ABSTRACT

The paper examines the higher

education scenario in India and attempts
to point out why very few serious
investors invest in higher educational
sector. Several factors are responsible
for this. Primary among these are the
legal and legislative hurdles in several
federal states. It is also seen that the bad
precedent set by the existing institutions
dissuade serious investments.
Understanding the Status These factors have led to specific
problems for serious investors in this
of Higher Education in sector in India. The paper identifies
these problems and suggests that a
India: Challenges and possible change in perception towards
higher education would be most desired
in the current milieu. Certain contours
Scepticism towards of change in perception are identified.

Serious Investments in D. Dhanuraj and Rahul V. Kumar

Centre for Public Policy Research
the Sector
January 27, 2015

Hewlett-Packard
Centre for Public |Policy
[Type the company address]
Research
1 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India: Challenges and

Scepticism towards Serious Investments in the Sector

Introduction

A. The Higher Educational Infrastructure in India

Figure 1 shows the spectrum of higher educational institutions in India. Higher education in
India is provided by five groups of institutions: Central, state, private, deemed universitiesi
and „Institutions of National Importance‟.ii There are 52 such institutions. They
predominantly consist of the Indian Institutes of Technology, National Institutes of
Technology and prominent medical colleges, including the All India Institute of Medical
Science. There are 43 central universities, 312 state universities, 183 private universities and
115 deemed universities in India as listed by the University Grants Commission (UGC), the
apex regulatory body for higher [Link]

All the above university groups are legally entitled to grant degrees. State universities are the
only institutions that are allowed to affiliate private as well as public colleges under them.
However, these colleges are allowed to operate only within the individual federal state
borders. Private colleges offering professional courses, which match specific needs of a
sector or industry, are often affiliated to state universities. It is difficult to estimate the total
number of colleges in various federal states. However, affiliated colleges which are provided
grants by the UGC are listed on its website. These colleges are called 2f and 12 b colleges.
According to the latest figures, there are approximately 9,195 such affiliated colleges in India
supported by the UGC. The federal states of Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra have the
maximum number of affiliated colleges numbering 1,677 and 1,185 respectively. Karnataka
(766), Chattisgarh (488), Gujarat (486), Tamil Nadu (468), and West Bengal (433) too have
large number of affiliated colleges under their federal state universities. While private
universities do not have affiliated colleges, these universities also offer professional as well
as regular courses in it.

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2 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

Figure 1: Universe of Higher Educational Institutions in India

Universities in India

Institutions allowed to
grant degrees

Central State Private Deemed National Importance

Act of Parliament Federal State Federal State Under Under

Legislation Legislation Department of Department of
Under
Higher Higher
Department of
Education Education
Higher Education
MHRD MHRD
MHRD Provides Degrees Not Legally
to Courses Permitted to
Offered at Establish
Affiliated Affiliated Not Legally
Do not have Colleges Colleges Permitted to
Affiliated Establish
Colleges but Affiliated
provides Degrees Colleges
to course offered
at selected
institutions.

The Ministry of Human Resources Development notes that since 1950 until 2009, university
and university level institutions in India have increased approximately 18 times (from 27 in
1950 to 504 in 2009). Despite this increase, the required capacity remains much higher.
Conservative estimates showed that by 2006 India required “at least 3,000 more universities
each having the capacity to enrol not less than 10,000 students” to meet its demands
(Bhargava, 2006).iv

By mid-2000 Private investments in higher education was already becoming an alternative

route to meet this demand. The number of privately funded institutions for higher education
increased from approximately 43 per cent in 2000-01 to approximately 64 per cent in 2005-
06. Gross enrolment in these institutions increased during the same period from
approximately 33 per cent to 52 per cent during the same period (Prakash, 2009, 3254).

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3 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

B. Legislations and Institutional Regulations in Higher Education

In India, education is in the concurrent list, where federal states and the central government
share responsibilities.v Until recently, legislations in higher education prohibited profit
making in the sector. Higher education was defined as a not-for-profit sector. Private
investments were to be made by sponsoring bodies that had to be a “Society registered under
the Societies Registration Act 1860, or any other corresponding law for the time being in
force in a state, or a public trust or a company registered under Section 25 of the Companies
Act, 1956.”vi The State provided for tax exemptions for donations made to this sector
(Loomba, 2014).vii It was only during the Twelfth Five Year Plan in India (2012-2017) that
the state considered re-evaluating this status of higher education in [Link] However, until
recently there has been no clarity on how this suggestion would be implemented.

A 100 per cent Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is promoted in higher education through the
automatic route which requires no prior approval from the state. However, the regulatory
environment prescribes several conditions for foreign universities including fixing of fees, or
the need of foreign institutions to affiliate with an Indian counterpart, which has dissuaded
[Link]

The nodal ministry for education in India is the Ministry of Human Resource Development
(MHRD). The MHRD has a Department of Higher education which is the apex department
“for the overall development of the basic infrastructure of Higher Education sector”.xThe
University Grants Commission (UGC) under the Department of Higher Education in the
MHRD acts as the coordinator as well as prescriber of standards for education in the country.

UGC, established by an Act of parliament in 1956, is a statutory body of the Government of

India. UGC has its head office in New Delhi and six regional centres (Pune, Hyderabad,
Kolkata, Bhopal, Guwahati and Bengaluru) to cater to various regions in the country and it
has the following mandates:

 Promoting and coordinating university education.

 Determining and maintaining standards of teaching, examination and research in
universities.
 Framing regulations on minimum standards of education.
 Monitoring developments in the field of collegiate and university education;
disbursing grants to universities and colleges.

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4 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

 Serving as a vital link between the Union and state governments and institutions of
higher learning.
 Advising the central and state governments on the measures necessary for
improvement of university [Link]

This mandate makes the UGC a major regulator of higher education in India. However, the
regulatory environment is not limited to the UGC alone. All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE), Department of Electronics Accreditation of Computer Courses
(DOEACC), Distance Education Council (DEC), Indian Council for Agricultural Research
(ICAR), Bar Council of India (BCI), National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE),
Rehabilitation Council of India, Medical Council of India, Pharmacy Council of India (PCI)
Indian Nursing Council (INC), Dentist Council of India (DCI), Central Council of
Homeopathy (CCH), Central Council of Indian Medicine, Council for Architecture, National
Council for Rural Institute, and State Councils for Higher Education together decide the
quality of higher educational institutions in India. Despite this regulatory environment, the
Indian judiciary has been constantly involved in defining private investments in higher
education indicating the inadequacy of the present regulatory [Link] .

C. Accreditation

Accreditation of higher educational institutions in India has remained a contentious issue.

Several autonomous bodies function to grant accreditation. Foremost among them are the
National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), and the National Board of
Accreditation (NBA). Accreditation of higher educational institutions was made mandatory
under UGC (Mandatory Assessment and Accreditation of higher Educational Institutions)
Regulations, 2012. The institutions are accredited for a period of five years and this status
was tied to the funds which they would receive from the UGC.

Accreditations are also made mandatory for any higher educational institutions to receive the
title of a university. There is an increasing requirement to expand accrediting institutions to
keep pace with the growing number of higher educational [Link] The NAAC was
established to operate under the UGC in 1994 to maintain the quality of higher educational
institutions in India. For technical education under the AICTE, the NBA was established
during the same year. The major problem which stymied the functioning of these institutions
providing accreditation were their dependence and existence as appendages to the regulators

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5 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

(UGC and AICTE). The situation continued for nearly a decade before the NBA separated
and became independent from the AICTE. However, NAAC has until very recently remained
part of the UGC. The process of separation is currently being [Link]

Observations

1. There is a huge requirement for higher educational institutions in India. Private

investments were considered the answer to this requirement and have become vital
since 2000.
2. There is continuous involvement from the judiciary to decide the trajectory of private
higher educational institutions. This indicates that the regulatory and legislative
environment is ill-equipped to meet the growing private sector.
3. The regulatory environment dominated by the UGC is directly influenced by the
federal government. This has implications on its independent functioning. In addition
accreditation institutions are more or less appendages of the UGC which in turn
affects its independence.

Private Sector in Higher Education: Prevailing Scepticism

The higher educational sector, until the entry of private investors, was dominated by state- led
institutions. With the entry of private investors to this sector there was a noticeable failure to
improve the existing regulatory requirements to accommodate them. This led to incompetent
players and illegal practices. It was some time before this was recognised and measures were
adopted to counteract them.

The prevailing scepticism faced by the sector owes much to the dominance of such players.
Starting from 2002, a series of incidents were reported in private higher educational
institutions in India which revealed corruption, cronyism, rifts in the manner of its
functioning and compromise with quality. The federal state of Chattisgarh was one of the first
where private universities were legally challenged. The Supreme Court challenged provisions
in the Chattisgarh Private Sector University Act (2002) allowing for a proliferation of private
universities in the state; 112 private universities in the state were declared void and
unconstitutional by the Court in [Link] This opened up a gamut of issues on the operation of
these universities. As a follow-up to regulating and monitoring the standards of these
institutions, a series of steps were adopted by the UGC, under the privileges it held (UGC Act
1956) which were reiterated by the Court ruling in Chhattisgarh. The guidelines were set

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6 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

primarily under the UGC (Establishment of and Maintenance of Standards in Private

Universities) Regulation, 2003.

A. Allegations against Private Colleges and Deemed Universities

Following the issue in Chattisgarh, media reports indicated that the condition of other
affiliated private colleges and universities across India were not very different. Several
serious allegations and exposures were made against these institutions. These incidents posed
questions on the ability of these institutions to offer a professional and competitive
environment. This was also a pointer towards the ailing higher educational institutions in
India. Some prominent issues over the period since 2002 had a negative impact on the status
of private sector providers of higher education. Selected incidents are noted below.

a. Arbitrary nature of fees collected in private medical colleges in Chennai (capital of

the southern federal state of Tamil Nadu) in 2009, also led to exposure of the family
fiefdom that deemed universities had become. It showed that most of the family
members who held influential positions in these universities worked with honorary
decorates earned from foreign [Link] This issue reopened questions on the
credentials of investors in the sectors.
b. It was reported that entrance to these deemed medical and engineering colleges in
India were mostly made through the offer of „capitation fees‟ paid in cash. The fee
ranged from USD 100,000 to 200,000. The southern federal states of India were
notorious for the prevalence of this system. In Tamil Nadu, there were 16 blacklisted
universities while in Karnataka there were [Link] There have also been reports that in
the eastern federal state of West Bengal similar amounts were collected from students
admitted to medical [Link]
c. Entrance of students to these institutions also took place through what is defined as
management quotas. The fee charged under this can be as high as 40-50 per cent of
the existing [Link]
d. Proliferation of these deemed universities led to the constitution of a Central
xx
government panel which recommended blacklisting of 44 deemed universities in
2010. This included 31 private universities and 13 public institutions. Approximately
200,000 students were studying in these institutions. This case is pending before the
Supreme [Link]

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7 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

e. State universities (deemed, as well as private), which were restricted by law to set up
institutions beyond their borders, developed an innovative model where they started
several franchises across the country. This model of franchising led to awarding
degrees to several students without [Link] This was done with the help of
consultancy firms which offered to start study centres across the country. The fee
charged at these centres for specific courses were 5 to 20 times the usual rates. Over
time, some of these centres were almost selling degrees for a [Link]
f. In a very recent expose, violations and malpractices were discovered under colleges
affiliated to the Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha (GGSIP) University, New Delhi. It
is reported that colleges under this university are ill equipped to organise courses. xxiv
Violations of all norms in education have also been reported in the federal state of
Madhya Pradesh where university officials have been arrested over the sex-for-marks
scandal in Rani Durgavati Vishwavidyalaya (RDVV) in [Link]
g. The number of affiliated colleges in federal state universities have been dramatically
increasing. This made it difficult for the state universities to manage these colleges
and ensure quality of [Link] The federal government as part of its 12th Five Year
Plan came up with different options to revamp the affiliation system. However, no
concrete development has occurred so [Link]

B. Issues Plaguing the Private University System in India

The spread of private investment in higher education in India reflects a pattern. While private
colleges providing professional courses in medical and engineering fields abound in the
southern federal states, the northern federal states have more investors in universities. The
southern states are conspicuous in the absence of private universities. Private universities are
enacted through legislations at the level of the federal states. The southern states have stood
firmly against bringing such legislations although the requirements in enrolment for higher
education remain high. Recent efforts in Kerala to bring out a legislation was turned down by
the state [Link] However, it should be noted that the number of deemed universities
have been relatively high in the southern federal [Link] Some observations on the private
universities across India are noteworthy.

a) Not all federal states allow private universities: Federal states with high literacy rates
have not issued legislation favouring establishment of private universities. Only

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8 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

Mizoram and Tripura are exceptions to this feature. The reason behind this remains
unexplored. However, discussion with practitioners in the field reveals that these
decisions are based on political considerations.
b) Northern federal states and states with low achievements in primary and secondary
education have more private universities. Most of the northern federal states have
enacted legislations favouring private universities. Twenty states in India has private
universities enacted through state legislations. Out of these, 13 states have relatively
low literacy levels compared to the rest of India.
c) Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh have maximum number of Private Universities: Out of
these 13 states, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh are noteworthy. They rank 29 and 33
with respect to the literacy levels achieved. The literacy levels in these federal states
are approximately 67 and 69 per cent respectively. This roughly indicates the status of
primary and secondary education levels in these states. If these states are not
concerned with the low levels of achievement in primary education even as they
promote private universities, it could be indicative that are using the sector to generate
revenue.
d) Cronyism is prevalent in these institutions: If we take the specific case of Uttar
Pradesh, we find that in all the 21 private universities in the state, politicians have an
active stake in the management of seven. Another seven universities have
businessmen holding key positions. In at least one of these universities, the vice
chancellor and his relatives have been accused of rape and murder of one of their
students. Thirteen of the private universities do not have any accreditation till date.

Identifying the Problems in Higher Educational Institutions in India

What is noticed in higher education in India is that much of the issues reported have occurred
at colleges and universities (deemed and private) which are controlled by federal state
legislations. This indicates that there are severe issues in how the federal state promote and
manage these higher educational institutions. It is also indicative from the above observations
that the regulatory environment was least proactive to limit the number of such incidents. In
addition, repeated occurrences of such incidents question the accreditation practices existing
in India. The outreach of the existing regulatory structures seems to have been bypassed in
the federal states.

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9 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

The following broad problems are identified as constraints to expanding the higher
educational infrastructure in India. These problems are classified under the three categories of
Regulatory, Institutional and Decision making

Regulatory

Problem 1: The regulatory environment and the existing system of accreditation in India has
proved to be inefficient in the sector. There are two issues here.

a) Centralisation of regulatory and accrediting institutions: Regulation and accreditation

in India are centralised with poor outreach in the federal states. There is a significant
requirement for expanding the reach of accrediting institutions across the country for
keeping pace with the growing number of higher educational [Link] The
dependence and existence of accrediting institutions as appendages to the regulators
stymied its functioning. The process of separation is currently being [Link]
b) Corrupt practices within regulatory agencies: Corruption by officials of UGC and
AICTE has often been reported in the various federal [Link] In addition to the
UGC and AICTE, there exist a number of statutory professional councils which act as
regulators of higher educational institutions. However, the functioning of some of
these councils like the Medical Council of India (MCI) was questionable. In 2010 the
president of MCI was arrested for allegedly taking bribes to give recognition to
private medical colleges. The inefficient legal structures guiding these organisations
are reflected in the fact that the same person was taken on board a few years [Link]
In an attempt to standardize medical education in India the National Commission for
Human Resources for Health (NCHRH) Bill, 2011, was introduced in the parliament.
The bill proposed to dismantle the existing professional councils with an overarching
regulatory body. In view of concerns raised by the federal states the bill was rejected
seeking further [Link] There is no effective mechanism to challenge
corruption in these institutions. The National Accreditation Regulatory Authority for
Higher Educational Institutions Bill (2010) which is still pending debates in
Parliament is a necessary start towards these issues. xxxvThe situation reflects
inefficiency and indecisiveness in managing the sector.

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10 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

Problem 2: Ambiguous Legislations at the Federal State level.

The not-for-profit model in higher education in India is often considered a hurdle to attract
serious players. A for-profit-model is argued to make investments more legible in an
accounting sense and thereby expanding the tax base in the state. It is also argued that this
model would further the linkage between the academia and industry. In furthering
competition, entrepreneurs are expected to take proactive and innovative steps to further the
development in the sector. The inherent delays in the bureaucratic system will also be
eliminated under a competitive environment (Loomba, 2014, 236-240). The present system
does not allow for any of these advantages.

Legislations required for establishing private universities further highlights ambiguities in

legislations at the federal states. Separate state Acts are required to create private universities
across federal states in India. Across states in India where private universities exist, there is
no transparent and comprehensive legislation for these universities. Instead each of these
universities are formed through separate Acts. In some cases like Rajasthan, there is a general
guideline for establishing a university. However, there are significant loopholes in this. In
Uttar Pradesh, which has 21 private universities, each registered under separate acts without
any uniform guideline or a comprehensive law to govern them. Some examples of these state
legislations for selected universities in UP are noted below. These are reported in the
university websites and have been reproduced as such to highlight the issue.

1. "Mangalayatan University, Uttar Pradesh Act" and notified by the Government of

Uttar Pradesh as Act No. 32 of 2006, by its Gazette No. 362/VII-V-1-1(Ka)-
12/2006 dated October 30, 2006
2. Mohammad Ali Jauhar University Act 2005 (UP Act no 19 of 2006)
Notification No. 710/17-2005 VII – V -1 – 1 – (Ka) dated 19.6.2006
3. Invertis University, Uttar Pradesh has been established as a State Private
University at Bareilly by Act No. 5 of 2009 State Legislature of Uttar Pradesh;
With reference to State Government notification no 1105(2)/LXXIX-V-1-10-
1(Ka)29-2009 Dated 1 Sep 2010, on the above subject, UGC is directed to say by
reference no 8-23/2010(CPP-I/PU) Dated 7 Feb 2011 that Invertis University
,Bareilly has been established by an Act(No22 of 2010) of state legislature of
Uttar Pradesh as a State Private University

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11 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

4. The Noida International University is a UGC (University Grants Commission)

recognised university and is sponsored by the Maruti Educational Trust. It was
given the status of a university by the Government of Uttar Pradesh vide
notification No. 1108/79-vi-1-10-1 (Ka) 23-10 Lucknow, dated October 12, 2010,
Act No. 27 of 2010
5. Monad University, Hapur has been established vide Act No.23 of 2010 of the
Government of Uttar Pradesh. This has been published in its Official Gazette on
October 12, 2010

These descriptions are not only confusing but are also opaque. While these Acts could
indicate that these universities are legal, other details of these separate Acts are unavailable.
Some of these Acts are also confusing; as in the case of Invertis University. Such
heterogeneity of legislations make us question the implications of these legislation if the
attempt is to standardise the higher educational infrastructure in India.

Separate legislations for each university lack transparency and breeds cronyism and
corruption. Each state government has to frame the rules for the sector and not for individual
applicants. This endangers the basic tenants of equality before law. Since the intent is to
promote private universities (again, the state has to clarify its position in the policy) the State
has to ensure a level playing field for the competent parties. When the sector is opened up,
the objective should be to improve the quality of education, upgradation of the courses on
timely basis and availability and accessibility to higher education avenues. These guidelines
should be incorporated in the legislation rather giving space for arbitrage.

Problem 3: Ambiguous Guidelines Defined at the Federal State Level

In federal states where comprehensive guidelines exist for the creation of private universities
there are glaring loopholes. One of the most visible comprehensive guidelines for
establishing a private university is provided by the federal state of Rajasthan. The document
is titled “Guidelines for the Establishment of Private Universities by Separate Act replacing
the Rajasthan Private Universities Act, 2005”.xxxvi These guidelines cover three stages of
entry of any player into private universities: an application stage, a stage where a government
committee approves the sponsoring body, and a compliance stage where the government
ensures that the conditions are met. While these umbrella guidelines exist there are two
factors which facilitate cronyism. The sponsoring body of private universities in this state
could evade strict monitoring under this legislation. This is because there are no clear

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12 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

definitions on who would constitute the committee (to approve the sponsoring body‟s
proposal) and what the criteria would be for selecting this committee.

In addition, the power given to the committee to evaluate the sponsoring body‟s proposal
based on “background of the sponsoring body, that is to say its expertise and experience in
the field of education, its general reputation etc. and its commitment to follow the norms of
the regulating bodies; and potentiality of the courses proposed to be offered that is to say the
courses are able to develop the human resources as per the requirements of contemporary
demands, the courses have new features and include emerging branches of learning” are open
to questions and challenges.

Institutional

Problem 4: The Question on Affiliated Colleges

UGC regulations do not grant private universities the right to start affiliated colleges.
Affiliated colleges are allowed only under state universities. Section 2 (f) of the UGC Act
1956 regulates these colleges across the states which submit their proposals for financial
assistance from the [Link] Affiliated colleges under state universities provide for most of
the under-graduate education in India. The system of affiliated colleges has been identified as
increasingly becoming a burden to state universities. The Madhava Menon committee
identified these problems in the federal state of Kerala. Alternatives recommended by the
committee included providing autonomy to these colleges, or grouping them to form cluster
[Link]

The legislation for private universities do not incentivize undergraduate courses. The
existing fee structure for undergraduate programmes are relatively low. This builds a system
where private universities are keen to provide professional courses in management,
engineering or medicine where the fees charged are relatively [Link]

The second problem with promoting a university system which has no incentive to promote
liberal arts, humanities, social sciences and science has much to do with defining the purpose
of education. The strength of this argument is derived from suggestions made in the Yeshpal
Committee report [Link] The report notes that “there is a need to expose students, especially
at the undergraduate level, to various disciplines like humanities, social sciences, aesthetics
etc., in an integrated manner. This should be irrespective of the discipline they would like to
specialize in subsequently” (Yeshpal, 2009, 21).

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13 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

Decision making

Problem 5: Fee Decisions made by the Federal States

Fee structures for the various courses are fixed by the federal state [Link] Admission
and Fee Regulatory Committees (AFRC) exist in most of the federal states to determine the
fee structures in private-professional educational institutions. There are contentions between
the state and these private institutions on whether the fee charged should be uniform across
students. The state aims at differential fee structures based on economic and social criteria.
However, the private educational institutions argue for a uniform fee structure. Private
educational institutions also point out that the AFRCs are vulnerable and easily influenced by
the federal state governments. This affects their capacity to act as independent regulatory
[Link]

It has also been recognised that the fee structure can vary with factors like location,
infrastructure, or funds required to expand the institutions. Uniform fee structures are likely
to influence the functioning of private providers that require funds for these purposes. Such
regulations could restrict fund requirements and contribute to corruption and cronyism. In
affiliated colleges of state universities expenditure incurred by the federal state governments
to provide subsidised education is [Link]

Problem 6: Freedom to Start a Course and Design it

Section 22 of UGC Act 1956 says that, “the right of conferring or granting degrees shall be
exercised only by a University established or incorporated by or under a Central Act, a
Provincial Act or a State Act or an institution deemed to be a University under Section 3 or
an institution specially empowered by an Act of Parliament to confer or grant degrees.” This
clause has been used by the UGC to prevent academic independence of universities in India
to design and develop courses.

The UGC came up with a gazette notification on July 5, 2014 (with the approval of the
Central government) naming specific degrees („approved nomenclature‟ numbering 129)
which universities could grant for their higher educational courses. The nomenclature was
prescribed by the UGC stating that they should be “generally recognised, globally
acknowledged and widely accepted”. In this gazette publication, the UGC allows for
integrated and dual degree programmes with the freedom for “additional interactive courses”.
However, these freedoms are subject to regulations prescribed by the UGC and various

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14 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

statutory authorities as well as political interferences. For instance, although the UGC gazette
provides options for “additional interactive courses” the existing system in the federal state of
Kerala would authorize the university syndicate to approve it. Autonomy of educational
institutions should allow these decisions to be made at the college level.

Cost of Regulating the Sector

In India, until the beginning of the 21st century, the number of people enrolled in higher
education was significantly low compared to developed and developing nations (Tilak,
1995).xliv The strategy until then was to increase state intervention by subsidising the sector.
The inability of the state to invest „6 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for
education‟ was considered to be a major hurdle in expanding the sector. Arguably, higher
education was considered as a merit goodxlv capable of producing inter-generational
externalities. This continued to be a justification for state involvement in the sector.
Institutions of national importance which were continually funded by the state and remained
the most prestigious were highlighted as success stories. However, the limited number of
seats in these institutions and inability of the state to replicate this success at other state-
owned higher educational institutions became obvious. Private investment in higher
education provided an alternative to the state at this point.

However, a regulated environment continues to stymie the sector. The Gross Enrolment Ratio
(GER) in higher education in India remains at approximately 14 per cent in [Link] This
reflects the continued restricted access to higher education in the country that stands much
below global trends. A study by Ernst & Young specifically notes the role of private sector in
higher education in major countries. In the US, private institutions accounted for
approximately 40 per cent of the enrolments in 2009. For-profit institutions played an active
role in increasing this share. In Japan, private sector accounted for more than three-fourth of
the universities. The enrolments rates in these countries were far ahead of India. The state
functioned in these countries as enablers of the private sector in higher education. This
included facilitating legislations, providing subsidies to ease operating costs, or giving
student aids in for-profit institutions.

The present paper notes that private investments, ever since it‟s entry to the sector, have been
perceived with scepticism. A major reason for this was the reported cases of corruption and
cronyism in the sector. These distortions in the market were the direct result of an ill-
equipped regulatory environment. While the system remained over-regulated, governance of

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15 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

these institutions remained inefficient. The regulatory and accrediting institutions also
functioned as appendages of the state and hence could not operate independently. In this new
environment where private players could play a major role in higher education in India it
becomes essential that they are facilitated by removing these bottlenecks.

The paper identifies six major problems in this context. Undue restrictions imposed on
private investors are likely to have a serious impact on all major stakeholders. For the
students, accessibility to higher educational institutions need to be facilitated. For the state,
the challenge would be on two fronts: the funds required to build the system and the need to
constantly improve human resources in the country. For any serious investor, entry to the
system itself pose a serious challenge. Correcting the system by addressing the problems
identified is essential to remove arbitrary involvement of the state as well as to usher in
serious investors in this field.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

i
“University Grants Commission (Institutions Deemed to be Universities) Regulation, 2010”, Refer:
[Link] The Regulation defined and provided eligibility
conditions for deemed universities.
ii
In India, a university means “a University established or incorporated by or under a Central Act, a Provincial
Act or a State Act and includes any such institution as may, in consultation with the University concerned, be
recognised by the University Grants Commission (UGC) in accordance with the regulations made in this regard
under this Act.” A Private University is “A university established through a State/Central Act by a sponsoring
body viz. A Society registered under the Societies Registration Act 1860, or any other corresponding law for the
time being in force in a State or a Public Trust or a Company registered under Section 25 of the Companies Act,
1956.” Refer: [Link]
iii
University Grants Commission [Link]
iv
P. Bhargava, “Knowledge and National Development”, paper presented in the National Seminar on the
Education Commission organised by NUEPA, New Delhi from December 26-28. 2006, mimeo. in Ved Prakash
“Trends in Growth and Financing of Higher Education in India,” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 42, No.
31 (Aug. 4-10, 2007), pp. 3249-3258.
v
Education was introduced in the concurrent list following the constitutional amendment of Article 42 of the
Indian constitution in 1976.
vi
UGC (Establishment of and Maintenance of Standards in Private Universities) Regulations, 2003,
[Link]/oldpdf/regulations/establishment_maintenance.pdf
vii
Gayatri Loomba, “Profiteering in Higher Education in India”, 2014, Journal of Indian Law and Society, Vol.
4: Monsoon, pp. 212-246
viii
Ritika Chopra, “Plan Panel versus Sibal on profit in varsities: Twelfth plan report says higher education can
be run for profit,” Mail online India, September 23, 2012,

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16 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

[Link]
[Link]
ix
“Education”, Overseas Indian Facilitation Centre, September 2014, [Link]
x
Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resources Development, Government of India,
[Link]
xi
“Mandate”, University Grants Commission, [Link]
xii
J.P. Unnikrishnan vs. State Government of Andhra Pradesh, (1993); T.M.A Pai Foundation vs. State of
Karnataka (1994); P.A. Inamdar v State of Maharashtra (2005) were some of the crucial judicial involvements
which defined the trajectory of private investment in higher education. Details of these judicial involvements
can be seen in [Link]
xiii
“The UGC has made it mandatory for all colleges and universities in the country to get accredited by June 25,
2015”, The New Indian Express, January 11, 2015, [Link]
it-mandatory-for-all-colleges-and-universities-in-the-country-to-get-accredited-by-june-25-2015/
xiv
Hemali Chhapia, “NAAC finally moves towards autonomy, to come out of UGC‟s shadow”, The Times of
India, July 26 2014, [Link]
autonomy-to-come-out-of-UGCs-shadow/articleshow/[Link]
xv
J. Venkatesan, “Supreme Court declares 112 private universities in Chattisgarh illegal”, The Hindu, February
12, 2005, [Link]
xvi
Raghavendra Verma, “India: Scandal results in university review”, University World News, June 21, 2009
[Link]
xvii
AbhayAnand, “India‟s education system second only to politics in corruption: WikiLeaks”, India Education
Review, April 10, 2013, [Link]
politics-corruption-wikileaks,
xviii
Romita Dutta, “Private engineering, medical colleges in West Bengal under scrutiny”, Livemint, August 15.
2014, [Link]
[Link]
xix
Anjali Nayar, “Developing world: Educating India”, Nature, 6 April, 2011
[Link]
xx
The Committee was headed by Prof. P. N. Tandon and was called the “The Committee for Review of Existing
Institutions Deemed to be Universities”. It submitted its report in 2009.
xxi
J. Venkatesan, “SC grants time to UGC till Sep. 30 to submit report on 41 deemed universities”, The Hindu,
August 22, 2014, [Link]
on-41-deemed-universities/[Link]
xxii
Basant Kumar Mohanty, “UGC bars franchises”, The Telegraph, June 27. 2013,
[Link]
xxiii
Urmila Rao, “Education scam exposed: Degrees for sale!”, Yahoo Finance India, August 1, 2012,
[Link]
xxiv
Rajesh Kumar, “IP Varsity Colleges Schools for Scandal!”, The Pioneer, August 12, 2014,
[Link]
xxv
Anup Dutta, “MP govt to probe sex-for-marks scandal”, Mail Today, March 5, 2011,
[Link]
scandal/1/[Link]
xxvi
Isha Jain, “UGC Recommends Cap on Affiliated College Count”, The Times of India, February 28, 2012,
[Link]
count/articleshow/[Link]

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17 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

xxvii
Cluster Universities, Autonomous colleges etc. have been suggested as alternatives to affiliated colleges.
Refer, Ritika Chopra, “Planning Commission to junk university affiliation system?”, Mail Today, January 11,
2012, [Link]
xxviii
“Kerala govt turns down proposal to set up private universities”, The Times of India, January 21, 2014,
[Link]
varsities/articleshow/[Link]
xxix
“Deemed University” in University Grants Commission, [Link]
federal state of Tamil Nadu has 29 deemed universities, while Karnataka has 15
xxx
[Link]
xxxi
Hemali Chappia, “NAAC finally moves towards autonomy, to come out of UGC‟s shadow”, The Times of
India, July 26, 2014, [Link]
autonomy-to-come-out-of-UGCs-shadow/articleshow/[Link]
xxxii
Refer for instance reports on corruption in UGC and AICTE: Akshaya Mukul, “CBI raids on UGC official
over corruption", The Times of India, November 5, 2009, [Link]
on-UGC-official-over-corruption/articleshow/[Link]; “Standing up against Corruption in AICTE”, I Paid
a Bribe, September 4, 2013, [Link]
aicte#[Link]=0; “AICTE officials held for corruption”, Deccan Herald, 17 July 2009,
[Link] “AICTE chairman suspended over corruption case”, Indian
Express, July 30, 2009, [Link]
case/495925/
xxxiii
Arun Ram, “Ketan Desai is back in Medical Council of India”, The Times of India, October 29, 2013,
[Link]
India/articleshow/[Link]
xxxiv
Aarti Dhar, “House panel rejects bill on health education standards”, The Hindu, November 1, 2012,
[Link]
standards/[Link]
xxxv
There are various aspects in the current form of this bill which dilutes its intentions. Refer: The National
Accreditation Regulatory Authority for Higher Educational Institutions Bill, 2010, PRS Education Research,
[Link]
institutions-bill-2010-1140/
xxxvi
Such a state level guideline is absent for most other federal states in India.
xxxvii
“Colleges from section 2 (f) and 12 (B) of the UGC Act 1956”, University Grants Commission,
[Link]
xxxviii
“Report of the Committee on Autonomy of Colleges in Kerala”, April 2013,
[Link]
xxxix
See for instance the number of courses offered in Management and Engineering in Noida International
University in Uttar Pradesh. Refer: [Link]
xl
The Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education (2009)
xli
“Government fixes fee structure of MBA, MCA colleges”, The Times of India, October 10, 2012,
[Link]
colleges/articleshow/[Link]
xlii
“HC tells govt to fix MBBS, BDS fee structure in three weeks”, The New Indian Express, May 3, 2014,
[Link]
Three-Weeks/2014/05/03/[Link]; Also refer the committee in the federal state of Uttar Pradesh
“Admission and Fee Regulatory Committee Uttar Pradesh” [Link] “Admission

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18 Understanding the Status of Higher Education in India

Supervisory/Fee Regulatory Committee for Professional Colleges” in Kerala

[Link]
xliii
Bharath Joshi, “State spending Rs 60k on each student in Govt Engg colleges”, The New Indian Express,
April 9, 2014. [Link]
Govt-Engg-Colleges/2014/04/09/[Link]
xliv
Jandhyala B. G. Tilak; “Funding Higher Education in India”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 30, No. 9
(Mar. 4, 1995), pp. 426-429
xlv
This raises the debate on the nature of private education: whether it is a private, a public or a merit good.
There are arguments in favour of and against each of these categorizations. Given the revolution in
communication and internet technologies, it is doubtful whether higher education can be considered as a merit
good at all which requires subsidising by the government for making it affordable and accessible to the people.
xlvi
“Private Sector Participation in Indian Higher Education, FICCI Higher Education Summit 2011”, Refer
study by Ernst & Young (2011),
[Link]
rivate_sector_participation_in_Indian_higher_education.pdf.

Centre for Public Policy Research