi-permeable, allowing
Examples are actin and myosin.
only certain molecules to diffuse
6. Support Structure across the membrane to enter or
- These provide support to organisms. Three main types of lipids
For instance, the proteins in our bones
1. Triglycerides
provide framework to the human body.
Protein fingernails and hair such as 2. Phospholipids
collagen and elastin provide support to
humans. 3. Sterols

7. DNA synthesis and repair Triglycerides

(Tricylglycerides)→Glycerol Group
- These are proteins associated with with 3 Fatty Acid Chains
regulating chromosome structure
during cell division and in regulating - make up more than 95 percent of
gene expression. Examples are lipids in the diet of fried foods, butter,
histones and cohesion whole milk, cheese and some meats.

LIPIDS (Mostly C, H, and some O) PhosphoLIPID

WHAT DO THEY DO? - lipids whose fatty acid component

has been replaced by a phosphate
✓STORED ENERGY →Broken down for group (PO4)
energy
- major component of the cell
✓They INSULATE the body to help membrane
maintain normal body temperature
and they - it's semi-permeable, allowing only
certain molecules to diffuse across the
✓CUSHION the internal organs for membrane to enter or exit the cell
protection.
✓ Include waxes, Oils
Sterols
✓ include steroids such as cholesterol
and the sex hormones estrogen and - These lipids appear as tetrameric(4-
testosterone sided) rings comprising about 50% of
the membrane lipid content in cells,
✓ Anabolic steroids build muscle thus altering the membrane fluidity
and structure.
- The most common sterol in animal NUCLEIC ACID (C, H, O, N, P)
membrane is cholesterol which is
- They are found in all living
about 20-20% of all sterols present in
organisms.
the organism.
- From the tiny bacteria to the complex
- Cholesterol is manufactured by the
organisms
human body.
- contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
- Ergosterol are found in membranes
nitrogen, and phosphorus. (C, H, O, N,
of fungi and protists, while
P)
phytosterols are found in plants
Monomers are called Nucleotides
Functions of Lipids
1. Nitrogenous base
1.Structural components of cell
membranes. 2. Five-carbon carbohydrate or sugar
- Phospholipids are the major 3. Phosphate group
component of cell membrane
structure. The types of Nucleic Acids
1. DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid)

2. Energy storehouses. 2. RNA (RiboNucleic Acid)

When one eats a lot of carbohydrates, DNA

the excess glucose is stored as - "DNA" is short for Deoxyribonucleic
glycogen by the liver, then this is Acid
converted back to glucose by the liver
as the need arises. For instance, when - Your genetic makeup!!
one has done a heavy work cleaning
- termed as the blueprint of life
the house or working in the garden or
running in a basketball game and has - Double-Stranded double helix
exhausted all the glucose derived from
a certain meal, the liver converts the - Nitrogen bases Adenine (A), Cytosine
glycogen back to glucose. (C), Guanine (G), Thymine (T)

3. Important signaling molecules. - Remember NO Uracil (U)

The lipids in the cell membrane - Deoxy-ribose sugar

receive signal from outside the cell. A
chemical signal which is the "primary
messenger" cannot get into the cell
and so binds to receptor on the
membrane activating enzymes. These
enzymes cleave the surface of lipid to
transmit the message making the
lipids the "secondary messenger" that RNA
can bind with intracellular enzymes. - "RNA" is short for Ribonucleic Acid
This activates intracellular processes
to respond to the message. – Works with DNA to create proteins
- Single-Stranded Conditions that are necessary for
a success reaction to take place
- Nitrogen bases Adenine (A), Cytosine
(C), Guanine (G), Uracil (U) • The particles must collide with each
other.
- Remember NO Thymine (T)
• The particles must have proper
- Ribose sugar
orientation.
• The particles must collide with
sufficient energy to break the old
bonds.
Activation Energy
• The amount of energy the reactant
Functions of Nucleic Acid particles must have in order to break
1. Storage and expression of the old bonds for a reaction to occur.
genetic information. Reaction rate
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) encodes • Intuitively defines as how quickly or
the information the cell needs. The slowly reaction takes place
sequence of the molecule encoded
can give a message, "make this Factors affecting reaction rate
protein, replicate me". The cell then
1. Temperature
supplies the nucleotides needed for
the manufacture of that specific 2. Surface are
protein. The resulting protein would
3. Concentration of reactants
help in the expression of a certain
characteristic such as color of hair or 4. Catalyst
height.
Catalyst
2. Protein Synthesis
- a substance that increases the rate
- RNA, on the other hand, participate of a chemical reaction without itself
in the actual making of protein known undergoing any permanent chemical
as protein synthesis. It converts stored change.
information in DNA to make proteins. It
is also used by viruses as genetic
material. Examples of catalyst
Lesson 2: Factors that affect rate - Iron (Fe) catalyst in the production of
of reaction ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen
Collision theory (Haber process)

- States that chemical reaction occurs - Nickel in the production of margarine

when molecules colliding have (hydrogenation of vegetable oil)
sufficient kinetic energy Importance of catalyst
- Products can be made more quickly, Example: What is the molar mass of
saving time and money H₂O?
- Catalyst reduces the need for high
temperatures, saving fuel and
reducing pollution.
- Enzymes serve as a catalyst for living
cells (ex. special type of protein)
Temperature
• If the temperature is increased:
- the reactant particles move more
quickly
- the reactant particles have more
kinetic energy
• More collisions will take place
Surface area
•Many surface area would have a
larger space of collision between
particles of a reaction
Concentration of reactants
If the concentration is increased:
- the reactant particles become more
crowded
- there is greater chance of the
particles colliding;
- the rate of reaction increases

Lesson 3
MOLAR MASS
- The atomic mass of each individual
element as listed in the periodic table
- For compounds or molecules, take
the sum of the atomic mass times the
number of each atom in order to
determine the molar mass