The International Symposium on Energy: Energy Transition, Green Hydrogen and Sustainable Industry

22-23 November 2023

A DISCUSSION ABOUT CARBON CAPTURE

Uri Stiubiener 1,* , Adriano Gomes de Freitas1 , and Joel David Melo Trujillo 1
1 Graduate Academic Program on Energy, The Federal University of ABC – UFABC , Santo André , SP, Brazil //
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The paper discusses the challenges and opportunities of carbon capture and utilization (CCU) and
carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies. This is the process of capturing CO2 from industrial
emissions and using it to produce synthetic fuels, chemicals, and other materials, or storing it under-
ground. The paper also discusses the potential benefits of these technologies and the challenges of these
technologies, such as their high cost and the limited availability of storage sites. The authors argue that
they have the potential to create jobs, improve air quality, and make fossil fuels more sustainable but also
potential risks, such as the risk of leakage from storage sites. Carbon capture technologies are still in their
early stages of development, but they have the potential to play a major role in reducing global heating.
Continued research and development, and supportive government policies, are required for CCS play a
significant role. Carbon credits can be an instrument to boost the energy transition process.

Keywords: Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS), Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU), Carbon Credits,
Energy Transition, Sustainability.

Introduction

Nutrition, hydration, respiration, and transpiration are essential for all living things. They are the
basis of the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen cycles in nature.
Diverse activities developed by society produce some carbon emissions or use fossil fuels. For
example: power generation. The power generation model based on fossil fuels to meet the needs of
economic and social development has disrupted the natural carbon cycle. The exhaustion of the current
power generation model for the world is related to the fact that these non-renewable sources, such as
oil, gas, and coal, are becoming increasingly scarce and expensive to extract. In addition, the large-scale
burning of fossil fuels is one of the main causes of climate change, with the emission of greenhouse gases
(GHG) such as carbon dioxide (CO2 ).
The increasing concentration of GHG in the atmosphere contributes to global warming and climate
change. The estimate for 2023 is 40.6 Gt CO2 (billions of tons of carbon dioxide) of global emissions, the
highest annual volume ever recorded. China is the country that emits the most CO2 , accounting for 30.9%
of total emissions [1]. Emissions and the accumulation of GHG in the atmosphere continue to grow. Fig.1
illustrates the growth of GHG emissions over the past 150 years

Figure 1: Anthropogenic CO2 emissions Source: IPCC-AR6, 2023

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Limiting the GHG emissions to combat the climate change and the global warming trend has been
discussed in all the recent Conference of the Parties (COP) of the United Nations Framework Conventions
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) [2]. To reverse this trend and combat the global warming trend, two
actions are required: reduce emissions (Net Zero economy), and carbon capture.

Scope and methodology

This article aims to bring some highlights about carbon capture and to propose a discussion about
how to stop using fossil carbon and what to do with the captured carbon.

Reduce emissions - Net Zero economy

Changing the paradigm is a key factor for the energy transition. Increasing the use of renewable
power sources such as wind, hydro, and solar to produce electricity on a large scale is a first step to reduce
fossil carbon burning.
Energy transition includes the modernization of energy infrastructure, the promotion of green
technologies, efficiency improvement of power generation process, reduction of loss and waste. and
education about the importance of clean energy. It also involves changing the behavior of people and
businesses in relation to energy consumption and encouraging energy efficiency.
Current and upcoming technologies are increasing their participation in the global energy matrix.
However, the market is not able to provide clean air adequately. Therefore, it is the responsibility of
governments to adopt measures to ensure the quality of this asset. And, since the atmosphere is affected by
the action of each individual, each company, and each nation, international policies are needed. Countries,
gathered under the structure of the United Nations (UN), must propose a policy to enable the energy
transition of all by imposing emission limits and establishing compensatory measures.

Carbon capture and storage (CCS)

CCS is a technology that captures CO2 from industrial emissions and stores it underground. This
technology is still in its early stages of development, and there are a number of challenges that need to
be addressed. These challenges include the cost of the process, the availability of storage sites, and the
potential risks of leakage.
Despite these challenges, CO2 storage has the potential to play a significant role in reducing GHG
concentration. The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that CCS could reduce global CO2
emissions by up to 15% by 2050 [3]. The IEA estimates that CCS could be deployed at a commercial
scale by 2030 [3]. However, this will require significant investment in research and development, as well
as government policies that support CCS. The CCS process involves three main steps:

• Capture: The CO2 is captured from industrial emissions, such as those from power plants, factories,
and oil and gas production. There are a number of different capture technologies available, including
post-combustion capture, pre-combustion capture, and oxy-fuel combustion. CO2 of industry
process can be captured as it is generated from furnace and boilers’ chimneys, from fermentation
processes, and from chemical reactors exhaust.

• Transport: The captured CO2 is then transported to a storage site. CO2 can be transported by
pipeline, ship, or truck. CO2 can be liquefied or solidified to enable better transport conditions. At
temperatures between –56.6 and +31.1°C, and at pressures of at least 0.52 MPa, CO2 can exist in
the liquid state. At temperatures below –56.6°C, CO2 will be in the solid state.

• Storage: The CO2 is then stored underground in a secure geological formation. Potential storage
sites include deep saline aquifers, depleted oil and gas reservoirs, and unmineable coal seams.

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CO2 can be captured from the air as its concentration reached 465 ppm (parts per million) in 2020
[4]. This process is also called carbon sequestration. CO2 can also be captured from the seawater as its
effective concentration in seawater, in equilibrium with the atmosphere is 0.099 kg CO2 /m3 (a factor 125
larger than in air) [5]. Extraction can be performed by increasing the water temperature, however, this is
an expensive option. Extraction may be also accomplished by making the seawater more acidic, based on
the the carbonate chemistry of CO2 in seawater, using electrochemical extraction cells based on bipolar
membrane electrodialysis [6].

Benefits and challenges

CCS has several potential benefits: it can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate
climate change; it can help to improve air quality by reducing the amount of CO2 released into the
atmosphere; it can create jobs in the clean energy sector; it can help to make fossil fuels more sustainable.
The main challenges of CCS are: it cost is still relatively high because implementing CCS tech-
nologies can be expensive due to the equipment, infrastructure, and energy required to capture and store
carbon dioxide emissions; there is a limited availability of storage sites; there is a potential risk of leakage.

Mineralization
The captured CO2 can be converted to carbonates before being placed underground. This is a
process called carbon mineralization. There are two main ways to do this:

• Direct mineralization: This involves injecting CO2 into a geological formation that contains minerals
that can react with CO2 to form carbonates. The most common minerals used for this purpose are
calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO3 ). The reaction between CO2 and
these minerals is exothermic, meaning that it releases heat. This heat can help to drive the reaction
forward.

• Indirect mineralization: This involves first converting CO2 into a more reactive form, such as
bicarbonate (CO3 −). This can be done by dissolving CO2 in water or by reacting it with a base.
The bicarbonate is then injected into the geological formation, where it reacts with the minerals to
form carbonates.

The choice of which method to use depends on the specific geological formation and the availability
of resources. Direct mineralization is generally more efficient, but it requires a geological formation that
contains the right type of minerals. Indirect mineralization is less efficient, but it can be used in a wider
variety of geological formations.
Once the CO2 has been converted to carbonates, it is much more stable and less likely to escape
back into the atmosphere. This makes it a more secure way to store CO2 underground.
Some of the benefits of converting CO2 to carbonates before storing it underground are: it makes
the CO2 more stable and less likely to escape back into the atmosphere; it can help to prevent the formation
of acid gas, which can be harmful to the environment; it can create new economic opportunities, such as
the production of building materials and other products made from carbonates.
However, there are also some challenges associated with converting CO2 to carbonates: it is an
energy-intensive and expensive process which often involves the use of chemical reagents and high
temperatures which increase operational costs; it requires a geological formation that is suitable for
mineralization. The reaction may take a long time to fully convert all of the CO2 . This slow reaction
kinetics can be a limitation in the context of rapid CCS.
Overall, converting CO2 to carbonates before storing it underground is promising. It is a more secure
way to store CO2 and it can also create new economic opportunities. However, the related challenges must
be addressed [7].

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Carbon capture and use (CCU)

Large amounts of CO2 will be available due to the planned CSS plants, and therefore carbon
dioxide can be a zero-cost (or even negative-value) feedstock for innovative conversion processes. Several
opportunities exist for the conversion of CO2 to chemicals, including synthetic fuels such as ammonia,
methanol, ethanol, etc. Using captured carbon in these processes means not using fossil raw material.
The valorization of CO2 emissions and its chemical recycling is imperative. The carbon captured
mainly from industrial exhaust systems, in the form of CO2 can be used as feedstock in several industrial
processes. It can be used for filling fire extinguishers, in the food industry for beverage carbonation, and
other uses. Even pure carbon can be obtained for use as a valuable raw material in the graphite industry,
as carbon black in the automotive tire industry, as activated charcoal in several filtering processes, etc.

The role of black, brown, grey and blue Hydrogen production

Hydrogen gas (H2 ) is seen as a vector for the energy transition, aiming at a new energy sustainability
model to meet global demand as the concentration GHG in the atmosphere increases. A great growth of
the world demand for this gas is expected [3]. H2 and captured carbon are like building blocks, like "Lego
pieces", for the upcoming green chemical industry.
They enable organic syntheses to obtain valuable chemicals and raw materials for the most common
organic substances. Currently, the utilization of H2 as chemical feedstock is limited to a few processes:
the synthesis of urea (for nitrogen fertilizers and plastics), pharmaceutical ingredients, and polycarbonates
(for plastics). However, the actual use corresponds to a few percentage of the potential (H2 ) suitable to be
converted to chemicals.
Several technologies are in use for the production of H2 . Natural Gas Reforming (75% of the global
produced H2 ) and Mineral Coal Steam Reforming or Gasification (23% of the global produced H2 ) are
the most used. H2 from these technologies (without CCS) is classified as black, brown, grey. They have
as by-products the emission exhaust gases containing GHG. The CO and CO2 from the exhaust gases can
be captured for use or storage. The blue hydrogen process uses CCS to trap and store this carbon from
reforming technology but it have an efficiency of 60-65%, so there is 30-35% of CO2 that will be emitted.

Carbon Credits

A carbon credit is a tradable certificate or permit that represents the right to emit one metric ton
of CO2 or its equivalent amount of other GHG. Carbon credits were created as a way to reward the fight
against the accumulation of GHG in the atmosphere and mitigate the impact of climate change. They
are intended to provide a financial incentive for businesses, governments, and individuals to reduce their
carbon footprints by reducing, or removing, their emissions. There are two main types of carbon credits:

• Emissions reductions credits: These credits are issued to projects that reduce or avoid greenhouse
gas emissions. For example, a project that installs energy-efficient lighting would earn emissions
reductions credits for the amount of CO2 that is avoided by using less electricity.

• Offset credits: These credits are issued to projects that remove greenhouse gases from the atmo-
sphere. For example, a project that plants trees would earn offset credits for the amount of CO2 that
is absorbed by the trees. Offset credits embraces CCS and CCU projects.

These certificates are a tradable financial asset. Carbon credits can be traded on a market, where
they can be bought and sold by businesses, governments, and individuals. The price of carbon credits can
vary depending on the supply and demand for credits, as well as the perceived value of reducing GHG
emissions.
The first carbon credit market was established by the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. The Kyoto Protocol
is an international agreement that aims to reduce GHG emissions. It created a market for carbon credits,
where countries that are over their emissions targets can buy credits from countries that are under their
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targets. Since the Kyoto Protocol, there have been a number of other carbon credit markets established
around the world. These markets include the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), the
California Cap-and-Trade Program, and the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI).
The World Bank’s report "State and Trends of Carbon Pricing" [8] recorded that 51 national and
sub-national jurisdictions have adopted, or are about to adopt, carbon pricing initiatives as a way to
internalize the environmental costs of GHG emissions and better signal the price of traded goods.
However, there are a number of challenges that need to be addressed in order to make carbon
markets more effective. These challenges include: the high cost of carbon credits; the lack of transparency
in the carbon market; the difficulty of verifying the emissions reductions or removals that are associated
with carbon credits.
Despite these challenges, as the carbon market matures and these challenges are addressed, carbon
credits are likely to become an increasingly important. The demand for carbon credits is expected to
grow in the coming years, as more businesses and governments adopt climate change mitigation policies.
They are a market-based approach that can help to incentive innovation. Carbon credits can be used to
offset emissions from a variety of sources, including transportation, electricity generation, and industrial
processes.

Conclusion

Capturing carbon from the atmosphere air to reduce its concentration is an issue to be seriously
considered and will play a significant role in the fight against climate change. However, there are still a
number of challenges that need to be addressed before CCS can be deployed at a commercial scale.
CCU and CCS must go hand-in-hand. The use of captured carbon is the priority. When use is
not possible, then storage must be chosen even that storage is still a challenge. Continued research and
development, and supportive government policies, are required for CCS play a significant role. The CCS,
or CCU, can also qualify for carbon credits, which are a tradable financial asset.

References

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