KADUNA STATE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF LIFE SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF BIOCHEMISTRY

COURSE CODE: BCH 301

COURSE TITLE: ENZYMOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT TITLE
VITAMIN: ROLE AS COENZYMES IN ENZYMES
CATALYZED REACTION.

SUBMITTED TO:
THE LECTURER IN CHARGE

MALAM UMAR HALLIRU

KADUNA STATE UNIVERSITY

SUBMITTED BY
FATIMA BABANGIDA IBRAHIM
KASU/22/BCH/1081

JULY, 2025

INTRODUCTION
Vitamins are organic molecules (or a set of closely related
molecules called vitamers) that are essential to an organism in small
quantities for proper metabolic function. Essential nutrients cannot
be synthesized in the organism in sufficient quantities for survival,
and therefore must be obtained through the diet. For
example, vitamin C can be synthesized by some species but not by
others; it is not considered a vitamin in the first instance but is in the
second. Most vitamins are not single molecules, but groups of
related molecules called vitamers. For example, there are eight
vitamers of vitamin E: four tocopherols and four tocotrienols.

Vitamins are essential micronutrients that the human body cannot synthesize in sufficient
quantities and must obtain through diet. While not providing energy directly, many vitamins
act as coenzymes—small organic molecules that bind to apoenzymes and are necessary for
catalytic activity. In enzyme-catalyzed reactions, coenzymes facilitate a wide range of
biochemical transformations, including redox reactions, acyl-group transfer, decarboxylation,
carboxylation, and one-carbon transfers. This paper explores vitamin classification, dietary
sources, chemical structures, biological functions, deficiency manifestations, with a detailed
emphasis on their roles as coenzymes in enzymatic mechanisms.

Involvement of coenzymes in enzymes catalyzed Reaction

reduction (NAD*/ NADP). NAD* is also known as diphosphopyridine nucleotide (DPN+) or Coenzyme I and
NADP is known as triphosphopyridine nucleotide (TPN*) or Coenzyme II. Nicotinamide coenzymes (also known
as pyridine nucleotides) are electron carriers. They participate in a variety of enzyme catalyzed oxidation-
reduction reactions with both acting as coenzymes for different enzymes. NAD* is an electron acceptor in
oxidative (catabolic) pathways and NADPH is an electron donor in reductive (biosynthetic) pathways.
The dehydrogenases enzyme catalyzed reactions involving NAD* NADP+ coenzymes require a direct transfer of
hydride anion to its subsequent reduction in the NADH/NADPH form. Observe the Fig. 10.1, you will notice that
NAD* reduction involves two reducing equivalents per molecule namely one electron and one hydrogen atom
(H=H+ + e-) which are collectively called as hydride ion. The hydride ion contains two electrons, therefore NAD+
and NADP* exclusively act as two electron carriers. The C-4 position of pyridine ring can accept or donate
hydride ion, so it is a reactive centre of both
NAD* and NADP* dependent dehydrogenases catalyze at least six-different types of reactions. i.e.
simple hydride transfer, deamination of an amino
acid to form a-keto acids, oxidation of B-hydroxy acids followed by decarboxylation of B-keto acid intermediate,
oxidation of aldehydes, reduction of isolated double bonds, and oxidation of carbon-nitrogen bond.
Examples: Oxidation of alcohol by NAD*
Primary or secondary alcohols can be oxidized to ketones or aldehydes via hydride transfer to NAD*. The
enzyme horse liver alcohol dehydrogenase catalyzing the reaction is a dimer. Its each subunit contains one
binding site for NAD* and two sites for Zn?+. Only one Zn is directly involved in catalysis.

CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS

Vitamins are classified as either water-solubleor fat-soluble. In

humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9
water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C).

1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat-soluble. These are stored in adipose tissues and hence
Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through
are called fat-soluble vitamins.
the gastrointestinal tract with the help of lipids (fats). Vitamins A
and D can accumulate in the body, which can result in
dangerous hypervitaminosis. Fat-soluble vitamin deficiency due to
malabsorption is of particular significance in cystic fibrosis.

2. Water-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamins in B-group and vitamin C are water-soluble and cannot be stored in our
bodies as they pass with the water in urine. These vitamins must be supplied to our
bodies with regular diets. Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water
and, in general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree
that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption.
Because they are not as readily stored, more consistent intake is
[47]

important. Water-soluble (C and B-complex): further subdivided (B₁, B₂, B₃, B₆, B₁₂,
folate, biotin, pantothenic acid, etc.).

LIST OF VITAMINS

 Vitamin A
Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that is an essential nutrient.
The term "vitamin A" encompasses a group of chemically
related organic compounds that includes retinol, retinyl esters,
and several provitamin (precursor) carotenoids, most
notably β-carotene (beta-carotene). Vitamin A has multiple
functions: growth during embryo development, maintaining
the immune system, and healthy vision. For aiding vision
specifically.

Vitamin A
 vitamin A itself does not act directly as a coenzyme in
enzyme-catalyzed reactions, it plays a vital role in the visual
cycle and is involved in the synthesis of retinal, a molecule
that is part of the coenzyme retinal (also known as
retinaldehyde), which is crucial for vision. Retinal binds to a
protein called opsin, forming rhodopsin, a light-sensitive
protein in the retina. When light hits rhodopsin, it triggers a
series of reactions that allow us to see.

 Vitamin D
Vitamin D is a group of structurally related, fat-
soluble compounds responsible for increasing intestinal
absorption of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate, along with
numerous other biological functions. In humans, the most
[1][2]

important compounds within this group are vitamin

D (cholecalciferol) and vitamin D (ergocalciferol).
3 2

Vitamin D
 Vitamin D, while often categorized as a vitamin, primarily
functions as a prohormone that is converted into an active
hormone, calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D), which then
acts through a nuclear receptor to regulate gene
expression. It's not a coenzyme in the traditional sense, like
those derived from B vitamins, but it does have a crucial role
in various cellular processes through its interaction with the
vitamin D receptor (VDR).

 Vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrienols)

Vitamin E is a group of eight compounds related in molecular

structure that includes four tocopherols and four tocotrienols.
The tocopherols function as fat-soluble antioxidantswhich may
help protect cell membranes from reactive oxygen species.
Vitamin E is classified as an essential nutrient for humans.
[1][2]

Various government organizations recommend that adults

[3]

consume between 3 and 15 mg per day, while a 2016

worldwide review reported a median dietary intake of 6.2 mg
per day. Sources rich in vitamin E include seeds, nuts, seed
[4]

oils, peanut butter, vitamin E–fortified foods, and dietary

supplements. Symptomatic vitamin E deficiency is rare,
[3][1]

usually caused by an underlying problem with digesting dietary

fat rather than from a diet low in vitamin E. Deficiency can
[5]

cause neurological disorders

Vitamin E
 The RRR alpha-tocopherol form of vitamin E

 Vitamin K (phylloquinones, menaquinones, and menadiones)

Vitamin K is a family of structurally similar, fat-

soluble vitamers found in foods and marketed as dietary
supplements. The human bodyrequires vitamin K for post-
[1]

synthesis modification of certain proteins that are required for

blood coagulation ("K" from Danish koagulation, for
"coagulation") and for
controlling binding of calcium in bones and other tissues. The
[2]

complete synthesis involves final modification of these so-

called"Gla proteins" by the enzyme gamma-glutamyl
carboxylase that uses vitamin K as a cofactor.
 Vitamin K is used in the liver as the intermediate VKH to
2

deprotonate a glutamate residue and then is reprocessed into

vitamin K through a vitamin K oxide intermediate. The
[3]

presence of uncarboxylated proteins indicates a vitamin K

deficiency. Carboxylation allows them to bind
[2]

(chelate) calcium ions, which they cannot do otherwise.

Without vitamin K, blood coagulation is seriously impaired,
[4]

and uncontrolled bleeding occurs.

 Vitamin B1 (thiamine)

Thiamine, also known as thiamin and vitamin B1, is

a vitamin – an essential micronutrient for humans and animals.
It is found in food and commercially synthesized to be
[1][3][4]

a dietary supplement or medication. Phosphorylatedforms of

[1]

thiamine are required for some metabolic reactions, including

the breakdown of glucose and amino acids.
Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) is the biologically active form of
thiamine and is generated by the transfer of a pyrophosphate
group from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to thiamine.
Thiamine

 Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
Riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2, is a vitamin found in food and
sold as a dietary supplement.[3] It is essential to the formation of two
major coenzymes, flavin mononucleotideand flavin adenine dinucleotide.
These coenzymes are involved in energy metabolism, cellular respiration,
and antibody production, as well as normal growth and development. The
coenzymes are also required for the metabolism of niacin, vitamin B6,
and folate. Riboflavin is prescribed to treat corneal thinning, and taken
orally, may reduce the incidence of migraine headaches in adults.
Riboflavin
 Vitamin B3 (niacin)
 Nicotinic acid,[a] or niacin,[b] is an organic compound and
a vitamer of vitamin B3, an essential human nutrient.[4][5] It is
produced by plants and animals from the amino acid tryptophan.[6]

Nicotinic acid

 Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid)

Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) is a B vitaminand
an essential nutrient.[6] All animals need pantothenic acid
in order to synthesize coenzyme A (CoA), which is
essential for cellular energy production and for the
 synthesis and degradation of proteins, carbohydrates,
and fats.

Pantothenic acid

 Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
Pyridoxine (PN)[4] is a form of vitamin B6 found commonly in food
and used as a dietary supplement. As a supplement it is used to
treat and prevent pyridoxine deficiency, sideroblastic
anaemia, pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy, certain metabolic
disorders, side effects or complications of isoniazid use, and certain
types of mushroom poisoning.[5] It is used by mouth or by injection.[5]

Pyridoxine

 Vitamin B7 (biotin)
Biotin (also known as vitamin B7 or vitamin H) is one of
the B vitamins.[1][2][3] It is involved in a wide range of
metabolic processes, both in humans and in other
 organisms, primarily related to the utilization of fats,
carbohydrates, and amino acids.[4] The name biotin,
borrowed from the German Biotin, derives from the
Ancient Greek word βίοτος (bíotos; 'life') and the suffix "-
in" (a suffix used in chemistry usually to indicate
'forming').[5] Biotin appears as a white, needle-like
crystalline solid.[6]

Biotin

 Vitamin B9 (folic acid and folates)

Folate, also known as vitamin B9 and folacin,[6] is one of
the B vitamins.[3] Manufactured folic acid, which is
converted into folate by the body, is used as a dietary
supplement and in food fortification as it is more stable
during processing and storage.[7] Folate is required for the
body to make DNA and RNA and metabolise amino
acids necessary for cell division and maturation of blood
cells.[1][8] As the human body cannot make folate, it is
required in the diet, making it an essential nutrient.[9] It
occurs naturally in many foods.[6][1] The recommended
adult daily intake of folate in the U.S. is
400 micrograms from foods or dietary supplements.[1]

Folic acid
 Vitamin B12 (cobalamins)
Vitamin B12, also known as cobalamin or extrinsic factor, is a water-
soluble vitamininvolved in metabolism.[2] One of eight B vitamins, it
serves as a vital cofactor in DNA synthesis and both fatty acid and amino
acid metabolism.[3] It plays an essential role in the nervous system by
supporting myelin synthesisand is critical for the maturation of red blood
cells in the bone marrow.[2][4] While animals require B12, plants do not,
relying instead on alternative enzymatic pathways.[5]

Vitamin B12

General skeletal formula of cobalamins

 Vitamin C (ascorbic
 acid and ascorbates)
Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic
acid and ascorbate) is a water-
soluble vitamin found in citrus and
other fruits, berries and vegetables. It
is also a generic prescription
medication and in some countries is
sold as a non-prescription dietary
supplement. As a therapy, it is used to
prevent and treat scurvy, a disease
caused by vitamin C deficiency.

Ascorbic acid

Sources of vitamins

Vitamins are essential nutrients found in both animal and plant-

based foods, as well as in fortified foods. Animal sources like liver,
eggs, and dairy provide vitamins B12, A, and D. Plant-based foods
such as leafy greens, fruits, and legumes are rich in folate, C, and
 provitamin A (β-carotene). Fortified foods like milk and cereals are
also important sources of vitamins D and B vitamins. Specific
examples of vitamin-rich foods include beef liver for Vitamin A,
fortified milk for Vitamin D, and spinach for folate.
Vitamin Sources and Examples:
• Animal Sources:
• Vitamin B12: Found in liver, fish, meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy
products. Some fortified foods like breakfast cereals and nutritional
yeast are also good sources.
• Vitamin A: Liver, fish oils, and dairy products.
• Vitamin D: Oily fish (salmon, mackerel, sardines), egg yolks, and
red meat.
• Plant Sources:
• Folate: Leafy green vegetables, legumes, and fruits.
• Vitamin C: Fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits, berries,
and peppers.
• Provitamin A (β-carotene): Dark green leafy vegetables, orange
and yellow vegetables, tomato products, and some fruits.
• Fortified Foods:
• Vitamin D: Milk, some breakfast cereals, and fat spreads.
• B Vitamins: Breakfast cereals and nutritional yeast.
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) and Dietary Guidelines:
• Vitamin B12: The RDA for adults is 2.4 mcg/day.
• Vitamin D: The RDA for adults is 15 mcg/day (600 IU).
• Vitamin A: The RDA for adults is 900 mcg RAE/day for men and 700
mcg RAE/day for women.
• Folate: The RDA for adults is 400 mcg DFE/day.
Vitamin C: The RDA for adults is 90 mg/day for men and 75
mg/day for women.

Chemical structure of vitamins

Structures of (A) thiamin (B 1 ), (B) riboflavin (B 2 ), (C) niacin
(B 3 ), (D) vitamin B 6 , (E) folic acid, and (F) vitamin B 12 . The
functional R groups for niacin include -OH (nicotinic acid) or -NH
 2 (niacinamide). The functional R groups for vitamin B 6 include
-CH 2 OH (pyridoxine), -CHO (pyridoxal), and -CH 2 NH 2
(pyridoxamine). The functional R groups for vitamin B 12
include -CN (cyanocobalamin), -CH 3 (methylcobalamin), -C 10
H 12 N 5 O 3 (deoxyadenosylcobalamin), and -H 2 O
(hydroxycobalamin). (Adapted from Gropper & Smith, 2013).

Vitamins, essential organic compounds, play crucial roles in

various bodily functions, often acting as coenzymes. Their
chemical structures, particularly the presence of specific
functional groups, are directly linked to their coenzyme
function.
Vitamin A (Retinol):
• Structure: Retinol features a β-ionone ring and an isoprenoid
tail with four conjugated double bonds and a terminal hydroxyl
group.
• Coenzyme Function: While retinol itself isn't a coenzyme, it's
a precursor to retinal and retinoic acid, both of which are vital
for vision and cell differentiation, respectively.
• Functional Group: The β-ionone ring and the isoprenoid tail
are key structural features
.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid):
• Structure:
Ascorbic acid is a six-carbon molecule with a lactone ring and
two enediol groups, giving it reducing properties.
• Coenzyme Function:
Vitamin C acts as an antioxidant, readily donating electrons to
neutralize free radicals. It also participates in collagen
synthesis and other enzymatic reactions.
• Functional Group:
The enediol group and the lactone ring are crucial for its
antioxidant and enzymatic functions.

Vitamin D (Calciferol):
• Structure:
Vitamin D, specifically cholecalciferol (D3), is a seco-steroid
with a broken B-ring in its structure.
• Coenzyme Function:
 Vitamin D, after conversion to calcitriol, regulates calcium and
phosphorus absorption and bone metabolism.
• Functional Group:
The seco-steroid structure and the hydroxyl groups are vital
for its hormonal activity.

Vitamin E (Tocopherol):
• Structure:
Vitamin E is a group of compounds called tocopherols and
tocotrienols, characterized by a chromanol ring and a phytyl
side chain.
• Coenzyme Function:
Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant, protecting cell membranes
from damage by free radicals.
• Functional Group:
The chromanol ring and the phytyl side chain are important
for its antioxidant activity.

Vitamin K (Phylloquinone/Menaquinone):
• Structure:
Vitamin K consists of a napthoquinone ring and a side chain,
which can be a phytol tail (phylloquinone) or a series of
isoprenoid units (menaquinones).
• Coenzyme Function:
Vitamin K is essential for blood clotting, as it participates in
the carboxylation of glutamate residues in clotting factors.
• Functional Group:
The napthoquinone ring is crucial for its role in the
carboxylation reaction.

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine):
• Structure:
Thiamine has a thiazole ring and a pyrimidine ring linked by a
methylene bridge.
• Coenzyme Function:
Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) is a coenzyme involved in
carbohydrate metabolism, particularly in the citric acid cycle
and the pentose phosphate pathway.
• Functional Group:
The thiazole ring is the reactive part of the molecule,
facilitating the transfer of activated aldehyde groups.

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin):
• Structure: Riboflavin contains an isoalloxazine ring and a
ribitol side chain.
• Coenzyme Function: Riboflavin is a precursor to flavin
mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD),
which are involved in redox reactions in many metabolic
pathways.
• Functional Group: The isoalloxazine ring is the active site for
redox reactions.

Vitamin B3 (Niacin):
• Structure: Niacin, or nicotinic acid, is a pyridine derivative
with a carboxyl group.
• Coenzyme Function: Niacin is a precursor to nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+), which are crucial for redox
reactions in cellular respiration and other metabolic pathways.
• Functional Group: The pyridine ring is the active site for
redox reactions in NAD+ and NADP.

Functions and Deficiencies of Vitamins

WATER SOLUBLE
Table1. An overview of water soluble vitamins

•
VITAM FUNCTION SOUR DEFICIENCY
IN CES
B1: Wholeg  Wernick
Co-enzyme for dehydrogenase reactions in
Thiami rain, e
carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism
ne cereals, syndr
pork ome
and  Korsako
legume ff
s syndr
ome
 Beriberi
B2: Co-enzyme in redox reactions Meat,  Cheilosi
Ribofla (e.g. Krebs cycle) fish, s
vin eggs,  Angular
milk, stoma
green titis
vegeta  Hyperae
bles mia

B3: Co-enzyme in redox reactions Meat,  Glossitis

Niacin (e.g. Krebs cycle) liver,  Pellagra
cereals,
seeds,
legume
s
B5: Co-enzyme A co-factor for acyl Organ  Dermati
Pantot transfer reactions (e.g. fatty acid meats, tis
henic synthesis) egg  Enteritis
Acid yolks,  Alopecia
milk
and
broccoli
B6: Co-factor for decarboxylation Meats,  Convulsi
Pyrido reactions, glycogen nuts, ons
xine phosphorylation and whole  Siderobl
transamination grains astic
and anae
vegeta mia
bles  Peripher
al
neuro
pathy

B7: Co-factor for carboxylase Eggs, Rare

Biotin reactions meat,
fish,  Dermati
nuts tis
and  Conjunc
seeds tivitis
 Alopecia
 Enteritis
 Myalgia

B9: Co-enzyme for 1-carbon transfer Green  Adults:

Folate methylation reactions leafy macro
Nitrogen-base synthesis for RNA vegeta cytic
and DNA bles, megal
legume oblasti
s c
 anae
mia,
glossit
is, (no
neurol
ogical
sympt
oms)
 Foetus:
neural
tube
defect
s

B12: Co-factor for methylmalonyl-Co-A, Meat  Macrocy

Cobala methionine synthesis and DNA and tic
min synthesis dairy megal
product oblasti
s c
anae
mia
 Neurolo
gical
sympt
oms
(e.g.
parae
sthesi
as)

C: Hydrophilic antioxidant Fruits Scurvy

Ascorb and
ic Acid vegeta
bles
(uncook
ed)

FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Table 2. An overview of fat soluble vitamins
VITAMIN FUNCTION SOUR DEFICI
CES ENCY
A: Retinol Vision, antioxidant, cell Organ Night
differentiation and meats, blindnes
specialisation butter, s,
egg Xerosis
yolks, cutis,
green Keratom
leafy alacia
 vegeta
bles
D: Calciferol Calcium and phosphate Cholec Osteo
homeostasis alcifero malaci
l:
exposu a,
re to Rickets
sunligh
t, fish,
milk
and
plants
Ergocal
ciferol:
plants,
fungi,
fortifie
d foods
E: Tocopherol Antioxidant Meat, Muscle
eggs, weakn
oil,
leafy ess,
vegeta Acanth
bles ocytosi
s,
Heamo
lytic
aneam
ia

K: Phytomendione
Green Coagul
Coagulation co-factor for clotting factor II, VII,
vegeta opathy
IX and X, protein C and S
bles
Synthe ,
sis via Vitami
intestin n K
al flora deficie
ncy of
the
new
born

Role of Vitamins In Enzyme Catalyzed Reactions

Vitamins play a crucial role in enzyme-catalyzed reactions by acting as coenzymes, organic
molecules that are essential for the catalytic activity of certain enzymes. These vitamins, or
their derivatives, bind to enzymes and assist them in converting substrates into products,
often participating in energy metabolism and other vital biochemical processes.
Here's a more detailed explanation:
 Coenzymes:
Many vitamins, particularly the B vitamins, act as
coenzymes. They are not part of the enzyme's protein
structure but are required for the enzyme to function properly.
 Catalytic Activity:
Coenzymes help enzymes bind to substrates, facilitate
chemical changes, and release the products. They can act as
carriers of electrons, atoms, or chemical groups during the
reaction.
 Examples:
 Thiamine (vitamin B1): Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)
is a coenzyme involved in carbohydrate metabolism,
specifically in reactions like the decarboxylation of
pyruvate.
 Riboflavin (vitamin B2): Riboflavin is a precursor to
FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide), a coenzyme involved in
redox reactions, particularly in the citric acid cycle and
electron transport chain.
 Niacin (vitamin B3): Niacin is a precursor to NAD+
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and NADP+, which
are crucial coenzymes in redox reactions.
 Vitamin C: Vitamin C acts as a cofactor in collagen
synthesis and other enzymatic reactions.
 Vitamin K: Vitamin K is essential for the synthesis of
certain proteins involved in blood clotting.
Conclusion
Vitamins are crucial as coenzymes in metabolism, acting
as essential partners for enzymes to catalyze biochemical
reactions that release energy from food and build
essential molecules. Deficiencies in these vitamins can
disrupt these processes, leading to various metabolic and
clinical defects. Adequate vitamin intake is vital for
optimal nutrition, disease prevention, and can even play a
therapeutic role in certain conditions.
 Vitamins as Coenzymes:
Vitamins, particularly the B-complex group, act as coenzymes,
organic molecules that bind to enzymes to facilitate their
 function. They assist in converting substrates into end products,
enabling a vast array of metabolic pathways.

Overview
Vitamins are organic compounds that, for the most part, we cannot
synthesize through endogenous metabolism in adequate quantities (with
the exceptions of vitamins B3, D, and K). To address these nutritional
needs, we must consume vitamins as part of a balanced diet or
supplement through a variety of mechanisms. Below are some key
aspects of the roles vitamins play within metabolism and common
symptoms associated with deficiencies.

Reference

1. Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling,

John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.).
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6.
2. Maton A, Hopkins J, McLaughlin CW, Johnson S, Warner MQ, LaHart D,
Wright JD (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-981176-0. OCLC 32308337.
3. "Vitamins and Minerals". National Institute on Aging. Retrieved 12
May 2020.
4. Vitamin and mineral requirements in human nutrition 2nd Edition. World
Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations. 2004. pp. 340–341. ISBN 9241546123. Archived from the
original on 12 December 2012.
5. Regulation (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the
Council of 20 December 2006 on the addition of vitamins and minerals
and of certain other substances to foods
6. "Listing of vitamins". Harvard Health Publishing. 9 June 2009.
Retrieved 12 May 2020.
7. Bender DA (2003). Nutritional biochemistry of the vitamins. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80388-5.
8. Price C (2015). Vitamania: Our obsessive quest for nutritional perfection.
Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1594205040.
9. "Food Fortification Initiative". Food Fortification Initiative, Enhancing
Grains for Better Lives. Archived from the original on 4 April 2017.
Retrieved 18 August 2018.
10. Wilson RD, Wilson RD, Audibert F, Brock JA, Carroll J, Cartier L, et al. (June
2015). "Pre-conception Folic Acid and Multivitamin Supplementation for
the Primary and Secondary Prevention of Neural Tube Defects and Other
Folic Acid-Sensitive Congenital Anomalies". Journal of Obstetrics and
Gynaecology Canada. 37 (6): 534–552. doi:10.1016/s1701-
2163(15)30230-9. PMID 26334606.
11. Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)Archived 11 September 2018 at
the Wayback Machine Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine,
National Academies
12. "Vitamin A: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals". National Institute of
Health: Office of Dietary Supplements. 5 June 2013. Archived from the
original on 23 September 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
13. "Thiamin, vitamin B1: MedlinePlus Supplements". U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health.
14. Hardman, J.G.; et al., eds. (2001). Goodman and Gilman's
Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics(10th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
p. 992. ISBN 978-0071354691.
15. "Pantothenic acid, dexpanthenol: MedlinePlus Supplements". MedlinePlus.
Retrieved 5 October2009.
16. Vitamin and Mineral Supplement Fact Sheets Vitamin B6 Archived 23
September 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Dietary-
supplements.info.nih.gov (15 September 2011). Retrieved on 3 August
2013.
17. Institute of Medicine (1998). "Vitamin B6". Dietary Reference Intakes for
Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic
Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
pp. 150–195. doi:10.17226/6015. ISBN 978-0-309-06554-2. LCCN 000283
80. OCLC 475527045. PMID 23193625.
18. Vitamin and Mineral Supplement Fact Sheets Vitamin B12 Archived 23
September 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Dietary-
supplements.info.nih.gov (24 June 2011). Retrieved on 3 August 2013.
19. Vitamins and minerals (3 March 2017). Retrieved on 2 June 2020.
20. The Merck Manual: Nutritional Disorders: Vitamin Introduction Please
select specific vitamins from the list at the top of the page.
21. Gaby AR (2005). "Does vitamin E cause congestive heart failure?
(Literature Review & Commentary)". Townsend Letter for Doctors and
Patients. Archived from the original on 10 September 2016.
22. Higdon J (2011). "Vitamin E recommendations". Linus Pauling Institute's
Micronutrient Information Center.
23. Rohde LE, de Assis MC, Rabelo ER (January 2007). "Dietary vitamin K
intake and anticoagulation in elderly patients". Current Opinion in Clinical
Nutrition and Metabolic Care. 10 (1): 120–
124. doi:10.1097/MCO.0b013e328011c46c. PMID 17143047. S2CID 2048
4616.