Purpose Course Objectives

EEE 2313 The aim of this course is to enable student to; At the end of this course, the student should
be able to;
SIGNALS AND • Understand the characteristics of elementary • Perform convolution and correlation of signals.
signals used in telecommunication.
COMMUNICATION I • Perform Fourier transform of signals, evaluate
• Understand the characteristics of modulation Fourier series of periodic signals and calculate
techniques used in telecommunication. the harmonic power content.
• Understand the operation mechanism of radio • Select a suitable modulation technique for
passband transmission.
transmitters and receivers • Describe how a simple transmitter and receiver
equipment work.

Content Content
Content
• Classifications of signals and systems: • Representation and characteristics of • Signal distortion and delay:
Signals: signals: – effects in transmission,
– Analogue and Digital, – correlation and auto-correction. – channel bandwidth requirements.
– Continuous time and discrete-time, – The Fourier transform and its application in • Sampling theory, multiplexing schemes,
– Periodic and Aperiodic, energy and power spectra of signals. base band modulation schemes.
– Even and Odd signals, random and • Transmission of signals through linear • Carrier modulation and demodulation
deterministic, time-invariant systems. schemes.
– Energy and Power signals: • The convolution and its application in – Pulse modulation schemes.
system characterisation.

1
 Content
References References
• Radio transmitters: • Benoit Boulet, Fundamentals of Signals and Systems • B. P. Lathi, Modern Digital and Analog Communication
– classification of transmitters according to type of • Michael J. Roberts, Signals and Systems, Analysis Using Systems, 3/e, Oxford University Press, 1998.
modulation and services. Transform Methods and MATLAB • J. D. Gibson, Modern Digital and Analog
– Block diagrams of AM and FM transmitters. • M. Schwartz, Information Transmission, Modulation, and Communications, 2/e, Macmillan Publishing Company,
Noise, 4/e, McGraw- Hill, 1990. 1993.
• Transmitter circuits:
• P. H. Young, Electronic Communication Techniques, 4/e, • V. K. Mehta, Principles of electronics chapter 16
– Master oscillators, Modulation and demodulation
Prentice-Hall, 1998.
– harmonic generators, • D. Sundararajan, A practical approach to signals and
• L. W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication
– limiters and modulating circuits, Systems, 5/e, Prentice Hall,1997. systems
– privacy devices in radio telephony; • H. P. Hsu, Analog and Digital Communications, McGraw- • Monson H. Hayes, Schaum's Outline of Theory and
– neutralisation methods. Hill, 1993. Problems of Digital Signal Processing

Common form of human Real life example of signals;

References communication; • Doctor listening to the heartbeat, blood pressure
• V Oppenheim; Signals and Systems and temperature of the patient. These indicate the
• Anand Kumar: Signals and Systems state of health of the patient.
– use of speech, face to face or telephone
• Nagoor Kan: Signals And Systems
channel. • Daily fluctuations in the price of stock market will
• B. P. Lathi, Zhi Ding: MODERN DIGITAL AND convey an information on the how the share for a
ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS, © 2019 by – use of visual, images of people or objects
Oxford University Press around us company is doing.
– Signs, symbols • Weather forecast provides information on the
temperature, humidity, and the speed and direction
– Memes
of the prevailing wind.

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 Definition Definition
Definition
SIGNALS A signal is a function of one or more variable,
which conveys information on the nature of a SYSTEM
• A Signal is the function of one or more
independent variables that carries some physical phenomenon . • A system is a mathematical model that
information to represent a physical • A function of time representing a physical relates the output signal to the input signal
phenomenon. or mathematical quantities. of a physical process, and it is a
combination of devices and networks
• Signals are time-varying quantities such as • e.g.
(subsystems) chosen to perform a desired
voltages or current . – Velocity, acceleration of a car, voltage/current
of a circuit. function
• Signals are functions of time that represent
the evolution of variables – the electrical activity of the heart recorded with
electrodes on the surface of the chest

Continuous-time and discrete-

Definition Classification of Signals
time signals
SYSTEM • By the term continuous-time signal we mean a real or
1. Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
• It can be used to designate such tangible complex function of time x(t) , where the independent
2. Analogue and digital signals variable t is continuous
objects as software systems, electronic
systems, computer systems, or mechanical 3. Deterministic and random signals
• We denote a continuous signal, using the independent
systems. 4. Periodic and nonperiodic signals variable t, as x(t).

• It can also mean, in a more abstract way, 5. Even and Odd signals • We call this representation the time-domain representation,
theoretical objects such as a system of linear although the independent variable is not time for some
6. Power and energy signals signals
equations or a mathematical input-output 7. Real and complex signals
model.

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 Continuous-Time Signals
• Signal that has a value for all points in time
Discrete-time signals Discrete-Time Signals
• Signal that has a value for only specific points in time
• Function of time • Typically formed by “sampling” a continuous-time signal
– Written as x(t) because the signal “x” is a function of time • If t is a discrete variable , i.e. , x(t) is – Taking the value of the original waveform at specific intervals in time
• Commonly found in the physical world • Function of the sample value, n
defined at discrete times , then the signal – Write as x[n]
– ex. Human speech – Often called a sequence
x(t) is a discrete-time signal .
• Displayed graphically as a line • Commonly found in the digital world
• A discrete-time signal is defined at discrete •
– ex. wav file or mp3
Displayed graphically as individual values
times . – Called a “stem” plot
x(t)
• A discrete-time signal is often identified as x[n]

a sequence of numbers , denoted by {x(n)} ,

where n is an integer . Sample number

19 t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
21
n

A discrete-time signal is defined at discrete Examples: CT vs. DT Signals

times. Analogue and digital signals
• A continuous-time signal is also called an analog
x(t ) signal
x[n] • A discrete-time signal is called a digital signal if its
amplitude is quantized to a series of discrete levels .
t n

23

4
 Deterministic & Non Deterministic Signals
Deterministic and random Contd.
Deterministic & Non Deterministic Signals
Non Deterministic or Random signals
signals Deterministic signals • Behavior of these signals is random i.e. not predictable
• Behavior of these signals is predictable w.r.t time w.r.t time.
• There is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any • There is an uncertainty with respect to its value at any
time. time.
• These signals can be expressed mathematically. • These signals can’t be expressed mathematically.
For example x(t) = sin(3t) is deterministic signal. • For example Thermal Noise generated is non
deterministic signal.

Periodic and Nonperiodic Periodic and Non-periodic Signals

Periodic and Non-periodic Signals
signals Contd.
• Given x(t) is a continuous-time signal
• x (t) is periodic iff x(t) = x(t+Tₒ) for any T and any integer n • For non-periodic signals
• Example x(t) ≠ x(t+Tₒ)
– x(t) = A cos(t)
– x(t+Tₒ) = A cos[(t+Tₒ)] = A cos(t+Tₒ)= A cos(t+2) = • A non-periodic signal is assumed to have a
A cos(t) period T = ∞
– Note: Tₒ =1/fₒ ; =fₒ
• Example of non periodic signal is an
exponential signal

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 Important Condition of Periodicity for
Discrete Time Signals
Periodicity for Discrete Time Signals Periodicity
• A discrete time signal is periodic if
x(n) = x(n+N)
• For satisfying the above condition the
frequency of the discrete time signal should
be ratio of two integers
i.e. fₒ = k/N

Even and Odd signals

Sum of periodic Signals
• X(t) = x1(t) + X2(t)
• X(t+T) = x1(t+m1T1) + X2(t+m2T2)
• m1T1=m2T2 = Tₒ = Fundamental period
• Example: cos(t/3)+sin(t/4)
– T1=(2)/(/3)=6; T2 =(2)/(/4)=8;
– T1/T2=6/8 = ¾ = (rational number) = m2/m1
– m1T1=m2T2 → Find m1 and m2→
– 6x4 = 3x8 = 24 = Tₒ

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 Even and Odd Signals Even and Odd Parts of Functions
Even Functions Odd Functions
g(t ) = g(−t ) g(t ) = −g(−t )

A function whose even part is zero, is odd and a function

whose odd part is zero, is even.
Even

Odd

 

Discrete Time Even and Odd Signals Power and energy signals Power and energy signals
g  n = g  −n g  n = − g  −n

g  n + g  −n g  n − g  −n
ge  n = go  n =
2 2

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 Power and energy signals Power and energy signals Signal Energy and Power for DT
Signal
•A discrtete time signal with finite energy and zero
Energy signal Power signal power is called Energy Signal i.e.for energy signal

0<E<∞ and P =0
Amplitude Finite finite
•The signal energy of a for a discrete time signal x[n] is
Finite or decays to 

 x  n
2
Duration zero over time infinite Ex =
n=−

Energy finite infinite

Average
power zero finite

Signal Energy and Power for DT

Example: The rectangular pulse of height A and width θ, shown in the
Signal Contd. figure below has instantaneous power
Example: Repetitive pulses

The average signal power of a discrete time power signal Pinst = A2 for 0t θ
x[n] is
1 N −1
 x  n E = A θ
2 2
Px = lim and energy
N → 2 N
n=− N

For a periodic signal x[n] the average signal power is

1
 x  n
2
Px =
N n= N
1
It has zero mean power.
P = lim 
T 0 / 2 2
f ( t )dt
 The notation  n= N means the sum over any set of  Mean power is T 0 →
T
−T 0 / 2

 
0

 consecutive n 's exactly N in length. 

  A θ
2

So the pulses have finite mean power P =

T
47 48

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 The Figure below shows a repetitive triangular waveform.

(i)Find the area and total energy of one pulse of the waveform. Example 3
(ii)Find the mean and mean square of the repetitive waveform.

Voltage

time
0 2θ T0

49

Time Shifting.
Operations of Signals  A time shift delay or advances the signal in time by a time Time Shifting
interval +t0 or –t0, without changing its shape.
y(t) = x(t-t0) • The original signal x(t) is shifted by an
 If t0 > 0 the waveform of y(t) is obtained by shifting x(t) amount tₒ.
toward the right, relative to the tie axis.
 If t0 < 0, x(t) is shifted to the left.
Example: • X(t)→X(t-to) →Signal Delayed→ Shift to the
right

Figure 1.14: Shift to the Left. Figure 1.15: Shift to the Right.
Q: How does the x(t) signal looks like?
53

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 Time Shifting Contd. Time Shifting Contd. Time Scaling
• For the given function x(t), x(at) is the time
• X(t)→X(t+to) →Signal Advanced→ Shift
scaled version of x(t)
to the left
• For a ˃ 1,period of function x(t) reduces and
function speeds up. Graph of the function
shrinks.
• For a ˂ 1, the period of the x(t) increases
and the function slows down. Graph of the
function expands.

Time scaling Contd. Time scaling Contd.

Time Reversal (Folding)
• Given y(t),
Example: Given x(t) and we are to find y(t) = x(2t).
– find w(t) = y(3t) • Time reversal is also called time folding
and v(t) = y(t/3). • In Time reversal signal is reversed with
respect to time i.e.
y(t) = x(-t) is obtained for the given
function

The period of x(t) is 2 and the period of y(t) is 1,

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 Precedence Rule for Time Shifting Operations of Discrete Time
and Time Scaling. Functions
Time reversal Contd.  Time shifting operation is performed first on x(t), which results in
Time shifting n → n + n0 , n0 an integer

 Time shift has replace t in x(t) by t - b.

 Time scaling operation is performed on v(t), replacing t by at and
resulting in,
y (t ) = v(at )
y (t ) = x(at − b )
 Example in real-life: Voice signal recorded on a tape recorder;
 (a > 1) tape is played faster than the recording rate, resulted in
compression.
 (a < 1) tape is played slower than the recording rate, resulted
in expansion. 62

Operations of Discrete Functions Contd.

Sum & Product of discrete time Addition of signals
Scaling; Signal Compression
signals
n → Kn K an integer > 1

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 What is System?
• Systems process input signals to produce output
signals
• A system is combination of elements that
manipulates one or more signals to accomplish a
function and produces some output.

input output
system
signal signal

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 Examples of Systems System - Example Mathematical Modeling of Continuous Systems
– A circuit involving a capacitor can be viewed as a
system that transforms the source voltage (signal) to the
voltage (signal) across the capacitor • Consider an RL series circuit
– Using a first order equation: Most continuous time systems represent how continuous signals are
– A communication system is generally composed of three transformed via differential equations.
sub-systems, the transmitter, the channel and the R
di(t ) E.g. RC circuit
receiver. The channel typically attenuates and adds VL (t ) = L
noise to the transmitted signal which must be processed dt dvc (t ) 1 1
L + vc (t ) = vs (t )
by the receiver di(t ) V(t) dt RC RC
V (t ) = VR + VL (t ) = i (t )  R + L
– Biomedical system resulting in biomedical signal dt System indicating car velocity
processing dv(t )
m + v(t ) = f (t )
– Control systems dt

Mathematical Modeling of Discrete

Order of System Order of System Contd.
Time Systems
• Order of the Discrete Time system is the
Most discrete time systems represent how discrete signals are • Order of the Continuous System is the highest highest number in the difference equation
transformed via difference equations power of the derivative associated with the output
e.g. bank account, discrete car velocity system by which the output is delayed
in the differential equation
y[n] = 1.01y[n − 1] + x[n] • For example the order of the system shown is 1. • For example the order of the system shown
m  is 1.
v[n] − v[n − 1] = f [ n] dv(t )
m +  m +  m + v(t ) = f (t ) y[n] = 1.01y[n − 1] + x[n]
dt

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 Interconnected System Example
Interconnected Systems Feedback System
• Consider the following systems with 4 subsystem
• Parallel • Used in automatic control
• Each subsystem transforms it input signal
– e(t)=x(t)-y3(t)= x(t)-T3[y(t)]=
• Serial (cascaded) • The result will be: – y(t)= T2[m(t)]=T2(T1[e(t)])
– y3(t)=y1(t)+y2(t)=T1[x(t)]+T2[x(t)] – → y(t)=T2(T1[x(t)-y3(t)])= T2(T1( [x(t)] - T3[y(t)] ) ) =
• Feedback – y4(t)=T3[y3(t)]= T3(T1[x(t)]+T2[x(t)]) – =T2(T1([x(t)] –T3[y(t)]))
notes – y(t)= y4(t)* y5(t)= T3(T1[x(t)]+T2[x(t)])* T4[x(t)]

R C

V(t) L L

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