1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
 Busbar Protection in a Switchyard
We are going to explain busbar protection using a similar approach as the
transformer differential protection. Busbar protection is also a unit protection
scheme that compares the sum of currents entering the busbar with the sum of
currents leaving the busbar.
If there is a significant difference (indicating a fault on the busbar), the relay trips to
isolate the busbar. We'll consider a simple busbar with two incoming/outgoing
circuits.
Circuit Diagram:
Consider a single busbar with two feeders: one incoming (source) and one outgoing
(load).
However, for busbar protection, we typically have multiple circuits. Let's take an
example with two sources and one load.

9
In a differential scheme, we connect the secondaries of all CTs (CT1, CT2, CT3) to a
common differential relay (87B).
Principle:
- Under normal conditions, the current entering the busbar (from Source1 and
Source2) should equal the current leaving the busbar (to Load).
- Therefore, the algebraic sum of the currents (as seen by the relay) should be zero.
- During a bus fault, all sources feed the fault and there is no load current. Thus, the
sum of the incoming currents equals the fault current, and the relay trips.
However, note the direction:
- For the busbar, currents entering the bus are considered positive, and leaving are
negative (or vice versa, but must be consistent).
In the diagram, we have:
- CT1 and CT2: connected such that when current flows from the source to the bus,
the secondary current flows toward the relay (entering the relay).
- CT3: connected such that when current flows from the bus to the load, the
secondary current flows away from the relay (so we reverse the connection or use
the same convention and then subtract).
Actually, the standard is to have all CTs connected with the same polarity (dots)
facing the bus. Then the relay is connected to the sum of the currents with the
condition that:

I relay = I_CT1 + I_CT2 - I_CT3 [if the load current is leaving, then we
subtract]

But in a common scheme, we connect the CTs so that the secondary currents are in
phase when the primary currents are in the same direction relative to the bus. Then
the relay is connected to the vector sum.
Alternatively, we can use a circulating current scheme where all CTs are connected
in parallel to the relay. Then the relay current is the sum of the currents.
However, note: if we simply connect all CT secondaries in parallel, then under normal
conditions, the currents from the sources would cancel with the current from the
load? Not exactly, because the load current is the sum of the source currents.
Actually, the correct way is to have:
- For each circuit, the CT is installed with the same polarity mark toward the bus.
- Then, the secondaries of all CTs are connected in parallel to a single relay.
Then, the current in the relay is the vector sum of all the secondary currents.
For the relay to see zero current in normal conditions, we must have:

I1 + I2 = I3 (in primary terms)

Then in secondary terms:
(I1 / CT1_ratio) + (I2 / CT2_ratio) = (I3 / CT3_ratio) [if the CT ratios are the same,
then it simplifies]
But often CT ratios are chosen to be the same for a busbar.
Let's assume:
- CT1, CT2, CT3 all have the same ratio, say 1000:5.

Example:
Source1 current: 400 A
Source2 current: 300 A
Load current: 700 A
Then in primary: 400 + 300 = 700.
In secondary:
I_CT1_sec = 400 * (5/1000) = 2 A
I_CT2_sec = 300 * (5/1000) = 1.5 A
I_CT3_sec = 700 * (5/1000) = 3.5 A
Now, if we connect the CT secondaries in parallel with the same polarity (all dotted
ends connected together and then to one side of the relay, and the non-dotted ends

10
connected together and to the other side of the relay), then the current in the relay
is:
I_relay = I_CT1_sec + I_CT2_sec - I_CT3_sec [if we consider the direction: for CT1 and
CT2, the current is entering the relay, but for CT3, we must reverse the connection
so that the current leaving the bus (which is the same as entering the CT from the
bus) produces a current in the relay in the opposite direction?]
Actually, the standard practice is to have the CTs connected so that for a current
entering the bus, the secondary current enters the relay. For a current leaving the
bus, the CT is installed such that the secondary current leaves the relay (i.e., the CT
is wired in the opposite direction).
Alternatively, we can connect the CTs for the outgoing feeders with reversed
polarity. Then:
I_relay = I_CT1_sec + I_CT2_sec + (-I_CT3_sec) = 2 + 1.5 - 3.5 = 0 A.

So, under normal conditions, the relay current is zero.

Now, consider an internal fault (bus fault):
All sources feed the fault. The load current is zero (because the fault is on the bus).
So:
I1 = fault current from Source1, say 5000 A (due to fault)
I2 = fault current from Source2, say 4000 A
I3 = 0 (since the load is disconnected by the fault)
Then:
I_CT1_sec = 5000 * (5/1000) = 25 A
I_CT2_sec = 4000 * (5/1000) = 20 A
I_CT3_sec = 0 A
Now, with the same connections:
I_relay = 25 + 20 - 0 = 45 A
This is well above the pickup setting (which might be set at 0.5 A, for example) and
the relay trips.
Now, consider an external fault (on the load side, beyond CT3):
Fault on the load feeder. Then:
I1 and I2 will both increase, and I3 will be the sum of I1 and I2 (but in the opposite
direction for the bus).

For example, if the fault causes:

I1 = 2000 A
I2 = 1500 A
I3 = 3500 A (leaving the bus)
Then:
I_CT1_sec = 2000 * (5/1000) = 10 A
I_CT2_sec = 1500 * (5/1000) = 7.5 A
I_CT3_sec = 3500 * (5/1000) = 17.5 A
Now, the relay current: 10 + 7.5 - 17.5 = 0 A -> no trip.
However, if there is CT saturation during an external fault, one CT might not
reproduce the primary current accurately. For example, if CT3 saturates and only
produces 15 A instead of 17.5 A, then:
I_relay = 10 + 7.5 - 15 = 2.5 A
This might be above the pickup setting and cause a false trip.
To avoid this, busbar protection often uses a high-impedance differential relay or a
percentage differential relay (with restraint) to provide stability during external
faults.
High-impedance differential scheme:
In this scheme, the CT secondaries are connected in parallel to the relay, and a
stabilizing resistor is used. The relay has a high impedance, so even if one CT
saturates, the voltage across the relay is limited by the stabilizing resistor. The

11
setting is based on the maximum voltage that can appear across the relay during an
external fault without causing a trip.

However, for simplicity, we'll explain the percentage differential (restraint) scheme,
which is similar to the transformer protection.
Percentage Differential Scheme for Busbar:
The relay has multiple restraint coils (one for each CT) and one operating coil.
The operating current: I_op = | Σ I_sec | (vector sum of all the secondary currents)
The restraint current: I_rest = Σ |I_sec| (the sum of the absolute values of the
secondary currents)
Then, the relay trips if: I_op > k * I_rest, where k is the slope (e.g., 20%).
Alternatively, a common formula is: I_op > k * (I_rest) but note that I_rest is the sum
of the magnitudes.
However, sometimes the restraint current is taken as the maximum of the individual
currents.
We'll use: I_rest = |I_CT1_sec| + |I_CT2_sec| + |I_CT3_sec|
Then, for the external fault without saturation:
I_op = |10 + 7.5 - 17.5| = |0| = 0 A
I_rest = |10| + |7.5| + |17.5| = 35 A
k * I_rest (with k=20%) = 7 A -> 0 < 7, so no trip.
With CT3 saturation (I_CT3_sec = 15 A):
I_op = |10 + 7.5 - 15| = |2.5| = 2.5 A
I_rest = |10| + |7.5| + |15| = 32.5 A
k * I_rest = 0.2 * 32.5 = 6.5 A

Since 2.5 < 6.5, no trip.

But what if the saturation is severe? Suppose CT3 only outputs 10 A:
I_op = |10+7.5-10| = |7.5| = 7.5 A
I_rest = 10 + 7.5 + 10 = 27.5 A
k * I_rest = 0.2 * 27.5 = 5.5 A -> 7.5 > 5.5 -> trip.
To avoid this, we might use a higher slope or a different scheme.
However, note: in a high-impedance scheme, we set the relay voltage setting above
the maximum voltage that can appear during an external fault with one CT
saturated.
Calculation for High-Impedance Scheme:
The maximum voltage that can appear across the relay during an external fault (with
one CT saturated) is:
V_max = I_fault_external * (R_ct + R_lead) for the saturated CT, but actually it is the
current through the non-saturated CTs flowing through the saturated CT's burden.
However, the detailed calculation is beyond the scope of this example.
Example Calculation for Percentage Differential:
Let's set a more realistic scenario.
Busbar: 33 kV
Feeders:
Source1: 1000 A full load
Source2: 800 A full load
Load: 1800 A full load

CT ratios: All 2000:5 (so that they can handle fault currents, say 40 kA).
Normal load condition:
I_CT1_sec = 1000 * (5/2000) = 2.5 A
I_CT2_sec = 800 * (5/2000) = 2.0 A
I_CT3_sec = 1800 * (5/2000) = 4.5 A [and we connect CT3 with reversed polarity]
I_op = |2.5 + 2.0 - 4.5| = |0| = 0 A -> no trip.

12
Internal fault (bus fault):
Assume I1 = 20 kA, I2 = 15 kA, I3 = 0.
I_CT1_sec = 20000 * (5/2000) = 50 A
I_CT2_sec = 15000 * (5/2000) = 37.5 A
I_CT3_sec = 0
I_op = |50 + 37.5 - 0| = 87.5 A
I_rest = |50| + |37.5| + |0| = 87.5 A
Even with a slope of 50%, the condition is: 87.5 > 0.5 * 87.5 -> 87.5>43.75 -> trip.
External fault on the load side (with CT3 saturated by 50%):
Fault current from Source1: 10 kA, Source2: 8 kA, so total 18 kA. But CT3 is
saturated and only produces 80% of the expected current.
Expected I_CT3_sec = 18000 * (5/2000) = 45 A, but due to saturation, it produces
0.8 * 45 = 36 A.
I_CT1_sec = 10000 * (5/2000) = 25 A
I_CT2_sec = 8000 * (5/2000) = 20 A
I_CT3_sec = 36 A (with reversed polarity)
I_op = |25 + 20 - 36| = |9| = 9 A
I_rest = |25| + |20| + |36| = 81 A
With a slope of 20%: 0.2 * 81 = 16.2 A -> 9 < 16.2 -> no trip.
But if the saturation is more severe, say CT3 only produces 30 A:
I_op = |25+20-30| = |15| = 15 A
I_rest = 25+20+30 = 75 A
0.2*75 = 15 -> so equal, and typically the relay has a greater than condition, so no
trip.
If we set the slope at 15%:
0.15 * 75 = 11.25 -> 15>11.25 -> trip.
Therefore, the slope must be chosen carefully to avoid false trips due to CT
saturation.
In practice, the slope for busbar protection is set between 20% and 50%.

Key Considerations:
1. CT selection: same ratio and similar characteristics.
2. CT saturation: must be considered in the design.
3. For busbars with many circuits, the protection scheme becomes more complex.
4. High-impedance differential is also common and provides excellent stability during
external faults.
Conclusion:
Busbar differential protection operates on the same principle as transformer
differential protection: comparing the sum of the incoming and outgoing currents.
The percentage differential scheme provides stability during external faults even
with moderate CT saturation.

Busbar Protection in a Switchyard

Busbar protection is a unit protection scheme that compares currents

entering and leaving a busbar. An internal fault (on the bus) causes
imbalance, tripping the relay to isolate the bus. Below, we explain high-

13
impedance differential protection (common for busbars) with a
diagram, examples, and calculations.

14
15
16
17
18
 We are going to cover the following earthing fault protection schemes:

1. Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Protection

2. Ground Fault Protection using 50/51N (Earth Fault Relay)
3. Sensitive Earth Fault (SEF) Protection
Each will be explained with:
- Purpose and application
- Basic diagram
- Setting calculations (with examples)
Let's start.
### 1. Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Protection
**Purpose:**
REF protection is used to provide high sensitivity for internal earth faults in a
transformer or generator. It is designed to detect earth faults that occur within a
specific zone (like the windings of a transformer) and is not affected by faults outside
the protected zone.
**Basic Diagram:**
The REF scheme for a transformer typically uses current transformers (CTs) on each
phase and a CT on the neutral. The secondary of these CTs are connected in parallel
to a relay. The relay is typically a high-impedance relay to avoid maloperation during
external faults.
```
_______________
||
| Transformer |
|_______________|
|||
ABC
|||
CT CT CT
|||
|||
|\/
| REF Relay (High Impedance)
||
||
CT (Neutral CT)
||
||
N Ground
```
**Operation:**
Under normal conditions and external faults, the current entering the protected zone
(via the phase CTs) equals the current leaving via the neutral CT. Hence, the sum of
currents in the REF relay circuit is zero. During an internal earth fault, the fault
current flows from the phase to earth, bypassing the neutral. This causes an
imbalance and the REF relay operates.
**Setting Calculation:**

19
The high-impedance REF relay setting must be above the maximum spill current
during an external fault. The voltage setting is calculated to avoid operation during
an external fault.
Steps:
1. Calculate the maximum through fault current (external fault) that can cause spill
current in the relay.
2. Calculate the relay voltage setting (V_set) as:
V_set > I_f * (R_ct + 2*R_lead) [For worst-case CT saturation]
Where:
I_f = maximum external fault current (in amps) referred to CT secondary
R_ct = CT secondary resistance (in ohms)
R_lead = resistance of one lead from CT to relay (in ohms)
However, a more accurate formula considers the knee-point voltage of the CTs. The
relay setting voltage (V_set) should be at least half the knee-point voltage of the
CTs.
3. The primary operating current (I_oper) is typically set to 10-20% of the minimum
fault current. The relay has a setting for the operating current (in amps) and a
voltage setting (in volts). The operating current is set by a resistor (R_stab)
connected in series with the relay.
The stability resistor (R_stab) is calculated as:
R_stab = V_set / I_oper
Where I_oper is the desired secondary operating current.
Example:
Consider a transformer with:
- CT ratio: 1000/1 A
- Maximum external fault current: 30,000 A (primary) => 30 A (secondary)
- CT secondary resistance (R_ct): 5 Ω
- Lead resistance (R_lead): 0.5 Ω
- Knee-point voltage (V_k) of CT: 200 V
Calculate V_set:
V_set > 30 * (5 + 2*0.5) = 30 * 6 = 180 V
But we also require V_set >= 0.5 * V_k = 100 V. So we take 180 V (as it is higher).
Set I_oper (desired) = 0.1 A (secondary). Then:
R_stab = 180 / 0.1 = 1800 Ω.
The relay is set to operate at 0.1 A (current setting) and the stability resistor is 1800
Ω.
### 2. Ground Fault Protection using 50/51N (Earth Fault Relay)
**Purpose:**
This is a non-directional earth fault protection. It can be instantaneous (50N) or time-
delayed (51N). It is connected to the residual current of the system (sum of the three
phase currents) or via a core balance CT (CBCT).
**Basic Diagram:**
Two methods:
a) Residual connection: Three phase CTs connected in parallel to a relay.
```
CT1 CT2 CT3
|||
--------\ /-----
51N/50N

20
```
b) Core Balance CT (CBCT): A single CT that encircles all three phases and the
neutral (if any). The relay is connected to the secondary of the CBCT.
```
----- CBCT -----
| Conductor |
| A, B, C, N | (if present)
----------------
|
51N/50N
```
**Operation:**
The relay measures the residual current (I_res = Ia+Ib+Ic) which is 3I0 (three times
the zero sequence current). For a solidly grounded system, the earth fault current
can be high and hence instantaneous protection (50N) can be used. For resistance
grounded systems, the current is limited and hence time-delayed (51N) is used.
**Setting Calculation:**
- **Instantaneous (50N):**
Set above the maximum load unbalance and below the minimum earth fault current.
Typically, set at 10-30% of the minimum earth fault current to ensure sensitivity and
avoid nuisance tripping.
- **Time-delayed (51N):**
Use an inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) curve. The current setting (pickup) is
set above the maximum unbalance (e.g., 10-20% of CT rating). The time setting is
coordinated with downstream and upstream relays.
Example:
For a system with:
- Maximum load unbalance: 50 A (primary)
- Minimum earth fault current: 500 A (primary)
- CT ratio: 100/1 A
Secondary unbalance = 50 / 100 = 0.5 A
Set 50N pickup at 1.5 A (primary 150 A) which is less than 500 A and above 0.5 A.
For 51N:
Set pickup at 0.2 * CT secondary = 0.2 * 1 = 0.2 A (20% of CT secondary). Then
choose an IDMT curve (e.g., Normal Inverse) and time multiplier setting (TMS) to
coordinate.

### 3. Sensitive Earth Fault (SEF) Protection

**Purpose:**
SEF is used to detect low-level earth faults, typically in resistance grounded systems
where the fault current is limited (e.g., 10-200 A). It provides high sensitivity.
**Basic Diagram:**
Similar to 50/51N, it uses either residual connection or a CBCT. The relay is designed
to be very sensitive (e.g., 0.1 A to 1 A).
**Operation:**
The relay measures the residual current. Because of the high sensitivity, it must be
set above the natural unbalance and harmonic currents (especially third harmonic).

21
 **Setting Calculation:**
The pickup setting is set above the normal residual current (which is typically very
low, but can be higher in systems with nonlinear loads due to harmonics).
Example:
In a resistance grounded system with a grounding resistor limiting the fault current
to 100 A (primary). The CT ratio is 100/1 A.
The maximum residual current under normal conditions is measured (say 0.05 A
secondary). Then set the SEF relay at 0.1 A (secondary) for pickup and use a time
delay (e.g., 0.5 s) to avoid tripping on transient conditions.
For coordination, the time delay of SEF should be less than the backup earth fault
relay (51N) but long enough to ride through transients.
### Summary Table
| Protection | Application | Sensitivity | Setting Considerations |
|------------|-------------|-------------|-------------------------|
| REF | Transformer/Generator windings | High (typically 10-20% of rated current) |
Stability against external faults |
| 50/51N | General system ground fault | Moderate (typically 10-30% of CT) |
Coordination, unbalance |
| SEF | Resistance grounded systems | Very high (0.1-1 A) | Avoidance of harmonics
and unbalance |
Note: The actual settings depend on the specific system parameters and
coordination requirements.
We hope this provides a clear understanding. For detailed studies, relay
manufacturer manuals and system fault studies are essential.

Earthing Fault Protection: Basic to Advanced Types with

Diagrams & Calculations

Earthing fault protection detects ground faults in electrical systems. We'll

cover:

1. Restricted Earth Fault (REF)

2. 50/51N (Non-Directional Earth Fault)

3. Sensitive Earth Fault (SEF)

1. Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Protection

22
Purpose: Protects transformers/generators against internal ground
faults with high sensitivity.
Principle: Compares currents at phase and neutral ends.

Diagram:

23
 Example:

 IfIf = 10 kA (primary), CT ratio = 1000/1A → IfIf (sec) = 10A

 RctRct = 5Ω, RLRL = 0.5Ω

 Vs=10⋅(5+2⋅0.5)=60VVs=10⋅(5+2⋅0.5)=60V

 Set Vset=1.3×60=78VVset=1.3×60=78V

 For IopIop = 0.1A (target): Rstab=780.1=780ΩRstab=0.178=780Ω

24
 2. 50/51N (Non-Directional Earth Fault)

Purpose: Detects general ground faults using residual current.

 50N: Instantaneous element (high-set).

 51N: Time-delayed element (IDMT curve).

25
26
 Operation:

 CBCT measures residual current without phase CT errors.

Settings:

 Pickup (IpIp): 1–10% of CT rating (e.g., 0.01–0.1A for 1A CT).

 Time Delay: Short delay (0.1–0.5s) to avoid transients.

Example:

 System: 480V, grounding resistor limits fault to 10A.

 CT ratio: 100/1A → Isec=10A/100=0.1AIsec=10A/100=0.1A.

 Set Ip=0.05AIp=0.05A (50% of fault current).

 Time delay = 0.2s.

27
🧭 Roadmap: Earthing Fault Protection (Basic to
Advanced)
🔹 1. Basics of Earthing & Earth Fault

 What is Earthing?
 Purpose of Earthing in Power Systems
 Difference between Ground Fault and Short Circuit
 Effects of Earth Faults (personnel safety, equipment damage, fire risk)

🔹 2. Types of Earth Fault Protection

We'll go from basic to advanced, covering each of these:

Protection Type Relay No. Description

Basic protection for phase-to-earth faults using Neutral

Earth Fault Protection 50N / 51N
CT

Restricted Earth Fault (REF) 64REF Sensitive protection for internal transformer faults

Sensitive Earth Fault (SEF) 50SEF Detects very low earth fault currents

High Impedance REF 87REF / High-Z Used for zone-restricted protection with high sensitivity

Differential Protection 87 Compares current in & out — detects internal faults

Directional Earth Fault 67N Identifies direction of fault (forward/reverse)

🔹 3. Core Components

 CTs (Core Balance CT, Neutral CT, Line CT)

 Relays (Electromechanical, Static, Numerical)
 Trip Circuit
 Breaker operation logic

✅ A. Basic Earth Fault Protection (50N / 51N)

28
1. What it does:

Detects phase-to-earth fault current using the Neutral CT or residual current from 3 phase
CTs.

2. Relay Numbers:

 50N – Instantaneous Earth Fault

 51N – Inverse Time Earth Fault

3. How it works (diagram):

R Y B ➝ Phase Lines
| | |
| | |
CT CT CT ➝ Phase CTs
\ | /
Residual CT ➝ (R+Y+B) vector sum
|
[50N/51N]
|
Trip Breaker

If the sum of the three-phase currents is not zero (due to earth fault), relay picks up.

4. Calculation Example:

 CT Ratio: 1000/1
 Earth Fault pickup setting: 20% = 0.2 × 1000 = 200 A
 Secondary pickup: 200 A ÷ 1000 = 0.2 A

So, relay will trip when earth fault current exceeds 200 A primary.

Would you like to proceed step-by-step like this for the next:

 ✅ Restricted Earth Fault (REF)

 ✅ Sensitive Earth Fault (SEF)
 ✅ High-Z REF
 ✅ Directional Earth Fault (67N)

🔸 B. Restricted Earth Fault Protection (REF)

🔧 1. What is REF Protection?

29
REF is a zone-based protection scheme used primarily for transformers and generators. It
detects internal earth faults inside the zone between phase CTs and neutral CT.

It is more sensitive than 51N and faster, as it’s restricted to a defined zone.

🔢 2. Operating Principle (Differential-based)

 Measures current entering (phase CTs) vs current returning (neutral CT).

 If I_in ≠ I_out, then there’s a fault within the protected zone.

📘 3. REF Circuit Diagram

∆ TRANSFORMER ∆
| | |
R Y B
| | |
CT CT CT ➝ Phase CTs
\_____|_____/
|
Summation CT (residual)
|
Relay (64 REF)
|
Breaker Trip

⚠️If fault is outside the transformer, both phase CTs and neutral CTs carry the same current
→ No trip.

📐 4. REF Calculation Example

✳️Given:

 Transformer rating: 5 MVA, 11/0.433 kV

 CT ratio: 500/1
 Earth fault setting: 10% of rated current
 Neutral grounding resistor: 5 ohms

✅ Steps:

Primary rated current (LV side):

I=5×1063×433≈6668 AI = \frac{5 \times 10^6}{\sqrt{3} \times 433} ≈ 6668\,A

10% setting = 666.8 A

CT secondary = 666.8 ÷ 500 = 1.33 A

30
So, the REF relay operates when fault current > 1.33 A on CT secondary.

🧠 5. Why Use REF Instead of 51N?

Feature 51N REF

Zone Sensitivity Whole feeder Defined zone only

Speed Slower Fast (< 100 ms)

Sensitivity Low (needs higher fault current) High

Application Feeders Transformers, generators

🔜 Next Topic

Do you want to continue to:

1. ✅ Sensitive Earth Fault (SEF - 50SEF)

2. ✅ High-Impedance REF (High-Z REF)
3. ✅ Directional Earth Fault (67N)

Neutral CT or residual CT

Okay, the user is asking about the difference between Neutral CT and Residual CT in
earthing fault protection. This is a follow-up to my previous detailed explanation on
REF, 50/51N, and SEF protection schemes.
Hmm, the user seems to be an electrical engineer or protection specialist looking for
clarification on CT configurations. They might be designing or troubleshooting a
ground fault protection system where this distinction matters. Since they referenced
REF/SEF earlier, they probably encountered these terms in practical applications.
Let me break this down carefully. The core confusion lies in how we measure ground
fault current - either directly via a CT on the neutral path (Neutral CT) or indirectly by
summing phase currents (Residual CT). Both methods detect Io but have different
characteristics.
First, Neutral CT is straightforward - it's a dedicated CT installed on the neutral
conductor or grounding path. It directly measures the ground return current. This is
used in REF protection for transformers where we compare it against phase CTs.
Residual CT isn't a physical CT - it's the mathematical sum (I_a + I_b + I_c) from
three phase CTs. The relay calculates this residual current internally. This is what
50/51N protection uses.
Ah, and the user might not realize the practical implications: Neutral CT avoids phase
CT errors but requires access to the neutral, while Residual CT is easier to implement
but suffers from CT saturation issues during faults.

31
 I should emphasize the SEF application too - it typically uses CBCT which is
physically different from both. CBCT encircles all three phases to directly measure
residual flux, making it super sensitive.
The connection diagrams will help visualize this. I'll show side-by-side comparisons
for Neutral CT vs Residual CT wiring, plus how CBCT differs. The key is to highlight
where each is applied: Neutral CT for REF/neutral grounding equipment, Residual CT
for feeder protection, CBCT for high-sensitivity needs.
Better mention the core balance principle too - CBCT's advantage is it ignores phase
CT errors by measuring the net flux. That's why it's preferred for SEF.
For calculations, I should clarify that both Neutral CT and Residual CT ultimately
measure 3I0, but the implementation affects accuracy. The REF stability calculation
example from earlier remains valid for Neutral CT applications.
This user appears technically competent so I can dive deep into the nuances - like
how phase CT saturation during external faults can cause false residual current,
whereas Neutral CT is immune to this. That explains why REF uses Neutral CT
comparison.
The summary table will help them quickly compare all three measurement methods.
Practical recommendations are crucial too - like using CBCT for cables and Neutral
CT for transformer neutrals.

I wonder if they're facing a specific design challenge? Maybe I should invite further
questions about their application scenario...

1. Neutral CT (Direct Measurement)

Principle: Measures current in the neutral-to-ground path directly.

Applications:

 Transformer/generator neutral grounding

 Restricted Earth Fault (REF) protection

 Grounding resistor monitoring

32
Diagram:

2. Residual CT (Indirect Measurement)

33
 Principle: Sums outputs of three phase CTs to compute residual current
(IA+IB+IC=3I0IA+IB+IC=3I0).
Applications:

 50/51N protection for feeders/cables

 Busbar earth fault protection

 Systems without accessible neutral

Diagram:

Key Characteristics:

 Computes residual current mathematically

 Vulnerable to CT saturation/errors during faults

 Lower sensitivity than Neutral CT/CBCT

Calculation Example (51N Protection):

 System: 11 kV feeder, CT ratio = 400/1A

 Min earth fault current = 300A

 3I03I0 secondary = 300/400=0.75A300/400=0.75A

 Set 51N pickup = 0.3A (40% of min fault current for reliability)

34
 Time delay: IDMT curve with TMS=0.2

Critical Comparison

Parameter Neutral CT Residual CT

Measurement Direct ININ Sum (IA+IB+IC)(IA+IB+IC)

Accuracy High (immune to phase CT errors) Lower (affected by CT saturation)

Sensitivity High (detects < 1A faults) Limited (typically > 5-10% IfIf)

Installation Requires neutral conductor Uses existing phase CTs

Best For REF, SEF, HRG systems Feeders, overhead lines, busbars

Cost Higher (extra CT) Lower (no additional hardware)

1. Neutral CT:

o REF protection for transformers/generators

o Monitoring grounding resistor current
o SEF in resistance-grounded systems (with CBCT)
2. Residual CT:

o 50/51N for distribution feeders

o Backup earth fault protection
o Systems without neutral access (delta windings)

Core Balance CT (CBCT) - Special Case

Used in SEF Protection:

 Physical Design: Ring-type CT encircling all 3 phases.

35
 Measures: Net magnetic flux (IA+IB+ICIA+IB+IC) = 3I03I0.
 Advantage: Ignores phase CT errors, detects < 1A faults.

Summary

 Neutral CT: High-precision, direct measurement for critical equipment.

 Residual CT: Economical solution for general feeders (less sensitive).

 CBCT: Ultra-sensitive detection for cables (SEF).

💡 Practical Tip: Use Neutral CT for REF on transformers and Residual

CT/51N for downstream feeders. Always verify CT saturation during faults!

36
 Current Transformers
Let's learn all types of Protection Current Transformers (CTs) and their characteristics,
step by step.

🔰 What is a Protection CT?

A Protection CT is a special type of current transformer designed to supply accurate
current signals to protection relays during fault conditions, without saturating.

📘 Why Normal CTs Can't Be Used for Protection

 Metering CTs saturate at high current → protection relay sees wrong current.
 Protection CTs have high saturation limits → remain accurate during faults.

37
✅ Types of Protection CTs & Their Applications
CT Type Application Key Features
1. Standard General fault protection
High accuracy at high current
Protection CT (50/51, 50N/51N)
Used in Differential & REF No knee-point defined; accuracy based
2. Class PX CT
protection on excitation curve
For pilot wire, high- Matched characteristics (Vk, Rct, ALF,
3. Class PS CT
impedance REF Iex)
4. TPX / TPY / TPZ IEC-defined transient
Withstand DC offset & high burden
CT performance classes
5. Core Balance CT Earth fault detection (SEF,
Detects residual/zero-sequence current
(CBCT) 51N)
Used in Restricted Earth Fault
6. Summation CT Adds vector sum of multiple CTs
schemes
Installed inside transformer Saves space, used for differential
7. Bushing CT
bushings protection

🧪 Key Parameters of Protection CTs

Parameter Description
Knee Point Voltage (Vk) Voltage at which CT core begins to saturate
Accuracy Limit Factor Ratio of fault current to rated current at which CT still
(ALF) accurate
Excitation Current (Iex) Magnetizing current at Vk
Burden Total load (Ω or VA) seen by CT secondary
Class (5P, 10P, PX, PS) Defines allowable error under fault

📊 CT Classes as per IEC 61869 / IS 2705

Class Meaning Typical Use
5P / 10P 5% / 10% error at 20× rated current Overcurrent protection
PX (formerly X) Special accuracy for differential relays Transformer Differential
PS Protection Special, matched parameters REF / Differential schemes
TPX Transient Performance eXact High-speed protection
TPY Like TPX + defined remanence
TPZ Most robust, minimal remanence

📐 Example: Class 5P20 CT

A CT marked 5P20 means:

 Max error: ±5% up to 20 times rated current

38
  ALF = 20 → relay will see accurate current even during large faults

🧠 Diagram: Core Balance CT

R Y B
| | |
\ | /
CBCT (Toroidal CT)
|
51N / SEF Relay
|
Breaker Trip

If R+Y+B ≠ 0, fault current flows → Relay operates

🧪 Important Formulas
1. Vk ≥ 2 × (If × Rb + Rct)
o Ensures CT doesn't saturate
o If: Fault current, Rb: burden, Rct: CT internal resistance
2. ALF = Vk / (If × (Rb + Rct))

⚡ Summary Table
CT Type Accuracy Used in
5P20 ±5% up to 20× rated current Overcurrent protection
PS Special match needed REF / Differential
PX Performance defined by excitation curve Transformer Differential
CBCT Detects zero-sequence current Earth fault protection

We are going to cover all major types of protection current transformers (CTs) and
their characteristics. Protection CTs are designed to operate accurately during fault
conditions to ensure protective relays operate correctly. The key types include:
1. **Measurement CTs vs. Protection CTs**
2. **Class P (Class 10P, 5P, etc.)**
3. **Class X (for REF)**
4. **TPX, TPY, TPZ (Transient Performance Classes)**
5. **Core Balance CT (CBCT) / Zero Sequence CT (ZCT)**

39
6. **Rogowski Coils**
7. **Optical CTs**
We'll discuss each type with diagrams, characteristics, standards, and applications.
---
### **1. Measurement CTs vs. Protection CTs**
| **Parameter** | **Measurement CTs** | **Protection CTs** |
|---------------------|-----------------------------------|-----------------------------------|
| **Purpose** | Revenue metering, monitoring | Triggering relays during faults |
| **Accuracy** | High at normal load (0.2, 0.5) | Maintains accuracy at high fault
currents |
| **Saturation** | Saturate early to protect meters | Resist saturation (high ALF) |
| **Standard** | IEC 60044-1, Class 0.2, 0.5, etc. | IEC 60044-1/6, IEEE C57.13, Class
P, X, TPS, etc. |
---
### **2. Class P (IEC Standard) / Class C (IEEE Standard)**
**Purpose**: General protection (overcurrent, earth fault).
**Design**: Wound or ring type with defined ALF (Accuracy Limit Factor).
**Accuracy Classes**:
- **5P**, **10P**: 5% or 10% composite error at rated ALF.
- **ALF (Accuracy Limit Factor)**: Ratio of rated accuracy limit current to rated
current.
Where IalIal = accuracy limit current, IrIr = rated current.
**Example**:
- CT: 100/5A, 10P20 → 10% error at 20 × 100A = 2000A primary.
**Burden**:
- Standard burden: 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 30 VA.
- Actual burden must be ≤ rated burden.
**Diagram**:
```
┌───────────┐
││
I_p ─┤ Core ├── I_s
││
└───┬───┬───┘
││
Z_b (Burden)
(Relay + Wires)
```
---
### **3. Class X (for Restricted Earth Fault - REF)**
**Purpose**: High-precision REF protection.
**Standard**: BS EN 60044-1 (UK).
**Requirements**:

Vk≥IfCTR⋅(Rct+2RL+Rrelay)Vk≥CTRIf⋅(Rct+2RL+Rrelay)
- **Knee Point Voltage (VkVk)**:

- **Exciting Current (IeIe)**: Low at VkVk (e.g., < 10mA at Vk/2Vk/2).

- **Resistance (RctRct)**: Tolerances ±10%.
**Diagram**:
```
┌───────────┐
││
I_p ─┤ Class X ├── I_s
││
└───┬───┬───┘
││

40
REF Relay
(High Impedance)
```
**Calculation Example**:
- System: 11kV, max external faultIfIf = 20kA
- CT: 1000/1A, RctRct = 5Ω, lead resistance RLRL = 0.5Ω
- Relay burden RrelayRrelay = 1Ω
- Required VkVk:
Vk≥200001000⋅(5+2×0.5+1)=20×7=140VVk≥100020000⋅(5+2×0.5+1)=20×7=140V
- Select CT with VkVk = 150V and IeIe < 30mA at 75V.
---
### **4. Transient Performance CTs (TPX, TPY, TPZ)**
**Purpose**: Protection in networks with high DC offset (e.g., generator, busbar).
**Standard**: IEC 60044-6.
| **Class** | **Core** | **Air Gap** | **DC Time Constant** | **Error** |
**Applications** |
|----------|-----------------|-------------|----------------------|---------------------|-----------------------|
| **TPX** | Solid steel | None | > 100ms | 10% during transient | Generator
differential |
| **TPY** | Gapped core | Small | 30-100ms | 7.5% transient | Busbar, line distance |
| **TPZ** | Large air gap | Large | < 2.5ms | 10% at IthIth | Distance protection |
**Key Parameters**:
- **Kssc (Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current Factor)**:
Kssc=IthIrKssc=IrIth
- **K'_{ssc} (Effective ALF including DC component)**:
Kssc′=Kssc(1+XR)Kssc′=Kssc(1+RX)
**Example (TPY)**:
- IthIth = 40kA, IrIr = 1kA → KsscKssc = 40.
- System X/R = 20 → Kssc′=40×(1+20)=840Kssc′=40×(1+20)=840.
- CT must have Kssc′Kssc′ ≥ 840.
---
### **5. Core Balance CT (CBCT) / Zero Sequence CT (ZCT)**
**Purpose**: Detect earth faults by measuring residual current ( 3I03I0).
**Design**: Ring-type core encircling all 3 phases.
**Applications**: SEF protection in cables.
**Diagram**:
```
┌───────────────────────┐
│ CBCT/ZCT │
│ ┌─────────────┐ │
A ├───┤ ├───┐ │
B ├───┤ Conductor │ ├─┼──▶ Earth Fault Relay
C ├───┤ ├───┘ │
│ └─────────────┘ │
└───────────────────────┘
```
**Characteristics**:
- **Rated Primary Current**: Typically 50A to 5000A.
- **Turns Ratio**: 1:1 to 1:1000.
- **Burden**: Low (e.g., 0.2-5 VA).
- **Accuracy**: High sensitivity (0.01A to 1A).
**Setting Example**:

41
- System: 415V, grounding via 10Ω resistor → IfIf = 24A.
- CBCT ratio: 100/1A → secondary current = 0.24A.
- Relay pickup set to 0.1A (≈40% of IfIf).
---
### **6. Rogowski Coils**
**Principle**: Air-cored coil measuring rate of change of current ( di/dtdi/dt).
**Output**: Voltage proportional to di/dtdi/dt.
**Features**:
- No saturation (air core).
- Wide frequency response.
- Needs integrator circuit.
**Diagram**:
```
┌──────────────────┐
│ Rogowski Coil │
I ────► (Flexible Helix) ├───▶ Integrator ────▶ Relay/Meter
└──────────────────┘
```
**Applications**:
- Arc flash detection.
- Temporary protection systems.
- High-current measurements (no saturation).
**Characteristics**:
- **Accuracy**: ±1% typical.
- **Burden**: Very low.
- **Phase Shift**: Minimal.
---
### **7. Optical CTs**
**Principle**: Uses Faraday effect (light polarization rotates with magnetic field).
**Types**:
- **Magnetic Optic Current Transformer (MOCT)**: Measures polarization change.
- **Hybrid Opto-Electronic CT**: Combines optical sensing with electronics.
**Diagram**:
```
┌─────────────┐ ┌─────────────┐
│ Optical │ │ Electronics │
I─┤ Sensor ├──────► (Converter) ├──▶ Digital Output
│ (Faraday) │ │ │
└─────────────┘ └─────────────┘
```
**Advantages**:
- No saturation.
- Wide bandwidth (DC to MHz).
- Isolation (no risk of CT open-circuit).
- Lightweight.
**Disadvantages**:
- High cost.
- Temperature sensitivity.
**Applications**:
- HV/EHV substations (GIS, AIS).
- HVDC systems.
---
### **Summary Table: Protection CT Types**
| **Type** | **Standard** | **Accuracy** | **Key Features** | **Applications** |

42
|----------------|-------------------|-------------------|------------------------------------------|------------------
--------------|
| **Class P** | IEC 60044-1 | 5P, 10P at ALF | Defined ALF, burden | OC/EF (general) |
| **Class X** | BS EN 60044-1 | Knee point VkVk| Low IeIe, precise RctRct | REF
(transformers) |
| **TPX/TPY/TPZ**| IEC 60044-6 | 10%, 7.5%, 10% | Transient performance, DC offset
| Generator, busbar, distance |
| **CBCT/ZCT** | Custom | High sensitivity | Measures 3I03I0 directly | SEF (cables) |
| **Rogowski** | IEC 60044-8 | ±1% | Air core, no saturation | Arc flash, high-current |
| **Optical** | IEC 60044-8 | ±0.2% | No saturation, isolation, wide bandwidth|
EHV/HVDC |
---
### **Selection Guide**
1. **General Protection**: Class P/Class C.
2. **Transformer REF**: Class X.
3. **Generator/Busbar**: TPX/TPY.
4. **Cable SEF**: CBCT/ZCT.
5. **High Transient Currents**: Rogowski/Optical.
> ⚠️**Critical Checks**:
> - **CT Saturation**: Ensure VkVk (Class X) or ALF (Class P) > system fault
current.
> - **Burden**: Total burden (wires + relay) ≤ CT rated burden.
> - **Transient Response**: For critical systems, use TPX/TPY.

Protection CTs are critical for accurate fault detection and relay operation.
Below is a detailed breakdown of all major types with diagrams,
characteristics, and standards:

**1. Measurement CTs vs. Protection CTs

Parameter Measurement CTs Protection CTs

Purpose Metering, monitoring Triggering relays during faults

Accuracy High at normal load (0.2, 0.5) Maintains accuracy at fault currents

Saturates early to protect

Saturation Resists saturation (high ALF)
meters

43
 Parameter Measurement CTs Protection CTs

Standard IEC 60044-1, Class 0.2, 0.5 IEC 60044-1/6, IEEE C57.13

**2. Class P (IEC) / Class C (IEEE) - General Protection

Purpose: Overcurrent, earth fault protection

Characteristics:

 Accuracy Class: 5P, 10P (5% or 10% error at ALF)

 ALF (Accuracy Limit Factor):
ALF=Accuracy Limit CurrentRated CurrentALF=Rated CurrentAccuracy Li
mit Current

 Burden: 2.5–30 VA
 Example: 100/5A 10P20 → 10% error at 20 × 100A = 2kA

Diagram:

44
45
 **6. Rogowski Coils

Principle: Air-cored coil measuring di/dtdi/dt

Characteristics:

 Saturation: None (air core)

 Output: Vout=M⋅di/dtVout=M⋅di/dt
 Bandwidth: DC to 1 MHz
 Applications: Arc flash detection, HV systems

Diagram:
text
Conductor ────┐
▒▒ Rogowski Coil
▒▒ (Helical)
└──▶ Integrator ──▶ Relay

**7. Optical CTs (Non-Conventional)

Types:

 Magneto-Optic (MOCT): Faraday effect

 Hybrid Opto-Electronic: Combines optical + electronic
Advantages:
 No saturation
 Wide bandwidth (DC to MHz)
 Isolation from HV
Disadvantages: High cost, temperature sensitivity

Diagram:
text
Conductor ────▶ Optical Sensor ────▶ Signal Processor ────▶ Relay
(Faraday Effect)

**8. Summation CTs

Purpose: Combine multiple CT outputs (e.g., 3 phases → single input)

Application: Residual current measurement for 50/51N
Diagram:

46
 text
CT1 ──┐
CT2 ──┤ Summation ───▶ Relay
CT3 ──┘ CT

**9. Window-Type CTs

Characteristics:

 Installation: Slip over conductor (no disconnection)

 Accuracy: Lower than bar-type
 Applications: Temporary monitoring, LV protection

Diagram:
text
┌───────────┐
│ Window │
Conductor ────┤ Opening ├──▶ Secondary
└───────────┘

**10. Bar-Type CTs

Characteristics:

 Construction: Solid bar primary conductor

 Accuracy: High
 Applications: Switchgear, HV substations
Diagram:

text
Primary Bar ─────┤ Core │├─── Secondary
└───────┘

Key Selection Criteria

47
1. Rated Primary Current: Match system current
2. Accuracy Class & ALF: Ensure no saturation during faults
3. Burden: Total (wires + relay) ≤ CT rating
4. Knee Point (Class X): Vk>2×Vk>2× stability voltage
5. Transient Response (TPX/TPY): Based on X/R ratio

CT Standards Comparison

Standard Class Region Key Feature

IEC 5P, 10P, TPS Global ALF-based protection

IEEE C, T, X Americas Relaying accuracy classes

BS Class X UK Knee point voltage for REF

Summary Table: Protection CT Types

Type Accuracy Saturation Resistance Key Application

Class P/C Moderate Medium (ALF 10-30) General OC/EF protection

Class X High High Transformer REF

TPX/TPY Very High Excellent Generator, busbar

CBCT/ZCT Ultra High High Cable SEF protection

Rogowski High Immune Arc flash, HV monitoring

Optical Extreme Immune EHV/HVDC systems

48
49