📘 LINE PROTECTION

🔹 1. Introduction to Line Protection

What is Line Protection?

Line protection is the part of power system protection that safeguards transmission and
distribution lines from faults (short circuits, overloads, etc.).

Why is it needed?

 Prevents equipment damage.

 Ensures system stability.
 Minimizes outage time.
 Ensures safety of people and systems.

🔹 2. Types of Faults in Transmission Lines

Fault Type Description

Single Line to Ground (SLG) One phase touches ground
Line to Line (LL) Two phases short
Double Line to Ground (DLG) Two phases touch ground
Three-Phase Fault (LLL) All three short

📌 Diagram:

A-----+-----B
|
GND
SLG Fault (Phase B to Ground)

🔹 3. Basic Protection Principles

⚡ Zones of Protection

 Primary Protection: Closest and fastest to clear the fault.

 Backup Protection: Acts if primary fails.

⚙️Basic Relays Used

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 1. Overcurrent Relay (OCR)
2. Distance Relay (Impedance Relay)
3. Differential Relay

Overcurrent Protection (O/C)

📌 Working Principle:

Relay trips the breaker if current exceeds set value (pickup).

Types of OCR:

 Instantaneous
 Definite Time
 Inverse Time (IDMT)

Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay (IOC)

✅ Definition:

Trips immediately (within milliseconds) when the current exceeds the preset limit — no
intentional time delay.

📌 Key Features:

 No time delay
 Used for close-in faults (very near to the relay)
 Very fast response

🛠️Example Use:

At the substation end, where faults are expected to be very close and quick isolation is
needed.

Definite Time Overcurrent Relay (DTOC)

✅ Definition:

Trips after a fixed time delay, regardless of how much the current exceeds the pickup value.

🕒 Key Features:

 Fixed tripping time, e.g., always 1.0 sec

 Independent of fault current magnitude
 Easier to coordinate in simple systems

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🛠️Example Use:

In systems where time coordination between upstream and downstream relays is critical.

Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay (IDMT)

(Inverse Definite Minimum Time)

✅ Definition:

The greater the fault current, the faster the relay trips — i.e., trip time is inversely
proportional to fault current.

📈 Tripping Characteristic:

Where:

 TMS = Time Multiplier Setting

 PSM = Plug Setting Multiplier
 K, n = constants depending on curve type

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4
5
🧰 Applications:

 Mostly used in radial distribution systems.

📊 Diagram: OCR Application on Line

[Grid]---[OCR]---(LINE)---[LOAD]
|
[CB]

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Distance Protection (Impedance Protection)

📌 Why needed?

Overcurrent can't distinguish between close and far faults on long lines. Distance relays solve
this.

⚙️Principle:

Relay measures impedance (Z = V/I) between relay location and fault. If Z falls below
threshold → fault is within zone → trip.

Zone Settings:

 Zone 1: ~80% of line, instantaneous.

 Zone 2: Covers rest of line and backup, delayed.
 Zone 3: Backup for next line, further delay.

📊 Distance Relay Zones

|----Z1----|--Z2--|----Z3---->
Bus A Bus B

Let's go in-depth into Distance Protection (Impedance Protection) — one of the most
essential protection methods for medium and long transmission lines.

📘 What is Distance Protection?

🔌 Purpose:

To detect and clear faults on transmission lines based on the electrical distance
(impedance) between the relay and the fault.

❓ Why Distance Protection?

Overcurrent protection:

 Is dependent on current magnitude

 Cannot differentiate between near and far faults
 Can fail to operate if fault current is low (e.g., remote faults, weak sources)

➡️Distance Protection overcomes these by using:

7
Where:

 Z = measured impedance (proportional to distance)

 V = line voltage (from PT)
 I = line current (from CT)

⚙️How It Works:
The distance relay:

🛠️Zone Settings Explained

Distance relays divide the line into protection zones. Each zone has a defined reach (based
on line impedance).

📍 Example System:
Bus A ───────────── Line AB ───────────── Bus B ───→ Next Line
|-------------------|
Distance Relay at Bus A

⚡ Line Length: 100 km

Assume Line Impedance = 0.4 Ω/km → Total = 40 Ω

🔷 Zone 1 (Z1)

 Reach: 80–85% of Line AB (e.g., up to 32–34 Ω)

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  Purpose: Protect most of the line instantly
 No intentional delay
 Avoids false trips due to CT/PT errors near remote end

🧠 Only covers up to ~80–85% of line to prevent overreach.

🔷 Zone 2 (Z2)

 Reach: 100% of Line AB + 20–50% of next line (e.g., 40 Ω + 10–20 Ω)

 Purpose: Backup for faults near Bus B or just beyond
 Delay: Typically 0.3–0.5 sec

🧠 Helps if remote-end relay or breaker fails to clear fault.

🔷 Zone 3 (Z3)

 Reach: Backup for next line (Line BC)

 Covers: Line AB + full Line BC + some margin
 Delay: 0.8–1.0 sec or more
 Acts as a remote backup

🧠 Longest reach, used for remote end fault backup.

🖼️Distance Relay Zones – Visualization

Imagine impedance increasing with distance along the line. Zones are set in terms of
impedance:

|<--- Z1 --->|<------ Z2 ------>|<--------- Z3 --------->

Bus A Bus B Next Bus →

|----------Line AB (100 km)------------|------Line BC------->

Z1 = 32 Ω Z2 = 40–48 Ω Z3 = up to 80–100 Ω

🧠 Key Settings for Each Zone:

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 Zone Reach (%) Delay Time Use

Z1 80–85% 0 sec Main protection (instant)

Z2 120–150% 0.3–0.5 sec Backup for line + next

Z3 180–250% 0.8–1.0 sec Remote backup (slowest)

🧰 Important Notes:
 Relay uses R–X plane (Impedance Plane) to represent fault location.
 Settings are based on line impedance, not physical distance.
 Communication schemes (like POTT, DTT) can make Z2/Z3 operate faster.

Communication-Based Protection (Advanced)

For long lines & EHV/UHV:

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🛰️Types:

 Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (POTT)

 Blocking Scheme
 Direct Transfer Trip (DTT)

📶 Uses PLCC, Fiber Optic or Microwave for fast communication.

🖼️Diagram: POTT Scheme

[Relay A] ⟷ PLCC ⟷ [Relay B]

| |
[CB A] [CB B]
| |
Line A-B

📘 Communication-Based Protection – Overview

Used to improve the speed, reliability, and selectivity of protection for long transmission
lines. These schemes combine distance protection with communication between both line
ends.

🛰️Why Needed?
Distance protection zones (like Zone 2) introduce intentional delays to avoid overreach and
wrong trips.

But on EHV lines, we can’t afford delay — need instant, end-to-end fault clearance.

➡️Communication-based schemes remove this delay by confirming fault presence at both

ends via signalling.

📡 Communication Mediums
 PLCC (Power Line Carrier Communication)
 Microwave
 Fiber Optic
 OFC over OPGW (in optical ground wire)

🔁 Types of Communication-Based Schemes

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POTT – Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip

🔧 Principle:

Both relays have Zone 2 reach, which overreaches the entire line (Z2 > 100%).

Each end sends a "permissive signal" when it detects a fault in Z2.

✅ Trip Condition:

Relay A trips only if:

 Local fault detected in Z2

 AND signal received from Relay B (remote)

➡️Ensures tripping only if fault is on the line, not beyond.

🖼️Diagram of POTT Scheme

[Relay A] ←──────→ [Relay B]
| |
[CB A] [CB B]
| |
Line AB (Long Line, EHV)

🔁 PLCC/OFC link exchanges signals between relays

🧪 Working Example:

 Line AB = 120 km
 Line impedance = 0.3 Ω/km → Total = 36 Ω

Settings:

 Z1 = 80% × 36 = 28.8 Ω (instant)

 Z2 = 150% × 36 = 54 Ω (covers whole line + margin)

Fault Occurs at 60 km:

 Relay A sees Z = 18 Ω → inside Z2

 Relay B sees Z = 18 Ω → inside Z2
 Both send “POTT signal”
 Trip occurs instantly at both ends

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Fault cleared in ~0.1 sec, not delayed like normal Z2 (0.4–0.5 sec)

📐 Formula Recap:

Setting Formula

Line Impedance (Z) Z=Distance×Z/km\text{Z} = \text{Distance} × \text{Z/km}

Z1 Reach ~80–85% of line

Z2 Reach (POTT) 120–150% of line

Fault Distance Z=VIZ = \frac{V}{I} (measured by relay)

✅ Advantages of POTT:

 Fast tripping for internal faults

 High-speed backup for remote faults
 Selective tripping (no Zone 2 overreach)

Blocking Scheme
🔧 Principle:

 Z2 is active
 Trips unless a “block” signal is received from the other end

🛡️If remote end detects fault outside line, it sends a block signal

Relay A → Sees fault → Ready to trip

Relay B → Sees no fault → Sends block
➡️Trip is blocked → Prevents wrong tripping

DTT – Direct Transfer Trip

🔧 Principle:

 One relay detects a fault

 Sends direct trip signal to remote end

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💡Used when:

 Remote end has no proper relay

 Fault must be cleared from both sides

➡️Trip command is sent directly, not permissive

🧠 Summary Table
Scheme Signal Type Trips If... Used For

POTT Permissive Both relays see fault in Z2 Fast clearance of internal faults

Blocking Blocking One end sees no fault → blocks trip Avoids overreach

DTT Direct Trip Local end trips → forces remote end to trip Remote breaker control

🧪 Corrected Working Example – POTT Scheme

🔧 System Details:

Parameter Value

Line Length (AB) 120 km

Line Impedance 0.3 Ω/km

Total Line Impedance (Z_AB) 120×0.3=36 Ω120 \times 0.3 = 36 \, \Omega

⚙️Relay Zone Settings:

Zone Reach % Setting

Zone 1 (Z1) 80% 0.8×36=28.8 Ω0.8 \times 36 = 28.8 \, \Omega

Zone 2 (Z2) 150% 1.5×36=54 Ω1.5 \times 36 = 54 \, \Omega

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✅ Final Summary:
Relay Measured Z Zone Action

Relay A 18 Ω Z1 Trips instantly

Relay B 18 Ω Z2 Sends & receives POTT → trips instantly

So yes — the previous logic was correct, but this version provides more step-by-step
transparency and confirms the values make sense.

Current Differential Protection

Used for short lines or cables.

Compares current at both ends of the line. If current mismatch > threshold → fault inside
line.

📊 Diagram:

I1 → ------------- ← I2
Line Protected
| |
Relay A Relay B

Absolutely! Let’s now explore Current Differential Protection — one of the most accurate
and selective line protection schemes, especially suited for short transmission lines and
underground cables.

⚡ What is Current Differential Protection?

🔍 Principle:

Current entering the line (I₁) and current leaving the line (I₂) should be equal under normal
or external fault conditions.

I1=I2I_1 = I_2

If there’s a significant mismatch:

∣I1−I2∣>Threshold⇒Internal Fault|I_1 - I_2| > \text{Threshold} \Rightarrow \text{Internal Fault}

➡️Relay trips both ends instantly.

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📘 Where It’s Used:
 Short transmission lines (typically < 10 km)
 Underground cables (where capacitive charging current is low)
 High-reliability zones, such as generator-transformer units, buses, or tie lines

🖼️Diagram: Current Differential Scheme

[Relay A] [Relay B]
| |
I₁ → ─────── Protected Line ─────── ← I₂
| |
[CT A] [CT B]

🛰️Uses PLCC or Fiber Optic for real-time current sharing between relays.

⚙️Working Logic:

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18
❌ Limitations
Issue Why?

Requires Communication Needs high-speed, secure link

Expensive CTs Needs matched CT performance

Less suited for long lines Charging current affects accuracy

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 Issue Why?

📊 Summary Table
Condition I₁ I₂ Action

Normal Operation = = No trip

External Fault High High I₁ ≈ I₂ → No trip

Internal Fault ≠ ≠ Trip both ends

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Protection Coordination

Objective: Ensure the closest relay operates first.

 Selectivity
 Sensitivity
 Speed
 Reliability

📋 Coordination Example:
Feeder OCR trips before main incomer OCR for a downstream fault.

🔹 9. Sample Settings (Practical)

🧮 Sample:

 CT: 100/1 A

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  OCR pickup: 1.2 × full load current
 Distance relay Zone 1: 80% × line impedance

🔹 10. Modern Trends & Tools

 Numerical Relays (SEL, ABB, Siemens)

 SCADA + Relay Integration
 IEC 61850 Protocol
 SIPROTEC, Micom Relays

🔹 Lesson 1: Fault Types & Basic Relay Logic

🧭 Objective:

 Understand different types of faults that occur in power lines.

 Learn how relays detect these faults using simple logic.

🔌 Part A: What is a Fault?

A fault is an abnormal condition in an electrical system caused by:

 Insulation failure
 Lightning
 Tree falling on the line
 Equipment failure

➡️A fault leads to high current flow and voltage imbalance — which must be cleared
quickly to protect equipment and people.

⚡ Part B: Types of Faults on a Transmission Line

Let's assume a 3-phase line with phases R-Y-B.

1. Single Line to Ground (SLG) Fault

One phase touches the ground.

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🖼️Diagram:

R ——⎯⎯⎯
Y ——⎯⎯⎯
B ———|——— GND
|
(Fault)

Occurrence: 70% of faults in overhead lines.

2. Line-to-Line (LL) Fault

Two phases short with each other.

🖼️Diagram:

R ——⎯⎯⎯
Y ——|——
|
B ——|——
(Fault)

3. Double Line to Ground (LLG) Fault

Two phases touch ground.

🖼️Diagram:

R ——⎯⎯⎯
Y ——|——— GND
|
B ——|——— GND
(Fault)

4. Three-Phase Fault (LLL or LLLG)

All three phases short together, with or without ground.

🖼️Diagram:

R ——|
|
Y ——|——
|
B ——|——
|
(Fault)

Occurrence: < 5%, but most severe!

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🛠️Part C: Basic Relay Logic
Let’s now understand how relays respond to faults.

✅ Relay Basic Working Principle

Relays measure parameters like:

 Current (I)
 Voltage (V)
 Impedance (Z = V/I)
 Phase angle

When values exceed preset limits → Relay picks up → sends trip command to Circuit
Breaker (CB).

🔁 Relay + Circuit Breaker System

🖼️Basic Diagram:

[Source]
|
[CT/PT]
|
[Relay] —— Trip —→ [Circuit Breaker]
|
[Transmission Line]

 CT (Current Transformer): Feeds current to relay.

 Relay: Senses fault → sends trip signal.
 CB: Opens line to isolate fault.

⚙️Example Logic: Overcurrent Relay (OCR)

Condition:

If I > 120% of Rated Current → Trip in 0.5 seconds

✅ Summary of Lesson 1

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 Topic Key Points
Fault Types SLG, LL, LLG, LLL
Relay Inputs CTs, PTs
Basic Protection Flow Relay senses abnormal → Trip CB
Common Devices Overcurrent Relay, Circuit Breaker

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📘 Lesson 2: Overcurrent Protection (O/C Protection)

🧭 Objective:

 Understand how Overcurrent Relays (OCR) work.

 Learn types, settings, and coordination with diagrams.

🔌 Part A: What is Overcurrent Protection?

➡️Overcurrent Protection means tripping the circuit breaker when current exceeds a safe
limit.

⚙️This is the most basic and widely used form of line protection, especially in radial
distribution systems.

⚡ Part B: How Overcurrent Relay Works

🧠 Logic:

IF (Measured Current > Pickup Current)

THEN Trip After Delay

📊 Example:

 Rated Current = 100 A

 Relay Pickup = 120% × 100 = 120 A
 Fault Current = 400 A → Relay detects & trips CB.

🔍 Part C: Types of Overcurrent Relays

Type Behavior Use Case
1️⃣ Instantaneous (IOC) Trips with no intentional delay Closest faults, backup
2️⃣ Definite Time
Trips after a fixed delay Time grading, coordination
(DTOC)
Lower fault current → more
3️⃣ Inverse Time (IDMT) Feeder & substation protection
delay

🕑 Inverse Time Logic (IDMT)

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🧠 Relay delay decreases as fault current increases.

🖼️Graph:

Delay ↑
|
| ●
| ●
| ●
| ●
| ●
+----------------> Current ↑

🧰 Part D: OCR Protection Scheme Diagram

🖼️Typical Setup:

[Bus]
|
[CT]——→ [OCR Relay] ——→ [Circuit Breaker] ——→ [Line/Feeder] ——→ [Load]

 CT measures current and feeds to relay.

 Relay processes signal and trips breaker if needed.

🧠 Part E: OCR Settings (Example)

Let’s say:

 CT ratio = 300/1 A
 Relay pickup = 1.2 × full load
 Full Load = 200 A

➡️Pickup Setting = 1.2 × 200 = 240 A

➡️In relay secondary:

240 A primary = (240 / 300) = 0.8 A secondary

So relay pickup = 0.8 A

Time Dial Setting (TMS): Affects delay based on fault level.

🔁 Part F: Protection Coordination Example

🎯 Objective: Downstream relay should trip first.

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🖼️Diagram:

[Grid] → [Relay A] → Feeder 1 → [Relay B] → Load

If Fault at Load:
→ Relay B should trip first (short delay)
→ Relay A trips only if B fails (longer delay)

✅ Summary of Lesson 2
Concept Key Point
Overcurrent Relay Trips on excessive current
Types of OCR Instantaneous, Definite Time, Inverse
IDMT Relay Time inversely proportional to fault current
Coordination Ensures closest relay trips first

Great! Let's move ahead with:

📘 Lesson 3: Distance Protection (Impedance-Based

Protection)

🧭 Objective:

 Understand the need for distance protection.

 Learn how it works using impedance measurement.
 Learn zones, relay characteristics, and diagrams.

🔌 Part A: Why Distance Protection?

In long transmission lines, fault current decreases with distance due to impedance, so
overcurrent relays may:

 Not detect remote faults, or

 Not distinguish fault location properly.

➡️Distance relays overcome this by measuring impedance (Z = V/I), not just current.

⚙️Part B: Working Principle of Distance Relay

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🧠 Logic:

IF Z < Set Impedance (Reach) ⇒ Fault is within zone ⇒ TRIP

Z = V / I (Impedance from relay to fault)

 V is measured by PT (Potential Transformer)

 I is measured by CT

🔍 Part C: Zones of Distance Protection

Distance relays operate in zones based on reach (impedance). Each zone has a different range
and time delay.

Zone Reach (Typical) Time Delay Purpose

Zone 1 80–90% of line Instantaneous Main protection
Zone 2 100% + 20–50% next 0.4–0.6 sec Backup for remainder
Zone 3 100% + full next 1.0–1.5 sec Remote backup

🖼️Diagram: Distance Zones on Transmission Line

[Relay at Bus A]
|
Z1 Z2 Z3
|-----|----------|---------------->
Line AB Line BC

📐 Part D: Characteristics of Distance Relays

Distance relays are represented on an impedance plane (R–X plane).

1️⃣ Impedance Relay (Plain Circle)

 Tripping region: Inside the circle

 Not directional (trips for faults in both directions)

2️⃣ Mho Relay (Circle passing through origin)

 Directional (only forward faults)

 Stable in power swing
 Common in EHV/UHV lines

🖼️Mho Relay Characteristic:

X
|
| • Tripping Zone

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 | (Circle through origin)
|
+----------- R

🧰 Part E: Basic Connection Diagram

↘
[Bus] → [CT/PT] → [Distance Relay] → [Trip CB] → [Line]

Impedance (Z = V/I)

 Relay trips if impedance seen < zone setting.

🧮 Part F: Sample Settings Example

Let’s say:

 Line impedance = 0.4 Ω/km

 Line length = 100 km

➡️Line Z = 0.4 × 100 = 40 Ω

 Zone 1 Setting = 80% of 40 Ω = 32 Ω

 Zone 2 Setting = 120% = 48 Ω
 Zone 3 = Up to 80–120% of next line

✅ Summary of Lesson 3
Term Explanation
Distance Relay Measures V/I to detect fault location
Zones Define fault distance & trip delay
Mho Relay Directional and preferred for transmission
Impedance Setting Based on line length × line impedance

Excellent! Let’s move ahead with:

📘 Lesson 4: Communication-Based Protection Schemes

🧭 Objective:

32
  Understand why and how relays communicate at both ends of a transmission line.
 Learn about advanced schemes: POTT, DTT, and Blocking Schemes.
 See how they help in high-speed and selective tripping.

🔌 Part A: Why Do Relays Need Communication?

In long or high-voltage lines, fast tripping is critical. But:

 Distance relays use zone delays, especially Zone 2 and Zone 3.

 These delays can cause unstable conditions or equipment damage.

➡️Solution: Use communication between relays at both ends of the line to coordinate
decision-making in real-time.

📡 Part B: Types of Communication Media

Medium Description
PLCC Power Line Carrier Communication (uses power line itself)
FOC Fibre Optic Cable (fast and common)
Microwave Wireless, for remote areas
RADIO Sometimes used for backup

⚙️Part C: Key Schemes with Diagrams

1️⃣ POTT – Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip

➡️Both relays see fault in Zone 2 and send a "PERMIT" signal to each other. If both
agree → trip instantly.

🖼️POTT Logic Diagram:

[Relay A] ———↔——— [Relay B]

| |
Zone 2 Zone 2
| |
Permit <——→ Permit

Trip only if:

• Local fault seen in Zone 2
• Remote permit received

🔐 Advantage:

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  Fast and secure
 Only trips if both ends detect fault

2️⃣ DTT – Direct Transfer Trip

➡️If one relay detects fault, it sends trip command directly to the other relay.

🖼️DTT Diagram:

[Relay A] ——→ DTT ——→ [Relay B]

| |
Fault Trips

Trip if:
• One end is 100% sure → sends DTT
• Receiver relay trips without sensing fault

🔐 Use Case:

 Bus faults
 Line faults when only one relay is reliable

3️⃣ Blocking Scheme (Directional Comparison Blocking - DCB)

➡️Relay sends a "BLOCK" signal if fault is in reverse direction.

🖼️Logic:

[Relay A] ———↔——— [Relay B]

| |
Sees forward Sees reverse
fault fault → Sends BLOCK

Trip if:
• No block signal received
• Local relay sees forward fault

🔐 Use Case:

 Requires accurate directional relays

🧠 Part D: Summary Comparison

Scheme Signal Sent When to Trip Speed
POTT Permit Both ends see fault Fast

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Scheme Signal Sent When to Trip Speed
DTT Trip One end sends trip signal Fastest
Blocking Block No block + forward fault detected Fast

✅ Summary of Lesson 4
Topic Key Takeaway
Communication Need Needed for fast & secure tripping
Media Types PLCC, FOC, Microwave, Radio
POTT Both ends agree to trip
DTT One end trips the other directly
Blocking Trip only if no block is received

📘 Lesson 5: Differential Line Protection

🧭 Objective:

 Understand how Current Differential Relays work.

 Learn the protection logic, diagrams, and application to short transmission lines and
cables.

🔌 Part A: Why Differential Protection?

➡️For short lines, distance protection might be unreliable due to:

 Low fault current

 Charging current
 CT saturation

➡️Differential protection provides fast, accurate, and secure tripping by comparing

current at both ends of the line.

⚙️Part B: Basic Principle of Current Differential

Protection
🧠 Logic:

35
I1 (inflow) ≈ I2 (outflow) → No fault
I1 ≠ I2 (beyond threshold) → Internal fault → Trip

Relays at both ends exchange phasor measurements of current using communication links
(FO/PLCC).

🖼️Diagram: Differential Protection Setup

CT Line CT
[ ]——→──────(A–B)──────→——[ ]

[Relay A] ⟷ Communication ⟷ [Relay B]

| |

➡️If the difference between I1 and I2 exceeds a set limit (considering error margin), relays
trip both breakers.

🔍 Part C: Operating Equation

Let:

 I1I_1 = current into line at end A

 I2I_2 = current into line at end B (should be –I1)

Operating Current (Iop):

Iop=∣I1+I2∣I_{op} = |I_1 + I_2|

Restraining Current (Ires):

Ires=∣I1−I2∣2I_{res} = \frac{|I_1 - I_2|}{2}

Tripping Condition:

Iop>Slope×Ires+BiasI_{op} > \text{Slope} \times I_{res} + \text{Bias}

🧠 This helps avoid false tripping during:

 CT mismatch
 Load current
 External faults

🧰 Part D: Application Areas

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 Application Reason
Short EHV lines High speed, precise location
Underground cables Charging current can affect distance relays
Busbars Very fast fault clearance needed

🛡️Part E: Relay Features

 Uses synchronized measurements from both ends (via GPS).
 Numerical relays calculate phasors and decide tripping.
 Immune to load, external faults, and CT errors.

🔌 Optional Feature: Pilot Wire Protection

Older scheme using copper pilot wires between ends instead of modern fiber or PLCC.

✅ Summary of Lesson 5
Concept Explanation
Differential Protection Compares currents at both ends of the line
Trip Logic Internal fault = I1 + I2 ≠ 0
Accuracy Very accurate and fast
Application Short lines, cables, buses

Great! Let’s proceed with:

📘 Lesson 6: Protection Coordination and Grading

🧭 Objective:

 Understand how relays and breakers are coordinated across a power system.
 Learn grading principles, selectivity, and discrimination.
 See examples and time-current curves.

🔌 Part A: What is Protection Coordination?

37
➡️In a power system with multiple protection relays, only the relay nearest the fault
should trip. This is called:

✅ Selectivity or Discrimination

📌 If coordination fails → larger section trips, leading to blackouts.

🏗️Part B: Example System

🖼️Radial Feeder Example:

[Main Incomer]
|
[Relay A] – 11kV Main CB
|
[Relay B] – Feeder 1
|
[Relay C] – Transformer Protection
|
[Load]

➡️Fault at transformer → Relay C should trip

If C fails → B trips
If B fails → A trips (last backup)

🧠 Part C: Grading Methods

There are two key grading principles:

1️⃣ Current Grading

 Closer relays see higher current for the same fault.

 Set higher current pickup as you go upstream.

🧮 Example:

 Relay C pickup = 200 A

 Relay B = 300 A
 Relay A = 400 A

❌ Not reliable in long lines where fault current doesn't vary much.

38
2️⃣ Time Grading

➡️Assign increasing time delays to upstream relays.

🧮 Example:

 Relay C: 0.3 sec

 Relay B: 0.6 sec
 Relay A: 0.9 sec

This ensures:

 Closest relay trips first.

 Others wait in case it fails.

📐 Grading Margin (Typical):

0.3–0.5 seconds between relays.

📊 Part D: Time-Current Characteristics

Let’s look at Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) relay curves.

🖼️Curve Example:

Time ↑
|
2s | A (Incomer)
| ●
1s | ●
| ●
0s |● B (Feeder)
+----------------------→ Current
Fault Current ↑

✅ Closer relay operates faster at higher current

✅ Upstream relays operate slower and only as backup

📚 Part E: Practical Coordination Example

Let’s say:

Relay Location Pickup TMS Type

C Transformer 200 A 0.1 IDMT
B Feeder 250 A 0.2 IDMT
A Main Incomer 300 A 0.3 IDMT

39
➡️At 1000 A fault current, relay C trips first in ~0.25 sec.
Relay B waits (0.5 sec), A waits more (~0.75 sec) – only trips if B & C fail.

🔧 Part F: Coordination Tools

Modern utilities use:

 ETAP / PSCAD / PowerWorld for coordination

 Relay Coordination Studies during commissioning
 Graphical grading reports for relay engineers

✅ Summary of Lesson 6
Topic Key Points
Selectivity Closest relay must trip first
Grading Time or current-based delay settings
Time Margin 0.3–0.5 sec typical between relays
Tools ETAP, PSCAD, real-time simulation

Awesome! Let's proceed with:

📘 Lesson 7: Practical Relay Settings & Field Testing

🧭 Objective:

 Learn how to calculate relay settings in real systems.

 Understand PSM, TMS, and how to perform relay testing using injection kits.

🔌 Part A: Key Relay Setting Parameters

1️⃣ Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM)

➡️It shows how much the actual current exceeds the relay’s pickup setting.

40
🧮 Formula:

PSM=Fault Current (secondary)Relay Current Setting (pickup)PSM = \frac{\text{Fault

Current (secondary)}}{\text{Relay Current Setting (pickup)}}

📌 Example:

 CT Ratio = 400/1 A
 Fault Current (primary) = 800 A
 Pickup = 125% of rated = 500 A

Convert to secondary:
Fault = 800400=2.0\frac{800}{400} = 2.0 A
Pickup = 500400=1.25\frac{500}{400} = 1.25 A

PSM=2.01.25=1.6PSM = \frac{2.0}{1.25} = 1.6

2️⃣ Time Multiplier Setting (TMS)

TMS scales the base tripping time from the IDMT curve.

🧮 Final Trip Time:

t=TMS×k/(PSMn−1)t = \text{TMS} \times k / (PSM^n - 1)

Where kk and nn depend on the standard curve:

 Normal inverse
 Very inverse
 Extremely inverse

📌 Relay manuals provide these constants.

🧰 Part B: Setting a Relay (Step-by-Step)

Example System:

 CT: 300/1 A
 Load Current: 200 A
 Fault Current: 900 A
 Relay Pickup: 150% × Load = 300 A
 TMS = 0.2

1. Convert to Secondary:

 Fault current = 900 / 300 = 3.0 A

41
  Pickup = 300 / 300 = 1.0 A

2. PSM:

PSM=3.01.0=3.0PSM = \frac{3.0}{1.0} = 3.0

3. Use IDMT curve to find tripping time (from relay chart or formula).

🔌 Part C: Field Testing Using Injection Kits

🔧 1. Primary Injection Test

 Inject high current through CTs to check full relay operation.

 Used for pickup testing, breaker tripping.

📌 Heavy, used rarely.

⚙️2. Secondary Injection Test

 Inject test current directly to relay terminals.

 Used to test:
o Pickup value
o Time delay
o Trip logic
o LED/display

📌 Common in field!

🧪 Test Procedure:

1. Isolate relay from system.

2. Connect injection kit to CT secondary inputs.
3. Apply increasing current to find pickup value.
4. Measure trip time at different PSM levels.
5. Verify contacts (trip output).
6. Restore connections.

🧰 Popular Kits: Omicron CMC, Megger SVERKER, ISA Test Sets

42
🧠 Part D: Modern Relay Testing (Numerical Relays)
 Use software-based test templates.
 Auto-plot tripping curves.
 Record exact timing.
 Export reports for compliance.

✅ Summary of Lesson 7
Parameter Description
PSM Fault/Set current ratio (used in timing)
TMS Time scaling factor for IDMT curves
Tests Secondary injection most common in field
Tools Omicron, Megger, ISA test kits

Perfect! Let’s now get into some Advanced Line Protection Concepts:

📘 Lesson 8: Power Swing, Load Encroachment & Relay

Blocking

🧭 Objective:

 Understand dynamic system conditions like power swings.

 Learn how relays may mistakenly trip during swings or heavy loads.
 See how power swing blocking and load encroachment features prevent
misoperations.

🔌 Part A: What is a Power Swing?

When two parts of a power system fall out of synchronism (e.g., due to disturbance or
switching), the current and voltage waveforms fluctuate in magnitude and phase.

🔄 Power Swing Characteristics:

 Voltage fluctuates
 Current fluctuates
 Impedance trajectory moves through relay zone

43
📉 These can mimic faults, but are NOT faults.

🖼️Diagram: Power Swing on Impedance Plane (R-X Diagram)

X
|
| * * * ← Swing Path
| * (passes through relay zones)
| * (No Fault!)
+--------------------→ R

⚠️Problem:
Distance relays may trip if swing impedance enters Zone 1 or 2.

🛡️Part B: Power Swing Blocking (PSB)

🧠 Logic:

Relay monitors the rate of change of impedance movement.

 Fault: Fast movement on R-X plane

 Swing: Slow, gradual movement

➡️Relay blocks tripping during slow changes (swings).

🔍 PSB Features:

Parameter Function
Blocking Region Custom area on R-X diagram
Blocking Timer Blocks only for a few cycles
Unblock Logic Unblocks if rate exceeds threshold

✅ Ensures tripping only for real faults.

🔌 Part C: Load Encroachment

Sometimes, very high load or reactive power can pull impedance into Zone 2 or Zone 3 of
distance relay.

44
🧠 Relay might think it's a fault, especially during:

 Heavy industrial loads

 Low voltage
 Long lines

🖼️Load Encroachment Region

X
|
| ● Fault Zones
| \_____/
| \ ← Load Zone
| \
+--------------------→ R

➡️Relay must ignore load impedance region to avoid nuisance tripping.

✅ Load Encroachment Blocking Logic:

 Define a "no-trip" zone on the R–X plane for valid loads.

 Tripping is blocked when impedance falls into this region during load only.

🔧 Part D: Relay Blocking Logic Summary

Feature What It Blocks When it Acts
Power Swing Block Trips during swings During oscillations
Load Encroachment Trips during heavy load During low-voltage, high-demand
Out-of-Step Trip Intentional islanding System splitting

✅ Summary of Lesson 8
Concept Explanation
Power Swing Oscillation between systems, looks like fault
Power Swing Block Prevents false trips during swing
Load Encroachment Prevents trips during high-load conditions
R–X Plane Settings Helps define zones for faults vs. load

Excellent! Let's move forward to one of the most practical parts:

45
📘 Lesson 9: Line Protection – Case Studies & Real-Life
Fault Examples

🧭 Objective:

 Understand how real faults appear in relay records.

 Learn how to analyze relay tripping data.
 Apply the knowledge from earlier lessons to interpret fault conditions.

🔍 Part A: Real-Life Relay Record – Anatomy

Modern numerical relays (e.g., Micom, SEL, SIPROTEC) record:

 Voltage and current waveforms

 Fault type (R–Y–B, RG, RY, etc.)
 Zone tripped (Z1, Z2, etc.)
 Distance to fault
 Time of tripping
 PSM/TMS info

🖼️Example Fault Summary (From Relay Display):

Fault Type: R–G

Fault Distance: 62.5 km
Tripped Zone: Zone 1
Fault Current: 1.45 kA
Voltage Dip: 40%
Trip Time: 0.12 sec
Breaker: Open

📊 Part B: Example 1 – R-Phase to Ground Fault (SLG)

🧪 Fault Scenario:

 Line: 132 kV, 100 km long

 Zone 1 Reach: 80 km
 CT Ratio: 800/1 A
 PT Ratio: 132 kV/110 V

🧠 Relay Records:

 Fault detected at 65 km
 Z = 0.4 Ω/km × 65 km = 26 Ω
 Tripped in Zone 1 (instant)

46
✅ Valid Trip. Fault cleared quickly.

📊 Part C: Example 2 – Three-Phase Fault with Backup

Operation
🧪 Fault Scenario:

 Line: 220 kV, 150 km long

 Zone 1 = 120 km
 Fault at 135 km
 Remote end relay failed to operate

🧠 Relay A:

 Detected Z = 0.4 × 135 = 54 Ω

 In Zone 2 region
 Relay operated after 0.5 seconds

🧠 Relay B:

 Failed (dead battery)

➡️Zone 2 of Relay A provided backup → Success

🔁 Breaker opened after time delay.

📊 Part D: Example 3 – High Load Mistaken as Fault

(Load Encroachment)
🧪 Scenario:

 Industrial load pulls current to 500 A

 Line impedance = 35 Ω
 Impedance measured = 28 Ω, inside Zone 2

🧠 Relay saw undervoltage + high current → tried to trip

✅ Load encroachment setting blocked trip

🚫 If feature was disabled → would have wrongly tripped during peak hours.

🧠 Part E: Fault Location Technique

47
Most distance relays show distance to fault.

🔍 Basic Formula:

Fault Distance (km)=ZmeasuredZline per km\text{Fault Distance (km)} = \frac{Z_{\

text{measured}}}{Z_{\text{line per km}}}

📌 Used for:

 Locating broken conductor

 Dispatching emergency crew to exact tower

📍 E.g., if:

 Z = 24.8 Ω
 Z/km = 0.4 Ω/km

➡️Distance = 24.80.4=62\frac{24.8}{0.4} = 62 km

✅ Summary of Lesson 9
Topic Description
Fault Record Shows key data: zone, current, distance
SLG Fault Zone 1 trip, fast and accurate
Remote Fault Zone 2 backup needed
Load Encroachment Prevents false trips during heavy load
Distance Location Fault location using impedance

Wonderful! Let’s now wrap up this series with:

📘 Lesson 10: Summary, Revision & Protection System

Design Guidelines

🧭 Objective:

 Recap all key line protection methods.

 Provide practical guidance for choosing the right scheme.
 Share a design checklist for engineers.
 Present a flowchart for quick selection.

48
🔁 Part A: Quick Revision of Line Protection Techniques
Method Application Area Key Features
Overcurrent Relay Radial systems, feeders Simple, cost-effective
Distance Relay Transmission lines (long) Impedance-based, zones, fast
Very accurate, end-to-end
Differential Relay Short lines, cables, busbars
comparison
POTT / DTT / Long lines (EHV/UHV), high- Requires communication, fast
Blocking speed isolation
Prevents false trip during
Power Swing Blocking Interconnected networks
oscillations
Load Encroachment Industrial / urban areas Avoids trips due to heavy load

🏗️Part B: Protection Scheme Selection Flowchart

🖼️Relay Selection Flow:

Start
↓
Type of Network?
↓ ↓
Radial Interconnected
↓ ↓
Overcurrent Distance Relay
↓ ↓
Is Line < 5 km? Need fast tripping?
↓ ↓
Yes → Use Differential → Yes → Use POTT / DTT
No → Use IDMT OCR → No → Use Z1/Z2 with Delay

📐 Part C: General Design Guidelines

✅ Step-by-Step Design Checklist:

1. Know System Parameters:

o Voltage level, line length, CT/PT ratios, load
2. Select Relay Type:
o OCR, Distance, Differential based on line type
3. Calculate Line Impedance:
o From conductor data or utility standard
4. Zone Settings for Distance Relay:
o Z1 = 80–90% of line
o Z2 = full + 20–50% of next line
o Z3 = next line + backup
5. Set Pickup Current:

49
 o 120–150% of rated current
6. Time Coordination:
o 0.3–0.5 sec delay between upstream/downstream relays
7. Include Advanced Logic:
o Load encroachment blocking
o Power swing blocking if required
8. Conduct Field Tests:
o Secondary injection
o Primary test (if needed)
o Record relay trip times and compare to expected
9. Document Settings Clearly
o With all assumptions, CT/PT ratios, and trip curves

🔧 Part D: Relay Coordination Tips

Tip Explanation
Use accurate CT/PT selection Avoids false/missed trips
Avoid overlapping zone reach Prevents maloperation
Grade upstream relays with time Proper backup coordination
Validate settings in ETAP/PSCAD Use simulation before field application

✅ Final Summary
Topic Final Takeaway
Line Protection Purpose Isolate faults quickly & selectively
Relay Types OCR, Distance, Differential, Communication
Zones & Settings Based on distance, impedance, time
Testing Essential for reliability
Design Approach Step-by-step, coordinated, documented

50
🔌 Types of Earthing Used in Transformers
1️⃣ Solid Earthing

What it is:
In solid earthing, the neutral point of the transformer is directly connected to the earth
without any resistance.

Where it's used:

 Low voltage (LV) systems (typically <1.1 kV)

 Some medium voltage (MV) systems (up to 11 kV) where system stability is critical

Why it's used:

 Ensures quick fault current flow in case of a ground fault

 Enables fast operation of protective devices (like circuit breakers)
 Simple and economical

Drawbacks:

 Generates very high fault current during earth faults

 Can damage equipment and cause voltage dips

2️⃣ Resistance Earthing (NGR – Neutral Grounding Resistor)

What it is:
Here, the neutral of the transformer is connected to earth through a resistor (called NGR).
This limits the fault current to a safe level.

Where it's used:

 Medium to High Voltage Transformers (from 6.6 kV up to 33 kV and sometimes

higher)
 Industrial and utility systems where controlled fault current is preferred

Why it's used:

 Limits earth fault current (typically to 50–400 A)

51
  Reduces damage to equipment and arcs during fault
 Allows continued operation during single line-to-ground faults (especially in motor
systems)

Types of Resistance Earthing:

 Low Resistance Earthing: for quick fault clearing (moderate fault current ~100–400
A)
 High Resistance Earthing: used when continuity of supply is more important than
immediate fault clearing

3️⃣ Unearthed or Isolated Neutral

What it is:
Neutral is not connected to earth at all.

Where it's used:

 Old systems or special installations like in mining or ships

 Rare in modern grids

Why it’s rarely used:

 Hard to detect ground faults

 May result in dangerous overvoltages due to transient conditions

4️⃣ Reactance Earthing (Less common)

What it is:
Neutral is earthed through a reactor (inductor) instead of a resistor.

Where it's used:

 Special systems where some level of fault current is acceptable but needs limiting

📊 Summary Table – Earthing vs Transformer Rating

Transformer Voltage Preferred Earthing
Reason
Rating Type
Quick fault detection; low fault current
≤ 1.1 kV Solid Earthing
acceptable
Resistance Earthing (Low Limits damage; protects
6.6 kV – 11 kV
NGR) motors/switchgear

52
 Transformer Voltage Preferred Earthing
Reason
Rating Type
Resistance Earthing
11 kV – 33 kV Balances safety and system continuity
(Low/High)
High Resistance /
> 33 kV Controlled discharge; sensitive relaying
Reactance

✅ Conclusion:
 Solid Earthing = Simple, fast, but high fault current → used in LV transformers
 NGR Earthing = Safer fault handling → used in MV/HV transformers
 Type of earthing depends on system protection, continuity need, and voltage level

Here's a clear and concise table showing:

 Transformer voltage rating

 Type of earthing used (Solid / NGR / Others)
 Reason
 Applicable standards

📘 Earthing Type vs Transformer Rating (With Standards)

Transformer Applicable
Type of Earthing Why Used
Rating (Voltage) Standard
- Simple- Fast fault
≤ 1.1 kV (LV IS 3043, IEC
🔹 Solid Earthing clearance- High fault current
Transformer) 60364
acceptable
🔹 Resistance Earthing - Limits fault current (100– IEEE 142, IS
6.6 kV – 11 kV (NGR) – Low 400 A)- Reduces damage- 3043, IEC 60076-
Resistance Common in industries 5
🔹 Resistance Earthing - Balances protection and IEEE 32, IEC
22 kV – 33 kV (NGR) – High/Low continuity- Controls arc 60076-5, CEA
Resistance damage Regulations
- Limits transient IEC 60076 series,
≥ 66 kV (HV 🔹 High Resistance or
overvoltages- Sensitive IEEE C62.92, IS
Transformer) Reactance Earthing
protection relays 3043
🔸 No Earthing
- Applicable only in special
Neutral Not (Isolated System) or
cases (e.g., delta winding, IEEE 142, IS 2026
Available (Delta) Artificial Neutral with
secondary side not grounded)
NGR

📚 Important Standards Referenced

53
 Standard Title / Description
IS 3043 Indian Standard for Earthing
IS 2026 Indian Standard for Power Transformers
IS/IEC 60076-5 International Standard – Short-circuit withstand & insulation requirements
IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial
IEEE 142
Power Systems
IEEE C62.92 IEEE Guide for Neutral Grounding Practices
CEA
Central Electricity Authority – Safety and Technical Standards
Regulations

✅ Quick Summary

 LV Transformers (≤1.1 kV) → Solid Earthing (fast trip, high current acceptable)
 MV Transformers (6.6–33 kV) → NGR Earthing (controlled fault current)
 HV Transformers (66 kV and above) → High Resistance / Reactance (to limit
transient & provide relay coordination)

Great! Here's the updated and detailed earthing chart including:

 Voltage rating
 Typical kVA rating range
 Type of earthing used
 Why used
 Applicable standards

⚡ Transformer Rating vs Earthing Type (with kVA & Standards)

Typical
Voltage Applicable
kVA Type of Earthing Why Used
Rating Standards
Rating
- Simple system- High
≤ 1.1 kV 10 kVA – IS 3043, IEC
🔹 Solid Earthing fault current acceptable-
(LV) 630 kVA 60364
Fast tripping
- Limits fault current
500 kVA – 🔹 NGR (Low IS 3043, IEEE
6.6 kV (100–400 A)- Reduces
2.5 MVA Resistance Earthing) 142, IEC 60076-5
equipment damage
- Industrial feeders-
500 kVA – 🔹 NGR (Low IS 3043, IEEE
11 kV Controlled fault energy,
5 MVA Resistance Earthing) 142, IEC 60076-5
safe protection
- Medium power
IEEE 32, IEC
22 kV – 1.6 MVA – 🔹 NGR (Low or High distribution- Balance
60076-5, CEA
33 kV 16 MVA Resistance) between continuity &
Regs
safety

54
 Typical
Voltage Applicable
kVA Type of Earthing Why Used
Rating Standards
Rating
- Restricts transient
66 kV – 5 MVA – 🔹 High Resistance / IEEE C62.92, IS
overvoltage- Sensitive
132 kV 40 MVA Reactance Earthing 2026, IS 3043
protection relays
- Extra safety and
🔹 Reactance Earthing / IEC 60076, IEEE
220 kV & 20 MVA – protection- Arc
HRG / Petersen Coil (in 80, CEA Grid
above 500+ MVA suppression- Grid
EHV systems) Standards
coordination

📌 Notes:

 Solid Earthing → Used where simple and fast tripping is required (LV systems)
 NGR (Neutral Grounding Resistor) → Used in MV transformers to limit earth fault
current (protect motors, cables, switchgear)
 HRG / Reactance Earthing → Used in HV/EHV grids to reduce transient voltages
and allow precise protection
 Typical KVA → These are industry averages and can vary slightly based on design
and utility norms

🧾 Standards Reference

Code Description
IS 3043 Code of Practice for Earthing (India)
IS/IEC 60076 Power Transformers Standard
IS 2026 Indian Standard for Transformers
IEEE 142 Grounding of Industrial Power Systems
IEEE C62.92 Neutral Grounding Practices
CEA Regs Central Electricity Authority Technical Norms

55
56
Sure! Let's understand High Resistance Earthing (HRE) and High Reactance Earthing
(HRE) in detail — along with their purpose, differences, fault current behavior, and where
they are used.

🔌 1. High Resistance Earthing (HRE)

🔹 What it is:

In High Resistance Earthing, the transformer's neutral is connected to earth through a

high-value resistor — typically sized to limit the fault current to 5–10 A.

🔹 Why it's used:

 To limit earth fault current to very low levels

 Prevent damage to equipment
 Allow system continuity (no shutdown during single line-to-ground fault)
 Avoid arc flash and minimize fire risk

57
🔹 Where used:

 Critical continuous operation systems:

o Petrochemical plants
o Cement & steel industries
o UPS-backed systems
o Data centers

🔹 Fault current formula:

⚛️2. High Reactance Earthing (HRE)

🔹 What it is:

Here, the transformer's neutral is connected to earth via a high-reactance inductor (reactor)
— which introduces high inductive impedance in the path of fault current.

🔹 Why it's used:

 To limit the earth fault current

 Control transient overvoltages
 Reduce damage from arcing faults
 Provide better selective protection

🔹 Where used:

 HV / EHV networks (≥ 66 kV)

 Grid-connected substations
 Systems needing transient control and protection coordination

🔹 Fault current formula:

58
📊 Comparison Table
Feature High Resistance Earthing (HRE) High Reactance Earthing (HRE)

Neutral Connected via High-Value Resistor High Reactance Coil / Reactor

Typical Fault Current 5 – 10 A 100 – 400 A

Used In LV/MV Critical Process Systems HV/EHV Grids and Substations

Protection Device Type Sensitive relays (core balance CTs) Directional relays / impedance relays

System Continuity Maintained even during fault Tripping on high fault or protection logic

Arc Flash Risk Very low Medium

Complexity & Cost Moderate High (reactors are costly & bulky)

✅ Summary:
 High Resistance Earthing (HRE) → Ultra-low fault current for continuous
operation
 High Reactance Earthing (HRE) → Used in grids to limit fault energy and
overvoltage, especially at 66kV+

59
⚡ SF₆ Circuit Breaker Parameter Table (220 kV & 400 kV) with Definitions

S. 220 kV 400 kV
Parameter (Head) Definition & Significance Standard / Limit
No. Value Value

Operating voltage level of the

System Voltage power system. Helps determine IS 13118 / IEC
1 220 kV 400 kV
(kV) insulation requirements and 62271-100
equipment rating.

Maximum voltage the CB can

withstand under normal and IS 13118 / IEC
2 Rated Voltage (kV) 245 kV 420 kV
overvoltage conditions. Slightly 62271-100
above system voltage.

Maximum continuous current the

4000 A IS 13118 / IEC
3 Rated Current (A) breaker can carry without 2500 A
(typical) 62271-100
overheating.

Minimum surface distance 6820 mm

12400 mm
Creepage Distance between high voltage parts and (31 IS 3070 / IEC
4 (31 mm/kV
(mm) ground. Important for insulation in mm/kV × 60071
× 400)
polluted environments. 220)

RMS value of fault current the

Short Circuit
breaker can withstand thermally & 63 kA IS 13118 / IEC
5 Withstand Current 40 kA
mechanically for a defined time (3 (typical) 62271-100
(kA)
sec).

Time duration for which the

Duration of SC IS 13118 / IEC
6 breaker can carry fault current 3 sec 3 sec
Current (sec) 62271-100
safely without damage.

Steady-state fault current the

Short Circuit
breaker must interrupt under 63 kA
7 Symmetrical Fault 40 kA IEC 60909
symmetrical conditions. Used for (typical)
Level (kA)
breaker sizing.

Fault current including DC offset

Unsymmetrical (asymmetry). Higher than 80 kA
8 49 kA IEC 60909
Fault Current (kA) symmetrical current, important for (typical)
mechanical design.

Ratio of highest transient voltage

across first opened pole to normal
First Pole to Clear IEC 60071-2
9 phase-to-ground voltage. Affects 1.3 1.3
Factor (FPCF) (Limit: 1.3–1.5)
insulation design in ungrounded or
high impedance systems.

10 SF₆ Gas Density Normal pressure of SF₆ gas at 0.74 MPa 0.74 MPa IEC 60376

60
 S. 220 kV 400 kV
Parameter (Head) Definition & Significance Standard / Limit
No. Value Value

20°C. Ensures dielectric strength

(MPa)
and arc interruption capability.

Pressure at which alarm is

Alarm Pressure Manufacturer-
11 triggered for low SF₆, prompting 0.64 MPa 0.64 MPa
(MPa) specific
inspection.

Minimum allowable pressure for

Lockout Pressure safe operation. Below this, breaker Manufacturer-
12 0.61 MPa 0.61 MPa
(MPa) is locked out to prevent unsafe specific
operation.

Short Circuit Peak current the breaker can close

160 kA IS 13118 / IEC
13 Making Current onto during a fault. Determines 100 kA
(typical) 62271-100
(kA Peak) mechanical strength of contacts.

Operating sequence — number

and time interval of Close-Open O – 0.3 sec O – 0.3 sec
IS 13118 / IEC
14 CO Sequence operations. Defines breaker’s – CO – 3 – CO – 3
62271-100
operating duty under fault and min – CO min – CO
switching conditions.

✅ Corrections made:

 ✅ Accurate definition of First Pole to Clear Factor (FPCF).

 ✅ Included standard and limit value (1.3 for effectively grounded systems, 1.5 for
others).

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S. No. Parameter (Head) Definition & Significance 220 kV Value 400 kV Value Standard / Limit

Operating voltage level of the power system. Helps determine IS 13118 / IEC
1 System Voltage (kV) 220 kV 400 kV
insulation requirements and equipment rating. 62271-100

Maximum voltage the CB can withstand under normal and IS 13118 / IEC
2 Rated Voltage (kV) 245 kV 420 kV
overvoltage conditions. Slightly above system voltage. 62271-100

Maximum continuous current the breaker can carry without IS 13118 / IEC
3 Rated Current (A) 2500 A 4000 A (typical)
overheating. 62271-100

Minimum surface distance between high voltage parts and IS 3070 / IEC
4 Creepage Distance (mm) 6820 mm 12400 mm
ground. Important for insulation in polluted environments. 60071

RMS value of fault current the breaker can withstand thermally & IS 13118 / IEC
5 Short Circuit Withstand Current (kA) 40 kA 63 kA (typical)
mechanically for a defined time (3 sec). 62271-100

Time duration for which the breaker can carry fault current safely IS 13118 / IEC
6 Duration of SC Current (sec) 3 sec 3 sec
without damage. 62271-100

Steady-state fault current the breaker must interrupt under

7 Short Circuit Symmetrical Fault Level (kA) 40 kA 63 kA (typical) IEC 60909
symmetrical conditions. Used for breaker sizing.

Fault current including DC offset (asymmetry). Higher than

8 Unsymmetrical Fault Current (kA) 49 kA 80 kA (typical) IEC 60909
symmetrical current, important for mechanical design.

Ratio of highest transient voltage across first opened pole to

IEC 60071-2
9 First Pole to Clear Factor (FPCF) normal phase-to-ground voltage. Affects insulation design in 1.3 1.3
(Limit: 1.3–1.5)
ungrounded or high impedance systems.

Normal pressure of SF₆ gas at 20°C. Ensures dielectric strength and

10 SF₆ Gas Density (MPa) 0.74 MPa 0.74 MPa IEC 60376
arc interruption capability.

Pressure at which alarm is triggered for low SF₆, prompting Manufacturer-

11 Alarm Pressure (MPa) 0.64 MPa 0.64 MPa
inspection. specific

Minimum allowable pressure for safe operation. Below this, Manufacturer-

12 Lockout Pressure (MPa) 0.61 MPa 0.61 MPa
breaker is locked out to prevent unsafe operation. specific

Peak current the breaker can close onto during a fault. IS 13118 / IEC
13 Short Circuit Making Current (kA Peak) 100 kA 160 kA (typical)
Determines mechanical strength of contacts. 62271-100

Operating sequence — number and time interval of Close-Open

O – 0.3 sec – CO – 3 O – 0.3 sec – CO – IS 13118 / IEC
14 CO Sequence operations. Defines breaker’s operating duty under fault and
min – CO 3 min – CO 62271-100
switching conditions.

⚡ Surge Arrester for 220 kV and Above — Explanation & Functioning

✅ What is a Surge Arrester?

A surge arrester is a protective device used in electrical power systems to protect

equipment like transformers, circuit breakers, and insulators from overvoltages due to:

 Lightning strikes (direct or induced),

 Switching operations,
 Faults or sudden load changes.

It does not interrupt current like a circuit breaker, but rather diverts high voltage surges
safely to ground.

📈 Surge Arresters in 220 kV and Above Systems:

⚙️Typical Voltage Ratings:

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  For 220 kV system: Surge arrester is rated for 180–198 kV continuous operating
voltage (Ur).
 For 400 kV system: Surge arrester is rated for 330–360 kV Ur.

Surge arresters are placed:

 Near power transformers (at both HV & LV sides),

 On transmission line entries to substations,
 At reactive power equipment (e.g., reactors, capacitors).

🔧 How Surge Arresters Work:

Condition Voltage Level Surge Arrester Behavior

Normal Surge arrester behaves like an insulator – very high

Below Ur (continuous voltage)
operation resistance.

High impulse Arrester turns conductive – instantly diverts surge

During surge
(lightning/switching) to ground.

Arrester returns to non-conducting state without

Post-surge Voltage returns to normal
external help.

🔍 Construction (Modern Surge Arresters)

Modern arresters are gapless metal oxide type (ZnO-based). Key components:

 ZnO varistor blocks: core element that becomes conductive at overvoltage.

 Insulating housing: typically polymeric or porcelain for outdoor use.
 Grading rings: used at 220 kV and above to ensure uniform voltage distribution
across height.

🔑 Key Parameters for 220 kV & 400 kV Arresters

Parameter 220 kV System 400 kV System

System Voltage 220 kV 400 kV

Rated Voltage (Ur) ~198 kV ~360 kV

MCOV (Maximum Continuous Operating

180 kV 330 kV
Voltage)

Rated Discharge Current 10 kA – 20 kA 10 kA – 20 kA

63
 Parameter 220 kV System 400 kV System

Energy Discharge Capability ~5–10 kJ/kV Ur ~10–15 kJ/kV Ur

Protection Level (residual voltage) 1.8 – 2.0 × Ur 1.8 – 2.0 × Ur

Gapless Metal Oxide Gapless Metal Oxide

Type
(ZnO) (ZnO)

🛡️Significance in High Voltage Systems

 Prevents flashovers and insulation damage.

 Increases life of expensive equipment (like power transformers).
 Maintains system reliability and stability.
 Mandatory for all EHV (Extra High Voltage) switchyards and substations.

📌 Standards

Standard Scope

IEC 60099-4 Metal-oxide surge arresters without gaps

IS 3070 (Part 3) Indian equivalent standard for EHV arresters

IEEE C62.11 Surge arresters for AC power systems

Certainly! Let's walk through the key parameters of surge arresters (especially for 220 kV
and 400 kV systems), and then explain why the arrester's rated voltage is about 90% of
the system voltage — with a clear calculation.

⚙️Key Parameters of Surge Arrester – Definitions & Explanation

Parameter Definition Why It's Important

Nominal voltage level of the power Determines the general insulation

System Voltage (kV)
system (e.g., 220 kV, 400 kV). class and equipment ratings.

Maximum RMS voltage the arrester can

Should be above the system’s
withstand continuously without
Rated Voltage (Ur) highest phase-to-ground voltage
breakdown during overvoltage (e.g.,
during abnormal conditions.
line-to-ground faults).

MCOV (Maximum The maximum voltage that can be It must be slightly lower than the

64
 Parameter Definition Why It's Important

Continuous Operating continuously applied across the arrester rated voltage, as MCOV defines the
Voltage) terminals without it conducting. non-conducting limit.

Peak current the arrester can safely

Rated Discharge Defines the arrester's capability to
conduct during a surge event, typically
Current handle lightning/switching surges.
10 kA or 20 kA (8/20 µs waveform).

Amount of surge energy (in kJ/kV Ur)

Energy Discharge Indicates endurance against
the arrester can absorb without
Capability repeated surges.
damage.

Protection Level Voltage that appears across the arrester Lower is better, as it reduces stress
(Residual Voltage) when it is conducting surge current. on protected equipment.

Typically ZnO (Zinc Oxide) without gaps Provides fast, reliable operation with
Type (Technology)
(gapless type). minimal follow current.

🔍 Why Surge Arrester Rated Voltage is ~90% of System Voltage?

👉 System Voltage vs. Phase-to-Ground Voltage:

For a 3-phase system, phase-to-ground voltage is:

So for:

 220 kV system:
 400 kV system:

But this is the nominal voltage. Surge arresters must withstand:

 Temporary Overvoltages (TOV) due to faults, switching, resonance, etc.

 Hence, we select Rated Voltage (Ur) at about 90–95% of the system's maximum
line-to-line voltage, to balance protection and avoid false conduction.

📐 Sample Rating Calculation (Why 90%?)

Let’s take the 220 kV system:

Step 1: System Voltage

 System Line-to-Line Voltage: 220 kV

Step 2: Max System Voltage (for insulation design)

 IEC assumes 5–10% overvoltage margin:

65
Step 3: Phase-to-ground (worst-case TOV)

Step 4: Choose arrester rating above this but not too high

So, choose:

 MCOV ≈ 135–140 kV
 Rated Voltage (Ur) ≈ 180–198 kV
→ This gives safe margin above TOV, but still sensitive to surges.

✅ Hence, Ur ≈ 90% of Line-to-Line voltage is selected.

System System Voltage Ur (Rated Voltage) % of System Voltage

220 kV 220 kV ~198 kV ~90%

400 kV 400 kV ~360 kV ~90%

⚠️Summary: Why Not Use 100%?

 If Ur is too high, the arrester won't operate quickly enough for moderate surges.
 If Ur is too low, the arrester may falsely conduct during small overvoltages.

The 90% value is a practical compromise ensuring both protection and durability.

Lightning Arrester (LA) Testing at

Site – Procedure, Purpose &
Standards

66
1. Introduction
Lightning Arresters (LAs) are critical for protecting high voltage equipment from overvoltage
transients such as lightning strikes and switching surges. Testing LAs at the site ensures that the
arrester is healthy, correctly installed, and will function reliably in service. Site testing is especially
important for voltage levels of 220 kV and above.

2. Purpose of LA Testing at Site

• Verify the health and performance of the LA after installation.
• Detect issues like moisture ingress, insulation degradation, or ZnO block aging.
• Ensure effective grounding for safe dissipation of surge energy.
• Meet statutory commissioning and safety standards.

3. List of Tests with Methods and Purpose

S. No. Test Name Test Method / Purpose
Equipment
1 Visual Inspection Manual Check for mechanical
damage, cracks,
contamination, or
loose connections.
2 Insulation Resistance Megger (5 kV or 10 Ensures high
(IR) kV) resistance between
LA terminal and
ground (>1 GΩ).
3 Tan Delta Tan Delta/Power Detects deterioration
(Dissipation Factor) Factor test kit in insulation or
internal moisture
(should be < 0.01).
4 Leakage Current Clamp meter or LA Indicates condition of
Measurement leakage monitor ZnO blocks — rising
current = aging or
moisture.
5 Capacitance Tan Delta test kit Monitor for
Measurement consistency — sharp
change means
internal degradation.
6 Reference Voltage HV test set + Verify performance
Test (Optional) voltmeter of ZnO blocks under
known voltage levels.
7 Earth Resistance Earth Tester / Clamp- Confirm earthing is <
Check on Earth Meter 1 ohm for safe surge
discharge.

4. Earth Resistance Check

Earth resistance testing is essential to ensure the surge energy is properly discharged to ground.
High earth resistance can lead to inefficient surge dissipation and increase the risk of equipment
damage. For EHV systems like 220 kV and 400 kV, acceptable earth resistance is less than 1 ohm, and
ideally below 0.5 ohms in lightning-prone zones.

67
5. Explanation of Key Tests
• Tan Delta: Measures insulation degradation; should be < 0.01.
• IR Test: Should be > 1 GΩ; low value indicates moisture or contamination.
• Leakage Current: Rising leakage current indicates ZnO aging.
• Earth Resistance: Should be < 1 ohm for proper grounding.

6. Applicable Standards
 • IEC 60099-5 – Recommendations for Selection and Application of Surge Arresters
 • IEC 60099-4 – Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters without Gaps for AC Systems
 • IS 3070 Part 3 – Indian Standard for Metal Oxide Arresters
 • IS 3043 – Code of Practice for Earthing
 • CBIP Manual 295 – Guide on Commissioning Tests for Substation Equipment
 • CEA Regulations – Mandates testing during commissioning in India

⚡ Difference Between PT (Potential Transformer) and CVT (Capacitive

Voltage Transformer)

Both PT and CVT are used to step down high voltages (like 132 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV) to
measurable low voltages (e.g., 110 V) for metering, protection, and control. However,
they operate on different principles and are suitable for different applications.

🔍 1. Basic Working Principle

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 Feature PT (Potential Transformer) CVT (Capacitive Voltage Transformer)

Electromagnetic
Type Capacitive divider + electromagnetic unit
transformer

Voltage division through series capacitors + tuning

Principle Magnetic induction
transformer

Construction Magnetic core, winding Capacitor stack + inductive transformer + tuning reactor

Voltage Range Typically up to 132 kV Preferred for 220 kV and above

🔋 2. High Voltage Handling

| PT | Becomes bulky and expensive at 220 kV and above due to insulation needs. |
| CVT | Compact, economical, and more reliable at EHV levels (≥220 kV) due to capacitive
voltage division. |

📶 3. High-Frequency vs. Low-Frequency Filtering

Aspect PT CVT

Poor – high-frequency signals (like

High-Frequency Accurate – can pass high-frequency
traveling waves) are attenuated or
Response transients like traveling waves.
delayed.

Low-Frequency Also accurate, but may have slight delay

Very accurate for 50 Hz fundamental.
Response due to resonance tuning.

Wave Trap + Tuning Reactor + Filter Circuit

Filter Use in CVT Not required.
are used to:

- Eliminate high-frequency noise,

- Pass only 50 Hz component to

relay/meter.

📡 4. CVT Special Feature: Used for PLC

 CVTs can be used for Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC).

 It includes:
o Carrier filter (rejects 50 Hz),
o Coupling capacitor (injects carrier signal),
o Wave trap (prevents carrier loss beyond substation).

69
PTs cannot be used for carrier communication due to no capacitive tap.

🏗️5. Construction Difference (Visual Summary)

Component PT CVT

High voltage winding Yes No (uses capacitor divider instead)

Magnetic core Yes Yes

Capacitor stack No Yes – voltage division

Tuning reactor/filter No Yes – accuracy tuning + HF rejection

✅ Summary Table

Parameter PT CVT

Operating principle Magnetic Induction Capacitive division + EM unit

Use above 132 kV Not economical Preferred

HF signal transmission Possible Needs filtering – not reliable

Accuracy (50 Hz) High High (after tuning)

Carrier communication ❌ Not suitable ✅ Suitable (PLCC)

Cost & Size (≥220 kV) Large, costly Compact, economical

⚠️Final Notes:

 Use PT for:
o Medium voltage (≤132 kV),
o Fast response to transients.
 Use CVT for:
o 220 kV and above,
o Cost-saving,
o Integration with PLCC,
o Space-saving.

Here's a clear explanation of CVT and Wave Trap in terms of high-frequency (HF) and
low-frequency (LF) filtering:

70
⚙️CVT vs. Wave Trap – HF & LF Filtering Roles
Device Full Name Used For Filter Role

Capacitive Voltage Voltage measurement & carrier

CVT Low-pass filter
Transformer communication

Blocking HF signals from entering High-pass

Wave Trap Line Trap / Carrier Trap
equipment filter

📘 1. CVT (Capacitive Voltage Transformer) – Low-Pass Filter

 Main function: Step down high voltage (e.g., 220 kV → 110 V) for
metering/protection.
 Also used for carrier signal extraction (PLCC).
 Filtering role:
✔️Allows power frequency (50 Hz) to pass through.
❌ Filters out high-frequency signals using tuning reactor and low-pass filter in the
secondary circuit.

📌 Why? Because HF noise can affect relay accuracy and metering – so it's blocked.

📘 2. Wave Trap – High-Pass Filter

 Connected in series with transmission line (usually at line entrance in substation).

 Purpose: Block high-frequency carrier signals (30–500 kHz) from going into
transformer, breakers, etc.
 Allows only 50 Hz power frequency to pass into equipment.
 Filtering role:
✔️Passes 50 Hz to substation equipment.
❌ Traps carrier frequencies and reflects them back into the communication circuit.

📌 Why? Carrier signal must be confined to the line for communication, and should not enter
transformers or switchgear.

🔁 In PLCC System – Combined Working

Device Function

Acts as high-pass filter → blocks HF to substation, allows 50 Hz

Wave Trap
only.

CVT Acts as low-pass filter → allows 50 Hz to relays/meters, blocks

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 Device Function

HF.

Coupling Capacitor Couples HF communication signal to/from the line.

Line Tuner/Line Matching Unit

Matches impedance and separates HF for modem/transceiver.
(LMU)

🧠 In Short:

Component HF Signal (Carrier) 50 Hz Power Filter Type

Wave Trap ❌ Blocked ✔️Allowed High-pass filter

CVT ❌ Blocked ✔️Allowed Low-pass filter

schematic diagram showing how CVT, wave trap, and carrier signal flow in a PLCC
system?

72
Capacitive Voltage Transformer
(CVT) Datasheet and Testing
Explanation
Part 1: CVT Datasheet for 220 kV and 400 kV Systems
Parameter 220 kV CVT 400 kV CVT Definition &
Significance
System Voltage 220 kV 400 kV Nominal operating
voltage of the
system.
Ratio 220 kV / 110 V 400 kV / 110 V Reduces high voltage
(Primary/Secondary) to standard low
voltage for
metering/protection.
Insulation Level 460 kV rms / 1050 kV 630 kV rms / 1425 kV Defines lightning and
peak peak power frequency
withstand capacity.
Thermal Burden 750 VA 1000 VA Maximum thermal
capacity of secondary
windings without
damage.
Individual Winding 25 VA 25 VA Maximum load per
Burden winding output
(relay/meter
burden).
HF Capacitance 8800 pF 8800 pF High-frequency
capacitance for
carrier
communication &
PLCC.
Primary Capacitance 9670 pF 10200 pF Used in voltage
division; forms part
of capacitive divider.
Secondary 105540 pF 128000 pF Also part of divider;
Capacitance ensures accurate
low-voltage output.
Compensating Used Used Maintains correct
Reactor ratio and phase angle
over frequency range
(especially for
metering).

Part 2: Testing Methods for CVT and Their Significance

Test Name Method / Equipment Significance

73
 Insulation Resistance (IR) Using 5 kV/10 kV Megger Confirms insulation integrity
Test between terminal and of CVT; values >1 GΩ typically
ground indicate good insulation.
Secondary Winding Digital micro-ohmmeter Checks continuity and
Resistance Test across secondary terminals winding health; helps identify
internal winding defects.
Polarity Test Using DC source and Ensures correct polarity of
galvanometer windings for proper phase
relationship and protection
operation.
Capacitance & Tan Delta Using Tan Delta Kit (like Measures insulation health
Test Omicron CPC100, Megger and aging; low tan δ (<0.01)
Delta) is desirable.

Part 3: Role of Compensating Reactor in CVT

Definition:
The compensating reactor is a tuning inductor connected in series with the intermediate voltage
transformer (IVT) in a CVT.

Purpose & Significance:

- Compensates for phase and ratio errors due to the capacitive divider.
- Maintains accurate transformation ratio and minimal phase angle error at 50 Hz.
- Helps in proper energy transfer from capacitor stack to intermediate transformer.
- Important for accurate metering, especially in long-term power transactions.

📘 Tan Delta and Capacitance Test of CVT – Explained

✅ What is Tan Delta (Dissipation Factor)?

Tan δ (also called Dissipation Factor) is a measure of dielectric losses in insulation

material when an AC voltage is applied.

 Every insulation behaves like a capacitor, but due to imperfections, some energy is
lost as heat.
 This loss creates a leakage current that lags the applied voltage, creating a phase
difference.
 The tangent of this angle (δ) is called tan delta.

🧮 Formula:

Where:

 = Leakage (lossy) current

 = Charging current

74
✅ What is Capacitance Test?

 Measures the capacitance value of the insulation.

 In CVTs, insulation consists of capacitor stacks – any deviation from normal
capacitance may indicate:
o Moisture,
o Degradation,
o Internal breakdown.

🔍 Why Tan Delta & Capacitance Tests are Performed?

Reason Explanation

High tan δ or significant capacitance deviation indicates insulation aging

💡 Insulation Health Check
or moisture.

🔌 Detect Partial Discharge Helps catch early-stage electrical discharges before full insulation failure.

🧰 Preventive Maintenance Avoids unplanned outages by identifying weak insulation early.

🏗️Commissioning Ensures factory integrity hasn’t degraded during transport or

Validation installation.

📉 Trending Over Time Tan δ & capacitance are trended to track deterioration over years.

🎯 Acceptable Limits for CVT (Typical Values)

Voltage Level Tan Delta (max) Capacitance Variation (from nameplate)

132–220 kV ≤ 0.5% (or 0.005) ≤ ±5%

400–765 kV ≤ 0.4% (or 0.004) ≤ ±3%

If tan δ > 1% → Suspect moisture, aging, contamination → Immediate attention needed.

🔍 Test Equipment Used

 Tan Delta & Capacitance Kit (e.g., Omicron CPC100, Megger Delta 4000)
 Connected between CVT primary terminal and ground
 Test voltage: usually 2–10 kV AC
 Measures tan δ, capacitance, leakage current

75
🔧 Interpretation of Results

Condition Tan Delta Capacitance Possible Cause

Normal Low (<0.5%) Stable Healthy insulation

Slightly High 0.5–1% Minor change Early aging, surface moisture

High (Alarm Level) >1% Large deviation Internal breakdown, moisture ingress

Fluctuating Varies Unstable Loose terminals, crack, or partial failure

What is the EMU Unit in a CVT?

EMU stands for Electromagnetic Unit in a Capacitive Voltage Transformer (CVT).

It is a critical part of the CVT that works in conjunction with the capacitive voltage divider
to accurately step down high voltage to a measurable low voltage (typically 110 V).

🧩 Location in CVT

A CVT has these major parts:

1. Capacitor Divider Stack → Steps down voltage capacitively.

2. EMU (Electromagnetic Unit) → Processes the reduced voltage.
3. Compensating Reactor → Fine-tunes the response.
4. Damping Resistors / Ferroresonance Suppression (if applicable).

👉 The EMU is connected after the capacitive divider and before the final low-voltage
secondary output.

⚙️What Does the EMU Do?

Function Explanation

Voltage Transformation Steps down the intermediate voltage (from capacitive divider) to 110 V.

Works with compensating reactor to correct phase angle and ratio

Compensation
error.

Provides galvanic isolation between HV system and secondary

Magnetic Isolation
metering circuits.

76
 Function Explanation

Carrier Signal Handling

In some designs, EMU is tuned to reject high-frequency components.
(PLCC)

🔋 Construction of EMU

 It is similar to a small transformer.

 Contains:
o Primary winding: Connected to the capacitive divider output.
o Secondary winding(s): Provide 110 V output for metering/protection.
o Magnetic core: Usually laminated steel or ferrite.
o Compensating Reactor: Sometimes integrated.

🛠️Why is EMU Necessary?

Without the EMU:

 The capacitive divider would give a very high impedance output, unsuitable for
relay/metering.
 There would be inaccuracy in voltage transformation due to frequency effects.
 No standard 110 V output would be available for protection relays or meters.

🎯 Summary

Feature EMU Unit in CVT

Role Magnetic voltage transformer (post-capacitor divider)

Function Steps down voltage, isolates, and corrects error

Works With Capacitor divider and compensating reactor

Essential For Metering, protection, accurate ratio and phase output

Would you like a schematic showing where EMU fits inside a CVT or its role in signal
flow?

77
🔍 Damping Resistors in CVT – Working and Use

📌 What are Damping Resistors?

Damping resistors are electrical resistors connected inside a Capacitive Voltage

Transformer (CVT) to suppress transient oscillations (especially ferroresonance and high-
frequency ringing) in the CVT circuit.

They are usually installed across:

 The primary winding of the intermediate transformer, or

 Across the secondary winding, depending on the design.

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⚙️Why Are Damping Resistors Needed in CVT?

CVTs use capacitive dividers, which, together with the inductive electromagnetic unit
(EMU), form a resonant LC circuit. This can lead to unwanted ferroresonance or
oscillations under abnormal system conditions.

These issues include:

 Ferroresonance: Abnormal oscillations due to non-linear inductance interacting with

capacitance.
 High voltage spikes at secondary output.
 Incorrect relay/meter operation.
 Overstress or damage to secondary equipment.

🛠️Working Principle of Damping Resistor

When Transient Occurs What Damping Resistor Does

A system disturbance (fault switching, lightning, The damping resistor absorbs the oscillatory
ferroresonance) causes transient oscillations energy and limits voltage buildup.

The resistor dissipates excess energy as heat,

Resonance condition starts
damping the oscillation.

🎯 Functions of Damping Resistors

Function Explanation

✅ Damp Oscillations Prevents sustained voltage fluctuations due to resonance.

✅ Protect Relays and Meters Avoids overvoltage at secondary terminal.

Keeps CVT output within rated phase and voltage ratio during
✅ Improve Accuracy
transients.

✅ Prevent Ferroresonance Eliminates high-voltage stress caused by non-linear saturation.

⚠️Without Damping Resistor

 Secondary voltage may oscillate or become distorted.

 Maloperation of distance relays or teleprotection equipment.
 Risk of insulation breakdown over time.

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🧪 Design Aspects

 Usually non-inductive, high-wattage resistors.

 Value selected to critically or under-damp the LC circuit.
 Sometimes combined with ferrite cores or snubber circuits for improved damping.

🧠 Summary

Component Role in CVT

Damping Resistor Suppresses oscillations caused by LC resonance

Key Purpose Prevent ferroresonance, protect relays, ensure accuracy

Placement Across intermediate transformer windings or across load

Let me know if you'd like a schematic showing where the damping resistor is installed in a
typical CVT circuit.

🌀 What Are Oscillations? (In Simple Terms)

Oscillations mean back-and-forth movements or swings — just like a pendulum or a

swing in a park.

⚡ In Electrical Terms:

When voltage or current keeps rising and falling repeatedly (up and down), that’s called
electrical oscillation.

🟰 It’s like:

 A swing that keeps going up and down,

 Or ripples in water after you throw a stone.

📉 Example in CVT:

In a CVT, if there's a sudden disturbance (like switching or lightning), it may cause:

 The voltage to start jumping up and down quickly (oscillating),

 Especially between the capacitor and inductor parts (LC circuit),
 If not controlled, this can damage relays or give wrong voltage readings.

80
🔧 That’s Why We Use:

 Damping Resistors → Like a brake to slow down and stop the swing (oscillation).

🎯 Simple Analogy:

Real Life In Electrical System

A swing going back-forth Voltage rising and falling

A bouncing ball Current surging up and down

Brake to stop a swing Damping resistor to stop oscillation

220 kV and 400 kV Switchyard Design Parameters with Definitions and Significance

Parameter 220 kV Switchyard 400 kV Switchyard Definition & Significance

Minimum distance between two energized

Phase-to-Phase
2.5 m 4.5 m phases to avoid flashover due to voltage
Clearance
stress.

Distance between a live conductor and

Phase-to-Earth
2.3 m 4.0 m earthed part or ground to ensure insulation
Clearance
safety.

Clearance from ground to lowest live part to

Ground 3.7 m (from 4.6 m (from
avoid accidental contact with
Clearance lowest conductor) lowest conductor)
people/vehicles.

Corona Voltage at which corona discharge ceases;

Extinction > 156 kV > 320 kV higher value ensures efficiency and reduces
Voltage losses.

Type of Aluminium Conductor Steel

ACSR Conductor
ACSR Zebra ACSR Moose Reinforced used for high current carrying
Used
capacity.

Definitions:

1. Phase-to-Phase Clearance:
o Ensures that two live conductors do not create an arc or flashover under
operating or surge conditions.
2. Phase-to-Earth Clearance:

81
 Prevents accidental arcing between live parts and earthed structures; must
o
consider pollution and insulation level.
3. Ground Clearance:
o Ensures safety for ground-level workers, vehicles, or equipment under live
conditions.
4. Corona Extinction Voltage (CEV):
o The minimum voltage at which corona stops. Corona can cause power loss,
noise, and insulation wear. CEV must be higher than normal operating
voltage.
5. ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced):
o Composite conductor where aluminum strands carry current and steel core
provides strength.
o Zebra is used for 220 kV (~29.62 mm² steel core), Moose for 400 kV (~31.8
mm² steel core).

Current Transformer (CT) Nameplate Specifications and Testing for 220 kV and 400
kV Switchyards

Part 1: CT Nameplate Specifications

Parameter 220 kV CT 400 kV CT Description & Significance

Rated System
220 kV 400 kV Voltage level at which CT is installed.
Voltage

Rated Primary 1000 A / 1500 A / Varies with feeder/load; defines input

2000 A / 3000 A
Current 2000 A current rating.

Rated Secondary
1 A or 5 A 1 A or 5 A Standard output for metering/protection.
Current

Accuracy Class
0.2 / 0.5 0.2 / 0.5 Precision for billing/metering.
(Metering)

Accuracy Class
5P10 / 10P20 5P20 / 10P20 For accurate relay operation under fault.
(Protection)

Load the CT can handle without exceeding

Burden (VA) 15 / 30 VA 30 / 45 VA
accuracy error.

Short Time Thermal Maximum current the CT can withstand

40 kA for 3 sec 63 kA for 3 sec
Current thermally during fault.

Dynamic Current 100 kA 160 kA Peak fault withstand capability.

Power frequency / lightning impulse

Insulation Level 460/1050 kV 630/1425 kV
withstand.

Core Type Multi-core (2 to 4 Multi-core (3 to 5 Separate cores for metering, protection,

82
 Parameter 220 kV CT 400 kV CT Description & Significance

cores) cores) and PLCC if needed.

Part 2: CT Testing Methods and Their Importance

Test Name Purpose / Method Used Why It Is Required

1. Insulation Megger test between core and Ensures insulation is healthy and free of
Resistance (IR) Test ground (typically at 5 kV) moisture or contamination.

2. Secondary Winding Measured using digital micro- Confirms integrity and uniformity of
Resistance ohmmeter winding; identifies open/loose windings.

Primary current injected, secondary

Verifies accuracy of ratio, essential for
3. Current Ratio Test compared using CT test set (e.g.,
protection/metering precision.
Omicron)

4. Magnetising
Voltage applied to secondary, Identifies core saturation point and knee
Curve / Excitation
current measured at increasing steps point; used for protection CTs.
Test

5. Tan Delta & Applied to insulation, tan delta and Detects insulation aging, moisture
Capacitance Test capacitance measured at 0.2–10 kV ingress, and partial discharges.

DC voltage applied; observe

Ensures secondary winding polarity is
6. Polarity Test deflection in galvanometer or
correct for relay coordination.
multimeter

Part 3: Types of CTs Used in Power Systems

A. Metering CT

 Purpose: Accurate current measurement under normal load.

 Features:
o High accuracy (Class 0.2, 0.5)
o Low saturation point
 Used in: Energy meters, billing meters

B. Protection CT

 Purpose: Reliable operation during fault conditions.

 Features:
o Lower accuracy (Class 5P10, 10P20)
o High saturation point to avoid distortion during faults
 Used in: Overcurrent, distance, differential relays

83
C. Special CT for Unit Protection (e.g., Differential Protection)

 Purpose: Used in zone-based protection schemes (e.g., transformer, busbar

differential)
 Features:
o Matched CTs on both sides of protected zone
o High accuracy and linearity
o Low phase and ratio error
o Typical Class: Class PX or Class PS (Protection Special)
 Explanation: These CTs are non-standard class with defined knee point voltage,
excitation current, and resistance to ensure accurate differential protection
performance.

Part 4: Important CT Characteristics

Instrument Security Factor (ISF)

 Applies to: Metering CTs

 Definition: Ratio of the CT’s saturation current to its rated current
 Purpose: Limits the output of the CT to protect connected meters from overcurrent.
 Typical ISF: ≤ 5
 Explanation: A lower ISF means better meter protection.

Accuracy Limit Factor (ALF)

 Applies to: Protection CTs

 Definition: Multiple of rated current up to which the CT maintains its accuracy class.
 Purpose: Ensures protection relay gets accurate current signal even under high fault
currents.
 Typical ALF: 10, 20, etc.
 Explanation: Higher ALF ensures CT remains linear during short circuit.

Wave Trap (Line Trap) for 220 kV and 400 kV Systems

1. Purpose
Wave traps are installed in high voltage substations (220 kV and 400 kV) as part of Power
Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems.
They block high-frequency communication signals (30–500 kHz) from entering substation
equipment, while allowing normal power frequency (50 Hz) to pass.

2. Construction

84
  Typically air-core or iron-core inductors.
 May include a capacitor and tuning unit to adjust for the desired frequency.
 Designed to offer high impedance to HF signals and low impedance to power
frequency.

3. Key Specifications
Parameter Value / Description

Rated Voltage 220 kV / 400 kV

Rated Current 1000 A to 3000 A

Tuning Frequency Range 50 kHz – 500 kHz

Insertion Loss Less than 1 dB

Impedance at Carrier Frequency 400 – 2000 Ohms

4. Types of Wave Traps

 Tuned Line Trap:
Blocks a specific narrow frequency band. Used where single carrier frequencies are
used.
 Broadband Line Trap:
Blocks a wider frequency range. Suitable for multiple carriers and wider PLCC
applications.

5. Testing Methods
Test Name Purpose / Method

Visual Inspection Check for cracks, rust, loose connectors, and condition of insulators

Insulation Resistance (IR) Measure resistance between coil and ground using megger (5 kV
Test typically)

Inductance Measurement Verify correct inductance using LCR meter or bridge method

High-Frequency Injection
Inject test frequency and check attenuation and tuning accuracy
Test

Tan Delta & Capacitance Test Evaluate dielectric quality of coil insulation; detect moisture or aging

85
6. Significance
 Protects substation equipment from high-frequency disturbances.
 Enables effective communication between substations for relay operation,
telemetering, and voice communication.
 Ensures PLCC signals are confined to power lines and not allowed into sensitive bus
or equipment.

7. Applicable Standards
 IEC 61869 – Instrument Transformers
 IEC 60358 – Coupling Capacitors and Dividers
 IS 16227 – Indian Standard for Instrument Transformers
 IS 3043 – Code of Practice for Earthing (when mounted)

Would you like a matching diagram or single-line layout showing how wave traps are
installed in a switchyard?

Here is the complete content for your Wave Trap (Line Trap) Specification and Testing
document. You can copy this into MS Word and apply basic formatting (headings, tables,
bullets) as needed.

86
Wave Trap (Line Trap) for 220 kV and 400 kV Systems

1. Purpose
Wave traps are installed in high voltage substations (220 kV and 400 kV) as part of Power
Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems.
They block high-frequency communication signals (30–500 kHz) from entering substation
equipment, while allowing normal power frequency (50 Hz) to pass.

2. Construction
 Typically air-core or iron-core inductors.
 May include a capacitor and tuning unit to adjust for the desired frequency.
 Designed to offer high impedance to HF signals and low impedance to power
frequency.

3. Key Specifications
Parameter Value / Description

Rated Voltage 220 kV / 400 kV

Rated Current 1000 A to 3000 A

Tuning Frequency Range 50 kHz – 500 kHz

Insertion Loss Less than 1 dB

Impedance at Carrier Frequency 400 – 2000 Ohms

4. Types of Wave Traps

 Tuned Line Trap:
Blocks a specific narrow frequency band. Used where single carrier frequencies are
used.
 Broadband Line Trap:
Blocks a wider frequency range. Suitable for multiple carriers and wider PLCC
applications.

87
5. Testing Methods
Test Name Purpose / Method

Visual Inspection Check for cracks, rust, loose connectors, and condition of insulators

Insulation Resistance (IR) Measure resistance between coil and ground using megger (5 kV
Test typically)

Inductance Measurement Verify correct inductance using LCR meter or bridge method

High-Frequency Injection
Inject test frequency and check attenuation and tuning accuracy
Test

Tan Delta & Capacitance Test Evaluate dielectric quality of coil insulation; detect moisture or aging

6. Significance
 Protects substation equipment from high-frequency disturbances.
 Enables effective communication between substations for relay operation,
telemetering, and voice communication.
 Ensures PLCC signals are confined to power lines and not allowed into sensitive bus
or equipment.

7. Applicable Standards
 IEC 61869 – Instrument Transformers
 IEC 60358 – Coupling Capacitors and Dividers
 IS 16227 – Indian Standard for Instrument Transformers
 IS 3043 – Code of Practice for Earthing (when mounted)

Would you like a matching diagram or single-line layout showing how wave traps are
installed in a switchyard?

Certainly! Here's the additional section you can insert into your Wave Trap document
(preferably after the Purpose section or before Construction):

How PLCC Works (Power Line Carrier Communication)

88
PLCC is a system that allows communication over the same high-voltage transmission
lines used for power delivery. It enables voice, data, telemetering, and protection signals
to be transmitted using high-frequency signals (typically 30 kHz to 500 kHz).

📡 Working Principle:

1. Transmitter Unit (at Substation A):

Generates a modulated high-frequency signal (voice, data, protection trip command).
2. Coupling Capacitor (CC):
Allows high-frequency signal to enter the transmission line while blocking 50 Hz
power frequency.
3. Wave Trap (Line Trap):
Prevents high-frequency signal from flowing into the busbars and equipment of
Substation A by offering high impedance.
4. Transmission Line:
Carries both 50 Hz power and HF communication signal simultaneously.
5. Wave Trap at Receiving Substation (B):
Blocks the signal from spreading into that yard, directing it to the coupling
equipment.
6. Coupling Capacitor & Line Matching Unit (LMU):
Extracts the HF signal and passes it to the receiver at Substation B.
7. Receiver:
Demodulates and decodes the signal for use in protection relays, SCADA, or voice
channels.

🛡️PLCC Is Used For:

 Teleprotection: Instant trip signals during faults (unit protection, distance protection,
etc.)
 Telemetry: Remote control and indication of switchgear
 Voice Communication: Between substations and control centers
 SCADA Integration: Real-time data monitoring and logging

What is Percentage Impedance of a Transformer?

Percentage impedance (also called per unit impedance) of a transformer is a measure of

the voltage drop across the transformer's internal impedance when it is supplying full load
current.

It is defined as:

Percentage Impedance (%) = (Voltage drop to circulate full-load current / Rated

primary voltage) × 100

📘 Formula:

89
Where:

 : Voltage required to circulate rated current with secondary shorted

 : Rated primary voltage

🧠 Example:

If a transformer rated 11 kV/0.433 kV requires 660 V to circulate full load current when
secondary is shorted:

🎯 Significance of Percentage Impedance:

Aspect Explanation

🔥 Short Circuit
Lower % impedance → higher fault current. Helps design circuit breakers.
Current

⚖️Voltage
High % impedance → more voltage drop under load. Affects voltage quality.
Regulation

🔌 Parallel
Transformers must have similar % impedance to share load proportionally.
Operation

⚡ Impedance
Used in differential protection and to limit fault current magnitude.
Protection

🧰 Design Manufacturers balance % impedance to ensure efficiency and protection

Implication coordination.

🔥 How to Calculate Short Circuit Current Using Transformer

% Impedance

🔧 Formula:

Where:

 : Short Circuit Current (in Amps)

 : Full Load Rated Current
 : Percentage impedance of transformer

90
 Aspect Explanation

✅ Step-by-Step Example

🔹 Given:

 Transformer Rating: 1000 kVA, 11 kV / 0.433 kV

 % Impedance = 6%
 Base Voltage = 11 kV
 Base Current :

🔹 Step 2: Calculate Short Circuit Current

So, if a fault occurs on the secondary side, the transformer can deliver up
to 875 A short circuit current — 16.66 times the rated full-load current.

⚠️Why This Is Important:

Purpose Explanation

Helps choose correct breaking capacity for circuit

🔧 Breaker Sizing
breakers.

⚡ Protection Relay
Needed for relay coordination and time grading.
Setting

Transformers with higher %Z naturally limit fault

🛡️Fault Current Limiting
current.

Would you like an Excel sheet template to calculate this for any
transformer?

Testing of Power Transformer – Methods, Values, Equipment, Purpose,

Frequency and Standards

🔢 Overview:

Power transformers are tested at site before commissioning to verify their

operational health, insulation integrity, performance reliability, and

91
protection functionality. The tests are conducted as per IEC, IS, and IEEE
standards.

🔍 Site Testing of Power Transformer

Standard
Purpose / Typical Values / Equipmen
S. Method / / Frequency of
Test Name Reason for Acceptance t / Kit
No. Procedure Referenc Testing
Testing Criteria Used
e

Disconnect
Check neutral and surge
Every major
insulation arresters. Inject 5 > 1000 MΩ
Insulation Megger (5 maintenance
health kV DC from IR (depending on IS 2026,
1. Resistance kV or 10 /
between tester. Measure IR voltage and IS 6792
(IR) Test kV) commissionin
windings between HV-LV, temp.)
g
and earth HV-E, LV-E
terminals.

Similar to IR test,
record insulation
Evaluate Every major
values at 1 min
moisture maintenance
Polarizatio and 10 min using PI > 2 (healthy Same as IS 2026,
2. content and /
n Index (PI) 5 kV. Calculate PI insulation) IR kit IEEE 43
aging of commissionin
=
insulation g
IR(10min)/IR(1mi
n).

Inject DC
(typically 1A or
Verify 10% rated
Micro- IS 2026,
Winding uniformity current) on HV/LV Phase difference Annually or
ohmmeter IEEE
3. Resistance and integrity terminals. < 2% between post major
(e.g. C57.12.9
Test of winding Measure voltage phases fault
DLRO) 0
connections drop and
resistance phase-
wise.

Apply 80–100 V
Verify
AC to HV winding. Every major
voltage ratio Ratio within TTR Kit IS 2026,
Turns Ratio Measure induced overhaul /
4. and winding ±0.5% of (e.g. SMC, IEC
Test (TTR) voltage across LV commissionin
connection nameplate Omicron) 60076-1
side. Compare g
group
with rated ratio.

5. Vector Confirm Perform using Must match TTR Kit, IS 2026, During
Group Test phase TTR kit. Apply AC nameplate (e.g., Phase IEC commissionin

92
 Standard
Purpose / Typical Values / Equipmen
S. Method / / Frequency of
Test Name Reason for Acceptance t / Kit
No. Procedure Referenc Testing
Testing Criteria Used
e

displacemen to HV, observe

t and correct voltages/phasing
angle g / major
winding at LV. Compare Dyn11) 60076
meter repair
configuratio phase angle with
n group type.

Assess core Apply rated phase

condition voltage (e.g., 415
Magnetisin TTR Kit / Commissionin
and V AC) to LV. < 5% of full-load IEC
6. g Current AC supply g and after
excitation Measure current current 60076
Test source long outage
characteristi in each phase
cs under no-load.

Inject 230 V AC
into R-phase of
Detect inter-
Magnetic LV. Measure Voltage ratios Multimete Best Commissionin
turn faults
7. Balance voltage at other symmetric for Y r / Variac Practice / g and periodic
and winding
Test two phases. winding supply Routine checks
imbalances
Repeat for Y and
B.

Connect HV
Identify bushing to test kit
IS 2099, Every 5
Capacitanc insulation and ground. Raise Tan δ < 1% for Doble Kit /
IEEE years / when
8. e & Tan deterioration voltage in steps bushings/windin Megger
C57.12.9 insulation is
Delta Test in windings up to 10 kV. gs Delta
0 suspect
or bushings Record tan δ and
capacitance.

Place oil in BDV

cell. Increase
Oil Check
voltage at 2 kV/s Annually /
Breakdown dielectric > 50 kV for new Oil BDV IS 6792,
9. until breakdown. after oil
Voltage strength of oil Test Kit IS 335
Repeat for 5 replacement
(BDV) Test insulating oil
readings and
average.

Draw oil sample,

Detect
send to lab.
DGA internal
Analyze gases via Lab IS 10593,
(Dissolved arcing, Gases within Annually or
10. gas Equipmen IEC
Gas overheating normal range after a fault
chromatography t 60567
Analysis) or partial
(H₂, CH₄, C₂H₂,
discharges
etc.).

93
 Standard
Purpose / Typical Values / Equipmen
S. Method / / Frequency of
Test Name Reason for Acceptance t / Kit
No. Procedure Referenc Testing
Testing Criteria Used
e

Disconnect core
Ensure
Core to ground strap. Best
single-point
Earth Inject 500 V DC to Megger Practice / Commissionin
11. earthing of > 10 MΩ
Resistance core and ground. 500 V OEM g and periodic
magnetic
Test Measure Manual
core
resistance.

Simulate fault by
Verify
injecting air or
functionality Every
tilting relay. Alarm/trip Manual
Buchholz of gas shutdown /
12. Check relay contacts should Test IS 3637
Relay Test accumulatio quarterly
operation for activate Button
n and surge check
alarm/trip
trip
contacts.

Operate OLTC
Confirm tap
through full tap
OLTC changer Smooth, Manual / IS 2026- Annually or as
range. Monitor
13. Operationa functionality stepwise tap Remote 1, OEM per OEM
motor drive,
l Check and contact changes switch Standard instruction
switching time,
reliability
and noise.

Simulate sensor
Verify WTI, values or short
Simulator Monthly
Functional OTI, PRD, contacts. Observe All IS 10028,
kit / visual +
14. Relay/Alar MOG, response of each indicators/alarm IEC
Manual functional
m Test alarms, trip protection and s must operate 60076
input check
relays annunciation
unit.

📊 Summary:

 All tests should be recorded in the Pre-Commissioning Test Report.

 Results must be validated against nameplate and standard values.
 Deviations must be reported to OEM for correction or retesting.
 Test frequency should follow IS 10028, IS 2026, and transformer OEM
maintenance guidelines.

What is an ICT?

An Interconnecting Transformer (ICT) is a special type of power transformer used to

connect two transmission systems operating at different voltage levels, such as 400 kV and

94
220 kV. It helps transfer power between these voltage levels, ensuring voltage stability, load
balancing, and redundancy in the grid.

🔧 What is a Tertiary Winding?

A tertiary winding is the third winding provided in addition to the primary (HV) and
secondary (LV) windings. It usually operates at a lower voltage level (e.g., 33 kV or 11 kV)
and is delta-connected.

🧠 Why is Tertiary Winding Used?

Purpose Explanation

1. Stabilization of unbalanced Tertiary windings help handle unbalanced loads by allowing the
loads circulation of zero-sequence currents.

2. Station Service Supply Provides a source for auxiliary power for substation equipment.

3. Connection for Reactive Devices like capacitor/reactor banks, SVCs can be connected to the
Power Devices tertiary system.

Delta-connected tertiary acts as a path for triplen (3rd, 9th, etc.)

4. Harmonic Suppression
harmonics.

Used for grounding and fault current circulation in certain

5. Neutral Grounding
configurations.

6. Testing and Monitoring Provides an accessible winding for testing under no-load or for load
Access injection.

🧪 Testing of ICT with Tertiary Winding

Test Name Purpose Method Remarks

Check insulation between 5 kV/10 kV Megger. Measure

Insulation Tertiary should have
all 3 windings (HV-LV, HV-T, between each pair and to
Resistance (IR) comparable IR values.
LV-T) earth.

Inject voltage on HV, measure

Turns Ratio Test Confirm voltage ratio All ratios must match
induced voltage on LV and
(TTR) HV:LV:Ter nameplate.
tertiary.

Vector Group Confirm phase relationship Using phase angle meter or TTR Includes tertiary in
Test (e.g., YNd11d1) equipment. vector logic.

95
 Test Name Purpose Method Remarks

Winding Check resistance of tertiary Using DC micro-ohmmeter, Difference < 2%

Resistance vs HV/LV measure at all terminals. between phases.

Capacitance & Insulation health of Apply AC voltage and measure Should be < 1% tan
Tan Delta tertiary winding dielectric loss. delta.

Magnetic Check inter-turn fault Voltage injection and phase Symmetric values
Balance including tertiary measurement. across phases.

OLTC is typically between HV-

OLTC Check (if Tap position control Ensure tap
LV, but tertiary may affect
applicable) between HV and LV functionality.
impedance.

📐 Typical ICT Specification with Tertiary Winding (Example)

Parameter Value Example

HV Side 400 kV (Star, solidly grounded)

LV Side 220 kV (Star)

Tertiary Side 33 kV (Delta)

Vector Group YNd11d1 or YNyn0d

Cooling Type ONAN/ONAF

Tertiary Rating 10–50 MVA (auxiliary supply or balancing)

Impedance (HV–LV) 10.5% (typical)

Impedance (HV–Tertiary) 12–14% (depends on design)

Testing of Power Transformer – Methods, Values, Equipment, Purpose,

Frequency and Standards

🔢 Overview:

Power transformers are tested at site before commissioning to verify their

operational health, insulation integrity, performance reliability, and
protection functionality. The tests are conducted as per IEC, IS, and IEEE
standards.

96
🔍 Site Testing of Power Transformer

Standard
Purpose / Typical Values / Equipmen
S. Method / / Frequency of
Test Name Reason for Acceptance t / Kit
No. Procedure Referenc Testing
Testing Criteria Used
e

Disconnect
Check neutral and surge
Every major
insulation arresters. Inject 5 > 1000 MΩ
Insulation Megger (5 maintenance
health kV DC from IR (depending on IS 2026,
1. Resistance kV or 10 /
between tester. Measure IR voltage and IS 6792
(IR) Test kV) commissionin
windings between HV-LV, temp.)
g
and earth HV-E, LV-E
terminals.

Similar to IR test,
record insulation
Evaluate Every major
values at 1 min
moisture maintenance
Polarizatio and 10 min using PI > 2 (healthy Same as IS 2026,
2. content and /
n Index (PI) 5 kV. Calculate PI insulation) IR kit IEEE 43
aging of commissionin
=
insulation g
IR(10min)/IR(1mi
n).

Inject DC
(typically 1A or
Verify 10% rated
Micro- IS 2026,
Winding uniformity current) on HV/LV Phase difference Annually or
ohmmeter IEEE
3. Resistance and integrity terminals. < 2% between post major
(e.g. C57.12.9
Test of winding Measure voltage phases fault
DLRO) 0
connections drop and
resistance phase-
wise.

Apply 80–100 V
Verify
AC to HV winding. Every major
voltage ratio Ratio within TTR Kit IS 2026,
Turns Ratio Measure induced overhaul /
4. and winding ±0.5% of (e.g. SMC, IEC
Test (TTR) voltage across LV commissionin
connection nameplate Omicron) 60076-1
side. Compare g
group
with rated ratio.

5. Vector Confirm Perform using Must match TTR Kit, IS 2026, During
Group Test phase TTR kit. Apply AC nameplate (e.g., Phase IEC commissionin
displacemen to HV, observe angle g / major

97
 Standard
Purpose / Typical Values / Equipmen
S. Method / / Frequency of
Test Name Reason for Acceptance t / Kit
No. Procedure Referenc Testing
Testing Criteria Used
e

t and correct voltages/phasing

winding at LV. Compare
Dyn11) meter 60076 repair
configuratio phase angle with
n group type.

Assess core Apply rated phase

condition voltage (e.g., 415
Magnetisin TTR Kit / Commissionin
and V AC) to LV. < 5% of full-load IEC
6. g Current AC supply g and after
excitation Measure current current 60076
Test source long outage
characteristi in each phase
cs under no-load.

Inject 230 V AC
into R-phase of
Detect inter-
Magnetic LV. Measure Voltage ratios Multimete Best Commissionin
turn faults
7. Balance voltage at other symmetric for Y r / Variac Practice / g and periodic
and winding
Test two phases. winding supply Routine checks
imbalances
Repeat for Y and
B.

Connect HV
Identify bushing to test kit
IS 2099, Every 5
Capacitanc insulation and ground. Raise Tan δ < 1% for Doble Kit /
IEEE years / when
8. e & Tan deterioration voltage in steps bushings/windin Megger
C57.12.9 insulation is
Delta Test in windings up to 10 kV. gs Delta
0 suspect
or bushings Record tan δ and
capacitance.

Place oil in BDV

cell. Increase
Oil Check
voltage at 2 kV/s Annually /
Breakdown dielectric > 50 kV for new Oil BDV IS 6792,
9. until breakdown. after oil
Voltage strength of oil Test Kit IS 335
Repeat for 5 replacement
(BDV) Test insulating oil
readings and
average.

Draw oil sample,

Detect
send to lab.
DGA internal
Analyze gases via Lab IS 10593,
(Dissolved arcing, Gases within Annually or
10. gas Equipmen IEC
Gas overheating normal range after a fault
chromatography t 60567
Analysis) or partial
(H₂, CH₄, C₂H₂,
discharges
etc.).

11. Core to Ensure Disconnect core > 10 MΩ Megger Best Commissionin

98
 Standard
Purpose / Typical Values / Equipmen
S. Method / / Frequency of
Test Name Reason for Acceptance t / Kit
No. Procedure Referenc Testing
Testing Criteria Used
e

ground strap.
single-point
Earth Inject 500 V DC to Practice /
earthing of
Resistance core and ground. 500 V OEM g and periodic
magnetic
Test Measure Manual
core
resistance.

Simulate fault by
Verify
injecting air or
functionality Every
tilting relay. Alarm/trip Manual
Buchholz of gas shutdown /
12. Check relay contacts should Test IS 3637
Relay Test accumulatio quarterly
operation for activate Button
n and surge check
alarm/trip
trip
contacts.

Operate OLTC
Confirm tap
through full tap
OLTC changer Smooth, Manual / IS 2026- Annually or as
range. Monitor
13. Operationa functionality stepwise tap Remote 1, OEM per OEM
motor drive,
l Check and contact changes switch Standard instruction
switching time,
reliability
and noise.

Simulate sensor
Verify WTI, values or short
Simulator Monthly
Functional OTI, PRD, contacts. Observe All IS 10028,
kit / visual +
14. Relay/Alar MOG, response of each indicators/alarm IEC
Manual functional
m Test alarms, trip protection and s must operate 60076
input check
relays annunciation
unit.

📊 Summary:

 All tests should be recorded in the Pre-Commissioning Test Report.

 Results must be validated against nameplate and standard values.
 Deviations must be reported to OEM for correction or retesting.
 Test frequency should follow IS 10028, IS 2026, and transformer OEM
maintenance guidelines.
 Protection Schemes Used for Different Power System Equipment

99
 Moto
HT LT
Distributi r
Power HV Incom Bus Moto Moto VFD Capacit
Protection on Feed
Transfor Feed er (HT Coupl r r Feed or Remarks
Type Transfor er
mer er Panel) er Feed Feed er Feeder
mer (HT +
er er
LT)

Applied for
transformers
≥ 5 MVA
(typically 5
Differential MVA and
Protection ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ above); HT
(87T/87M) Motors above
1.5 MW with
10–30%
pickup
setting.

REF Applicable for

(Restricted transformer
✔️
Earth Fault - neutral
87N) protection

Detects gas
Buchholz accumulation
✔️
Relay and minor
internal faults

Monitors tap
changer
OLTC
✔️ health,
Protection
alarms on
malfunctions

Pickup setting
Overcurrent typically 110–
✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️
(50/51) 125% of full
load current

20–40%
Earth Fault pickup based
✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️
(50N/51N) on neutral
grounding

Pickup at
Overvoltage
✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ 110–115% of
(59)
rated voltage

100
 Moto
HT LT
Distributi r
Power HV Incom Bus Moto Moto VFD Capacit
Protection on Feed
Transfor Feed er (HT Coupl r r Feed or Remarks
Type Transfor er
mer er Panel) er Feed Feed er Feeder
mer (HT +
er er
LT)

Pickup at 85–
Undervoltag
✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ 90% of rated
e (27)
voltage

Typically used
Distance for
Protection ✔️ transmission
(21) line
protection

Operates if
Breaker Fail
breaker fails
Protection ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️
to trip on
(50BF)
command

High-speed
Busbar
protection for
Protection ✔️ ✔️
internal bus
(87B)
faults

Ensures
voltage,
frequency,
Synchroniza
✔️ ✔️ and phase
tion Relay
match before
closing
breaker

Based on
Thermal
thermal
Overload ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️
model or RTD
Protection
input

Protects
Locked
motor during
Rotor /
✔️ ✔️ abnormal
Stall / Phase
startup or
Imbalance
phase loss

Single ✔️ ✔️ Detects
Phasing missing
phase

101
 Moto
HT LT
Distributi r
Power HV Incom Bus Moto Moto VFD Capacit
Protection on Feed
Transfor Feed er (HT Coupl r r Feed or Remarks
Type Transfor er
mer er Panel) er Feed Feed er Feeder
mer (HT +
er er
LT)

condition

Includes
overvoltage,
VFD Internal
✔️ undervoltage,
Protection
ground fault,
overcurrent

Protects from
Surge switching and
✔️
Arrester lightning
surges

Fuse Fast-acting
✔️
Protection fault isolation

For LT loads,
protects from
MCB/MCCB ✔️ ✔️ overcurrent
and short
circuit

Monitors
Unbalance
phase
Protection
✔️ imbalance in
(for
capacitor
capacitors)
banks

Used to
control and
Contactor trip
✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️
Trip / Relay motor/contac
tors under
faults

 Legend: ✔️= Protection is applicable

102
 Incomer Bus LT
Power Distribution HT Motor VFD Capacitor Motor Feeder
Protection Type HV Feeder (HT Coup Motor Remarks
Transformer Transformer Feeder Feeder Feeder (HT + LT)
Panel) ler Feeder
Applied for transformers ≥ 5 MVA (typically 5
Differential Protection
✔️ ✔️ ✔️ MVA and above); HT Motors above 1.5 MW with
(87T/87M)
10–30% pickup setting.
REF (Restricted Earth
✔️ Applicable for transformer neutral protection
Fault - 87N)
Detects gas accumulation and minor internal
Buchholz Relay ✔️
faults
Monitors tap changer health, alarms on
OLTC Protection ✔️
malfunctions
Pickup setting typically 110–125% of full load
Overcurrent (50/51) ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️
current
Earth Fault (50N/51N) ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ 20–40% pickup based on neutral grounding
Overvoltage (59) ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ Pickup at 110–115% of rated voltage
Undervoltage (27) ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ Pickup at 85–90% of rated voltage
Distance Protection (21) ✔️ Typically used for transmission line protection
Breaker Fail Protection
✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ Operates if breaker fails to trip on command
(50BF)
Busbar Protection (87B) ✔️ ✔️ High-speed protection for internal bus faults
Ensures voltage, frequency, and phase match
Synchronization Relay ✔️ ✔️
before closing breaker
Thermal Overload
✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ Based on thermal model or RTD input
Protection
Locked Rotor / Stall / Protects motor during abnormal startup or phase
✔️ ✔️
Phase Imbalance loss
Single Phasing ✔️ ✔️ Detects missing phase condition
Includes overvoltage, undervoltage, ground fault,
VFD Internal Protection ✔️
overcurrent
Surge Arrester ✔️ Protects from switching and lightning surges
Fuse Protection ✔️ Fast-acting fault isolation
For LT loads, protects from overcurrent and short
MCB/MCCB ✔️ ✔️
circuit
Unbalance Protection
✔️ Monitors phase imbalance in capacitor banks
(for capacitors)
Used to control and trip motor/contactors under
Contactor Trip / Relay ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️
faults

🔍 What is SFRA?

SFRA stands for Sweep Frequency Response Analysis. It is a non-invasive diagnostic test
used primarily for power transformers to assess the mechanical integrity of the winding
structure and core.

🎯 Why is SFRA Test Required?

Transformers are subject to mechanical and electrical stresses (due to short circuits, transport
shocks, seismic activity, etc.). These can cause:

 Winding displacement
 Core movement
 Clamping structure loosening
 Shorted turns or open windings

SFRA helps detect such mechanical changes which may not be visible in electrical tests like
IR, PI, ratio, or DGA.

103
🧪 Principle of SFRA

A low-voltage signal is applied over a range of frequencies (typically 20 Hz to 2 MHz) and

the output signal response is measured. The frequency response (gain vs frequency) is
then plotted.

By comparing this frequency response to:

1. Baseline (factory or previous test result)

2. Identical transformer (sister unit)
3. Three phases of the same transformer

…you can detect anomalies.

🛠️Method of Testing

Step Description

1. Transformer should be de-energized and properly earthed.

2. Disconnect bushings and neutral links (to avoid parallel paths).

3. Connect SFRA test equipment (signal injector and analyzer) between windings.

4. Apply sweep frequency signal (e.g., 10 Hz to 2 MHz).

5. Measure output signal from other end and calculate frequency response.

6. Compare the current trace with previous records or phase-to-phase responses.

📏 Connection Types (Typical Test Configurations)

Test Type Description

End-to-End (H1–H2) Tests across the same winding terminals

End-to-Neutral (H1–N) Tests one terminal to neutral

Interwinding (HV–LV) HV winding to LV winding

Across all windings HV-LV, HV-Tertiary, LV-Tertiary comparisons

🔧 Equipment Used

 SFRA Analyzer (e.g., OMICRON FRANEO 800, Doble M5400)

 Test leads and clamps

104
  Grounding kit
 Laptop with analysis software
 Reference data (baseline from factory or previous tests)

📊 Interpretation of Results

 Flat or distorted curve = Possible winding displacement

 Shift in resonance peaks = Core or winding structure change
 Phase mismatch = Asymmetrical movement or shorted turns
 Damping or missing peaks = Short-circuited turns or core issues

📘 Applicable Standards

 IEC 60076-18: Power Transformers – Measurement of frequency response

 IEEE C57.149: IEEE Guide for the Application and Interpretation of Frequency
Response Analysis for Oil-Immersed Transformers

Here's a detailed explanation of the SFRA test setup, including lead connections,
input/output measurement, and interpretation:

🔧 SFRA Test – Detailed Procedure with Lead Connections

🛠️Objective

To inject a known low-voltage signal (input) into a winding and measure the output voltage
at the other terminal, across a sweep of frequencies. The comparison of input/output
amplitude vs. frequency reveals mechanical changes in the transformer windings.

⚙️Test Configurations and Lead Connections

Lead Lead Where Input

Test Where Output
Connection Connection Test Purpose Signal is
Configuration is Measured
Point 1 Point 2 Injected

HV Terminal HV Terminal Detect movement in

HV End-to-End H1 H2
H1 H2 HV winding

HV End-to- HV Terminal Neutral Check HV-to-neutral

H1 HN
Neutral H1 Terminal (HN) winding stability

LV End-to-End LV Terminal X1 LV Terminal X2 Check LV winding X1 X2

105
 Lead Lead Where Input
Test Where Output
Connection Connection Test Purpose Signal is
Configuration is Measured
Point 1 Point 2 Injected

displacement

LV End-to- Neutral LV winding to

LV Terminal X1 X1 XN
Neutral Terminal (XN) neutral

Insulation and
HV-LV HV Terminal
LV Terminal X1 mechanical coupling H1 X1
Interwinding H1
check

HV-Tertiary HV Terminal Tertiary Mechanical fault in

H1 Y1
Interwinding H1 Terminal Y1 tertiary or core shift

LV-Tertiary Tertiary LV vs. tertiary

LV Terminal X1 X1 Y1
Interwinding Terminal Y1 structure check

⚠️Neutral links must be disconnected to avoid parallel paths which can affect
measurement.

🔍 Typical Input/Output Signal Values

Parameter Typical Value

Input Voltage (sweep) 0.5 V to 5 V (AC RMS)

Frequency Range 20 Hz to 2 MHz

Output (Measured) Voltage amplitude (mV–V), gain in dB

Response Curve Output Frequency vs. Gain (in dB) plotted

Example:

 If 1 V signal is injected at H1,

 Output at H2 is 0.6 V at 2 kHz, then Gain = 20log(0.6/1) = -4.4 dB at 2 kHz

📊 Typical Interpretation

 Stable winding: Smooth, known peaks and valleys.

 Winding displacement: Shifts in resonance or attenuation.
 Shorted turns: Smeared/damped curves or missing peaks.
 Core problems: Low-frequency distortion.

106
✅ Key Guidelines

 Always compare:
o Phase A vs B vs C (for asymmetry)
o Current vs. past test (maintenance trends)
o Transformer vs. sister unit (new commissioning)
 Test in de-energized condition
 Ensure proper grounding of the analyzer and transformer tank.

📘 Recommended Standard

 IEC 60076-18: Power Transformers – Measurement of frequency response

107