General Psychology

Asst. Prof. Dr. Parisa G. Khoshkar

Spring 2024
Theories of Personality
 Defining personality and traits

Personality
Specific and relatively stable pattern of behaviors, thoughts, motives,
and emotions that characterizes a person over time and across
different situations.

Trait
Habitual ways of behaving, thinking, and feeling:

❖Some, if not most, of your personality traits are likely to be

positive.
❖Whether we like to admit it or not, some of our personality
traits are also likely to be negative.
 How they differ?
• One is a more specific term than the other.

• Personality is a lot more holistic and

qualitative. Personality traits are much more
segmented and quantitative.
 Example
• A person can be said to have a “charming”
personality. The same person can also be said
to have agreeable, open and Extroverted
personality traits. In the first case, we cannot
really quantify charming. Enclosed within it
may be a set of quantitative terms that can be
measured.

• So it’s just the difference between a ball and

the atoms that make up a ball.
• Before you can define who you are, you have to first
understand some examples of personality traits.

Ask yourself the following questions:

• How would I describe myself?

• What brought me joy as a child?
• What brings me joy now?
• What's my biggest accomplishment?
• What's my biggest dream?
• What's my biggest fear?
 Negative or Positive Traits?
Adventurous Cultured Arrogant Quarrelsome Boorish
Rude Bossy Sarcastic
Self-centered Cowardly Hostile Dishonest
Friendly Stingy Impulsive Conscientious
Sullen Lazy Shy Malicious Thoughtless
Unfriendly Outgoing Unruly
Dependable Helpful Reliable Independent
Taking responsibility Trusting Keen Determination
Fearless Observant Humble Optimistic
Capable Dutiful Confident Persistent Charming
Encouraging Honest Fair
Adaptability Compassion Patience Courage
Loyalty understanding compatibility
Who was Sigmund Freud?
• Sigmund Freud was born in 1856 in Moravia (it’s now part of
Czechoslovakia).
• He was a neurologist.
• Influenced by physiologist Hermann Helmholtz, he set out to
apply the laws of physics to the human nervous system.
• His interest in neurology gradually gave way to pioneering
efforts to understand unconscious influences on our behavior in
illness and health.
• His theories on child sexuality, libido and the ego, among other
topics, were some of the most influential academic concepts of
the 20th century.
• At the birth, we all have a
mental/psychological energy that Freud called
it as Psychosexual/Libido energy
(UNCONSCIOUS ENERGY).
• At the same time, Freud believed that energy
is dynamic (it changes the form from one
form to another form).
• Our mental/psychological energy changes its
form at each stage in our life.
• He called life stages as psychosexual stages.
• Freud divided the whole life to 5 psychosexual
stages.
• Human development happens through these
psychosexual stages.
• Anything that happens to us during these
psychosexual stages, is going to affect our
personality in a positive or negative way.
• In each of these psychosexual stages,
happening and experiences and events can
create damage to us which Freud called it as
FIXATION.
• If we pass through each of the psychosexual
stages with no problem and no negative
experience we will be healthy.
 Psychodynamic theories

Theories that explain behavior and personality in terms of

unconscious energy dynamics within the/ an individual
• Freud’s theory is called “psychodynamic” because it
emphasizes the movement of psychological energy
within the person, in the form of attachments,
conflicts, and motivations.
• (Freud did not use “dynamic” in today’s sense, to
mean “powerful” or “energetic.” Dynamics is a term
from physics that refers to the motion and balance
of systems under the action of outside or internal
forces.)
• Modern Psychodynamic theories have changes
since Freud’s time but still they all share an
emphasis on unconscious processes going on within
the mind

• They also share an assumption that adult

personality and ongoing problems are formed
primarily by experiences in early childhood.

• These experiences produce unconscious thoughts

and feelings, which later lead to characteristic
habits, conflicts, and often self-defeating behavior.
• Freud believed that the unconscious reveals itself in:

• Art
• Dreams
• Jokes
• Apparent accidents
• Slip of the tongues (“Freudian Slip”: the speaker’s
secret thoughts; it’s a verbal or memory mistake which
is linked to the unconscious mind)
 The structure of Human
personality
Id
A reservoir of unconscious energy divided into two
drives: (to avoid pain and maintain pleasure)
As energy builds up in the id, the tension results.
The id may discharge this tension in the form of reflex
actions, physical symptoms, or uncensored mental
images and unbidden thoughts.

Superego
Moral ideals, conscience, and social standards

Ego
Referees between instinctive needs and social
demands… Helps to rein in the impulses of the id
 Id: unconscious

The primitive, impulsive and irrational

unconscious that operates solely on the
outcome of pleasure or pain and is
responsible for instincts to sex and aggression
 Ego: both conscious and unconscious

The ego is the “I” people perceive that

evaluates the outside physical and social
world and makes plans accordingly.
 Superego: (parental authority) partly
conscious but largely unconscious)

It is the moral voice and conscience that

guides the ego; violating it results in feelings
of guilt and anxiety. Freud believed the
superego was mostly formed within the first 5
years of life based on the moral standards of a
person’s parents; continued to be influenced
into adolescence by other role models.
Three structures (levels) of mind
➢ A man apologizes for “displacing” his frustrations at work onto his
family.
➢ A woman suspects that she is “repressing” a childhood trauma.
➢ An alcoholic reveals that he is no longer “in denial” about his
drinking.
➢ A teacher informs a divorcing couple that their 8-year-old child is
“regressing” to immature behavior.

All of this language about displacing, repressing, denying, and

regressing can be traced to the first psychodynamic theory of
personality, Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis.
 Defense mechanisms
Methods used by the ego to prevent unconscious anxiety or
threatening thoughts from entering consciousness.

 According to Freud, the healthy personality must keep all three systems in
balance.

 If a person feels anxious or threatened when the wishes of

the id conflict with social rules, the ego has weapons at its
command to relieve the tension. These unconscious
strategies, called defense mechanisms.
 These unconscious strategies deny or distort reality, but they also protect
us from conflict and anxiety.

 They become unhealthy only when they cause self-defeating

behavior and emotional problems.
 Repression
• It occurs when a threatening idea, memory, or
emotion is blocked from consciousness.

e.g.: You cannot remember any memory of its

relations.
 Projection
• It occurs when a person’s own unacceptable or
threatening feelings are repressed and then
attributed to someone else.

• e.g.: That teacher does not like me at all.

• You hate the teacher but your superego tells you

that such hatred is unacceptable. You can 'solve'
the problem by believing that they hate you.
 Displacement
• It occurs when people direct their emotions
(especially anger) toward things, animals, or other
people that are not the real object of their feelings.

• e.g.: You may go home and kick your dog or break

something or start digging the garden.
 Sublimation
• It’s a form of Displacement which appears in the form of
Creation of art or invention in a socially acceptable way.
• This is similar to displacement, but takes place when we
manage to displace our emotions into a constructive rather
than destructive activity

• Freud believed that Sexual passion is often sublimated into

the creation of Art or Literature.
• e.g.: Writing a poem about how you feel.
• Sports is an example of putting our emotions (e.g.
aggression) into [Link]. constructive.
 Denial
• It occurs when people refuse to admit that
something unpleasant is happening.
• Denial involves blocking external events from awareness
(Anna Freud, 1936).
• If some situation is just too much to handle, the person
just refuses to experience it.
• This is a primitive and dangerous defense - no one disregards reality
and gets away with it for long!
• e.g.: smokers may refuse to admit to themselves that
smoking is bad for their health
 Regression
• It occurs when a person reverts to a previous phase
of psychological development.

• e.g.: Adults may regress to immature behavior when they

are under pressure—say, by having temper tantrums when
they don’t get their way.
• An 8-year-old boy who is anxious about his parents’ divorce
may regress to earlier habits of thumb
sucking or wetting his bed.
 Reaction Formation
• This is where a person goes beyond denial and behaves in
the opposite way to which he or she thinks or feels.
• e.g.: I actually like that teacher.
• A person who is angry with a colleague actually ends up
being particularly courteous and friendly towards them.
• A man who is gay has a number of conspicuous
heterosexual affairs and openly criticizes gays.
• A mother who has a child she does not want becomes very
protective of the child.
 Rationalization

• Rationalization is the cognitive distortion of "the facts" to

make an event or an impulse less threatening (A. Freud,
1936).
• We do it often enough on a fairly conscious level when we
provide ourselves with excuses.

• e.g.: she’s not a good teacher that’s why I hate her.

 Your turn
Your math instructor caught you with the
textbook open during a test. Despite the fact that
you know he knows you were cheating, you
protest your innocence. This defense mechanism
is:

1. Denial
2. Reaction formation
3. Regression
4. Displacement
 Your turn
Your math instructor caught you with the
textbook open during a test. Despite the fact that
you know he knows you were cheating, you
protest your innocence. This defense mechanism
is:

1. Denial
2. Reaction formation
3. Regression
4. Displacement
 Personality development
Freud’s psychosexual stages, in which sexual energy takes
different forms as a child matures
[Link]
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These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents
the fixation of libido on a different area of our body.

Fixation occurs when stages aren’t resolved

successfully.
 Oral stage
o Birth to 1 year

• Focus of Libido (pleasure) is through Mouth;

sucking, chewing, biting, swallowing Reduces
Tensions.

• Primary conflict: Weaning Process

• The child must become less depended on the

caregiver.
 Fixation at Oral

Forceful feeding
Underfed Oral Passive:
Oral Trusting, dependency

Overfed Oral Aggressive:

Aggressive, dominating, sarcastic
Examples of adults who are seeking oral stimulations; eat,
drinking or smoke too much.
 Anal Stage
• Age of 1 to 3 years

• Focus of Libido (pleasure) is through Anus; by

controlling bladder and bowel Reduces
tensions.
• Development of Ego: Learning to cope with demands of
outside world)
• Primary conflict: Toilet Training

• How parents approach the success matters!

 Fixation at Anal
Toilet Training
punish, ridicule or shame Too harsh Anal Retentive:
Tidiness, Obsessiveness,
Anal Mean, Stubborn,
authority problems

too lenient, too gentle Too lax Anal Expulsive:

Untidiness, Generosity, Wasteful
Messy, destructive, Disorganized
• Nature of restrictions conflicts with authority. Determine child’s
future relationships with all forms of authority.
• Parents who use prize and rewards for using toilet at appropriate
time will encourage positive outcomes and help child feel capable&
productive.
 Phallic Stage
 Age 3 to 5 or 6

 Focus of Libido( pleasure, sensitivity) is now

concentrated in the genitals… (Masturbation becomes
a new source of pleasure)

 Child begin to discover the differences between males

and females.
 Oedipus complex
 Penis envy
 Development of superego
 Oedipus Complex
• the child unconsciously wishes to possess the parent of the other sex
and to get rid of the parent of the same sex. Same-sex “rival”.
- “I’m going to marry Daddy (or Mommy) when I grow up,”

• Boys and girls go through the Oedipal stage differently.

Boys are discovering the pleasure and pride of having a penis;
so when they see a naked girl for the first time, they are horrified.

• Unconscious thought:
“Her penis has been cut off! Who could have done such a thing to
her? Why, it must have been her powerful father. And if he could do it
to her, my father could do it to me!”
• This realization causes the boy to repress his desire for his mother
and identify with his father. He accepts his father’s authority and the
father’s standards of conscience and morality; the superego has
emerged.

• A girl upon discovering male anatomy, would panic. She would

conclude that she already had lost her penis. As a result, Freud said,
girls do not have the powerful motivating fear that boys do to give up
their Oedipal feelings and develop a strong superego; they have only
a lingering sense of “penis envy.”

• Freud believed that when the Oedipus complex is resolved, at about

age 5 or 6, the child’s personality is fundamentally formed.
 Fixation at Phallic
Gender identification

Abnormal Family set-up

Phalli leading to unusual
relationship with
c mother/ father

Vanity, Self- obsession, sexual anxiety, inadequacy, inferiority, envy

 Latency Stage
• Age 6 to 12/ or puberty
• Focus of libido: None
• sexual feeling are dormant/inactive during this stage
• major development: social interactions through playing
with same gender friends, sports and group activities to
reduce the tension experienced in previous stage
• Child represses all interests in sexuality from oedipal stage
• No psychosexual development occurs in children
• Libido diverted towards asexual activities
 Fixation at Latency
As the libido is dormant at this stage, the
individual cannot be fixated at this stage.
No Fixation
latency However, unresolved conflicts at this stage
can still influence personality.

e.g.: being immature and being unable of forming fulfilling relationships as

adults.
 Genital Stage
• Age 12+/ puberty to Death

• Focus of libido (pleasure) on other people’s genitals,

maturing sexual interests.

• Source of the pleasure is s.o. outside of the family.

• Seeking for s.o. to love and to form sexual
relationships.
• Looking for a lifetime partner.
• Settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship
 Fixation at Genital
As the genital lasts until death, all the
individuals that have successfully completed the
previous 4 stages will not be fixated at this stage.
No Fixation
Freud believed that these individuals display
Genital “ healthy personality”:
warm, caring , well- adjusted, mature,
able to be loved and love.
However, fixations and conflicts from other stages can result in the development of
sexual perversions in this stage. (e.g. oral stage fixation and gaining sexual
pleasure)
 What do you think?

Amanda has been described as a talkative, self- centered person

Who makes decisions based on her emotions rather than on
considerations.

Describe one aspect of psychodynamic theory of personality,

using one or more Amanda’s characteristics to illustrate your
Answer.
Answer
What do you think?
 Answer
• Critical and hostile…. Oral fixation; orally
aggressive
• Controlling, excessively neat and tidy, overly
efficient…. Anal fixation; anal retentive.
• Attachment to one parent…. phallic fixation;
unusual relationship with that parent.
 What do you know?
Freud’s stages of personality
development are the id, ego, and
superego.

A. True
B. False
• Name the stages of personality development
in the right order?
• Oral 0-1 F
• Anal 1-3 F
• Phallic 3-6 F
• Lantency 6-12 NF
• Genital 12 to death NF
• Orangutans always play-with little gorillas.
 Jungian theory
Carl Gustav Jung (20th century)
(founder of analytical psychology)
Collective unconscious
The universal memories, symbols, and experiences of the human
kind, represented in the symbols, stories, and images (archetypes)
that occur across all cultures.

Archetypes are identical psychic structures common to all human.

Which are heritable and influence the way all human experience
he world.
In studying the religion and myths of cultures’ past and present,
he noticed that many of them share similar patterns, themes &
symbols.
• Human mind (psyche:one’s total personality)
is not just the product of personal experiences
but rather it contains elements which are pre-
personal or transpersonal and are common to
all. These elements are archetypes.

• And it’s their influence on human thoughts

and behavior that results in similarities
between different myth and religion.
 1. The conscious Realm:

One’s field of awareness, consisting of those psychic

content that one has knowledge of.
(any experience that enters one’s field of awareness)
1. The unconscious realm is those psychic contents
that one is unaware of.
1.1. The Personal Unconscious
It’s particular to each individual. Events of one’s life
that are deemed insignificant, forgotten or are
represses due to their distressing nature.
1.2. The collective unconscious
It’s a deeper area of unconscious.
• Those psychic structures or cognitive categories
that are not unique to the individual but rather
are shared by all. Influencing our thoughts,
behaviors & the way we look at the world.
• Jung believed that the collective unconscious
is expressed through universal concepts
called archetypes. Archetypes can be signs,
symbols, or patterns of thinking and behaving
that are inherited from our ancestors.
• the collective unconscious is the home to
Archetypes. Some examples of archetypes:
• According to Jung, these mythological images or cultural
symbols are not static or fixed; instead, many different
archetypes may overlap or combine at any given time. Some
examples of archetypes that Jung proposed include:

• Birth
• Death
• Power
• Rebirth
• The anima
• The child
• The hero
• The mother
Some common Archetypes of Jung:

The persona: the outward face we present to the world (mask)

The self: unified unconsciousness & consciousness of an individual
The Anima or Animus: a feminine image in the male psyche, and
the animus is a male image in the female psyche ( The true self)
The father: Authority figure; stern; powerful.
The mother: Nurturing; earth, comforting.
The child: Longing for innocence; rebirth; salvation.
The wise old man: Guidance; knowledge; wisdom.
The hero: Champion; defender; rescuer.
The maiden: Innocence; desire; purity.
The trickster: Deceiver; liar; trouble-maker.
The shadow: the sex and life instincts (id in Freud’s)
• Most, if not all, people have several archetypes
at play in their personality construct; however,
one archetype tends to dominate the personality
in general.
 Popular personality tests
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Popular in business, at motivational seminars, and with
matchmaking services.
Assigns people to one of 16 different types, depending on how the
individual scores on the dimensions of introverted or extroverted,
logical or intuitive.
Low reliability

Objective tests (inventories)

Standardized questionnaires requiring written responses; they
typically include scales on which people are asked to rate
themselves.
Produce a personality “profile.” Factor Analysis
BIG FIVE
Core personality traits( BIG FIVE)

1. Extroversion vs. introversion

2. Neuroticism vs. emotional stability
3. Agreeableness vs. antagonism
4. Conscientiousness vs. impulsiveness
5. Openness to experience vs. resistance to new
experience
 Extroversion vs. introversion

• describes the extent to which people are

outgoing or shy. It includes such traits as being
sociable or reclusive, adventurous or cautious,
socially dominant or more passive, eager to be
in the limelight or inclined to stay in the
shadows.
Neuroticism vs. emotional stability
• describes the extent to which a person suffers
from such traits as anxiety, an inability to
control impulses, and tendency to feel negative
emotions such as anger, guilt, contempt, and
resentment. Neurotic individuals are worriers,
complainers, even when they have no major
problems. They are always ready to see the sour
side of life and none of its sweetness.
 Agreeableness vs. antagonism
• describes the extent to which people are good-
natured or irritable, cooperative or abrasive,
secure or suspicious and jealous. It reflects the
tendency to have friendly relationships or hostile
ones.
 Conscientiousness vs. impulsiveness

• describes the degree to which people are

responsible or undependable, persevering or
quick to give up, tidy or careless, self-
disciplined or impulsive.
 Openness to experience
vs.
resistance to new experience

• describes the extent to which people are

curious, imaginative, questioning, and creative
or conforming, unimaginative, predictable, and
uncomfortable with novelty.
• Although the Big Five are quite stable over a
lifetime, especially once a person hits 30, there are
some exceptions.

• In later adulthood, people tend to become less

extroverted and less open to new experiences.

• With the right experiences, many young people

eventually become more self-confident and
emotionally stable.
• Although young people, ages 16 to 21, are the
most neurotic (emotionally negative) and the
least agreeable and conscientious, people
tend to become more agreeable and
conscientious and less negative between ages
30 and 40.
 Which is correct?
John has a very messy dorm room, is
always late for class, and can never find
the notes he took in lecture. Which of
the following best describes John’s
personality?

A. Conscientious
B. Impulsive
 What do you think?
There are drastic changes in an
individual's personality as they
progress through the life span.

A. True
B. False
 What do you think?
Dinah, a Russian Blue cat, is very shy around
strangers. Although she is exceptionally
snuggly with her owner, she runs and hides
any time she meets a new person. It appears
that Dinah could best be described as an
introverted cat.
A. True
B. False
Break Time
Genetic influences on personality
• Genes,
• the basic units of heredity, are made up of
elements of DNA
• These elements form chemical codes for the
synthesis of proteins.
• Proteins, in turn, affect virtually every aspect of
our body, from its structure to the chemicals that
keep it running.
• Genes can affect the behaviors we call
“personality” through their effects on an infant’s
developing brain and nervous system.
 Genetic influences on personality
• The nature–nurture debate
• Biological affects (“It’s in their nature; they are
born that way”)

• Learning and environmental ones (“It’s all a

matter of nurture—how they are raised and the
experiences they have”).

• Modern science says both:

• Biology and experience, genes and environment
 Heredity and temperament
Temperaments
• Babies are born with genetically determined temperaments,
Physiological dispositions/characters to respond to the
environment in certain ways.

• Temperament's been described as a person's nature shown in how

they behave or react to people or situations. While this is factual,
this definition is a little limiting.

• Your temperament also includes your innate behavioral and

personality traits. It's your natural propensity and will often shine
through in your daily interactions. Your temperament even
determines the way your mind works.
-
 Temperaments
- Your temperament is believed to be innate, mainly
influenced by genetics. It's not uncommon for
someone to have temperaments similar to a parent
or grandparent. Research shows that 20% to 60% of
your temperament is determined by genetics.

- External environmental factors such as negative and

positive childhood experiences can also shape
temperaments. For example, a person who grew up
in an abusive family could become melancholic.
 Temperaments
- Present in infancy, assumed to be stable

- e. g.: Some babies smile easily; others cry.

Includes:
• reactivity (how excitable, arousable, or responsive a
baby is)
• soothability (how easily the baby is calmed when
upset),
• positive and negative emotionality.
• Later these temperaments will turn into our
personality traits.
Identical twins Gerald Levey (left) and Mark Newman were
separated at birth and raised in different cities.

When they were reunited at age 31, they discovered some

astounding similarities.
Both were volunteer firefighters, wore mustaches, and were
unmarried.
Both liked to hunt, watch old John Wayne movies, and eat Chinese
food.
They drank the same brand of beer, held the can with the little
finger curled around it, and crushed the can when it was empty.
• It’s tempting to conclude that all of these similarities
are due to heredity, but we should also consider other
explanations:
•
Some could result from shared environmental factors
such as: social class and upbringing and some could
be due merely to chance.

• For any given set of twins, we can never know for

sure.
• Identical twins reared apart will often have
unnerving similarities in gestures, mannerisms,
and moods; indeed, their personalities often
seem as similar as their physical features.

If one twin tends to be optimistic, glum, or

excitable, the other will probably be that way
too.
• The shared environment of the home has
little if any influence on personality.
• a. True
b. False
 The power of parents
The shared environment of the home has little if any
influence on personality.
The non-shared environment is a more important
influence.

Few parents have a single child-rearing style that is

consistent over time and that they use with all their
children.

Even when parents try to be consistent in how they

treat their children, there may be little relation
between what they do and how their children turn out.
 The power of peers
Peers play a tremendous role in
shaping our personality traits and
behavior, causing us to emphasize
some attributes or abilities and
downplay others.

Our temperaments and

dispositions also cause us to select
particular peer groups (if they are
available) instead of others, and
our temperaments influence how
we behave within the group.
 Culture, values, and traits
Culture
shared rules that govern the behavior of members of a community or
society

A set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by most members of that

community
 Culture, values, and traits

Individualist cultures
Cultures in which the self is regarded as autonomous,
and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty
and relations with others

Collectivist cultures
Cultures in which the self is regarded as embedded in
relationships, and harmony with one’s group is prized
above individual goals and wishes
 Culture and traits
When culture is not appropriately considered, people
attribute unusual behavior to personality.

Timeliness and tardiness

In some cultures, time is seen as a linear construct; being “on
time” is seen as conscientious and thoughtful.

In other cultures, time is organized in a parallel fashion; the idea

of being “on time” as being more important than a person is
contradictory to the cultural norm.
➢How might this create a problem for a person from one culture
operating in a foreign cultural setting?
 Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychology
An approach that emphasizes personal growth, resilience, and the
achievement of human potential

Self-actualization
Striving for a life that is meaningful, challenging, and satisfying
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
 Carl Rogers
Fully functioning individual: the ones that experience harmony
between the image they project to others and their true feelings
and wishes.

Unconditional positive regard

Love and support given to another person with no
conditions attached.
• Unconditional positive regard is where
parents, significant others (and the humanist
therapist) accepts and loves the person for
what he or she is. Positive regard is not
withdrawn if the person does something
wrong or makes a mistake.
• The consequences of unconditional positive
regard are that the person feels free to try
things out and make mistakes, even though
this may lead to getting it worse at times.
Conditional positive regard
When the love and support we get from others
come with strings attached; that is, to get these
positive messages we must satisfy certain
conditions or “costs.”
• Conditional positive regard is where positive
regard, praise, and approval, depend upon the
child, for example, behaving in ways that the
parents think correct.
• Hence the child is not loved for the person he
or she is, but on condition that he or she
behaves only in ways approved by the
parent(s).