Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING AND

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Project Title: Astrophysical Phenomena

Enrol. No. Name of Student

9923103028 Aditya Khandelia
9923103022 Ishita Singh
9923103008 Rajeev Karakoti
9923103017 Nandini Mittal
9923103010 Aanya Singhal

Course Name: Mathematics-2

Course Code: 15B11MA211
Program: B. Tech. CSE/ECS/ECE
1st Year 2nd Semester
2023-24
 CONTRIBUTIONS

1.Rajeev Karakoti-Introduction and Signifacance

2.Ishita Singh-Orbital Dynamics
3.Aanya Singhal-Perbutation Theory
4.Nandini Mittal-Significance of Hydrostatic Equilibrium Equation of Stellar Structure
5.Aditya Khandelia-Conclusion
 Astrophysical
Phenomena

Ordinary Differential Equations—

Cosmological Models
INTRODUCTION
ODEs provide a mathematical framework for describing the dynamical
evolution of these systems over time. For instance.
ODEs provide a powerful mathematical framework for studying a wide range of
astrophysical phenomena, from the smallest scales of individual stars and
planetary systems to the largest scales of the universe as a whole. Their
versatility and effectiveness make them indispensable tools for astronomers and
astrophysicists seeking to understand the cosmos.

1) HYDROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION OF STELLAR STRUCTURE

Main physical processes which determine the structure of stars:
• Stars are held together by gravitation — attraction exerted on each part of the
star by all other parts.
• Collapse is resisted by internal thermal pressure.
• Gravitation and internal thermal pressure must be (at least almost) in balance.
• Stars continually radiate into space; for thermal properties to be constant, a
continuous energy source must exist.
• Theory must describe origin of energy and its transport to the surface.
Two fundamental assumptions are made:
• Neglect the rate of change of properties due to stellar evolution in the first
instance; assume these are constant with time.
• All stars are spherical and symmetric about their centres of mass.
For stars which are isolated, static and spherically symmetric, there are four
equations to describe structure. All physical quantities depend only on distance
from the centre of the star:
• Equation of Hydrostatic Equilibrium – at each radius, forces due pressure
difference balance gravity, • Conservation of mass,
• Conservation of energy – at each radius, the change in the energy flux is the
local rate of energy release and • Equation of Energy Transport – the relation
between the energy flux and the local temperature gradient. These basic
equations are supplemented with:
• an equation of state giving gas pressure as a function of its density and
temperature,
• opacity (how opaque the gas is to the radiation field) and
• core nuclear energy generation rate
In connection with a discussion of radial pulsation and subsequently while
considering stellar atmospheres, the equation

𝒅𝒑 𝑮𝒎(𝒓)
=− 𝝆(𝒓)
𝒅𝒓 𝒓𝟐

was derived;
it is the Equation of Hydrostatic Equilibrium ( or Hydrostatic Support) and is
the First Equation of Stellar Structure.
When the pressure gradient is not exactly balanced by gravity, the equation of
motion was found to be

𝑑𝑝 𝐺𝑚(𝑟) 𝑑2 𝑟
=− 𝜌(𝑟) − 𝜌(𝑟) 2
𝑑𝑟 𝑟2 𝑑𝑡

𝐺𝑚(𝑟)
Near the surface =𝑔 and suppose we then have a small inward
𝑟2
𝑑2 𝑟
acceleration of = βg,
𝑑𝑡 2

the displacement after time t if it begins at rest is

1
d = 2 𝛽g𝑡 2

SIGNIFICANCE OF HYDROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION OF STELLAR

STRUCTURE
Stellar Stability: The hydrostatic equilibrium equation is fundamental to
understanding the stability of stars. It describes how the gravitational force,
trying to compress the star, is balanced by the pressure force resulting from the
energy generated by nuclear fusion reactions in the star's core. This equilibrium
is crucial for a star to maintain its shape and prevent collapse or runaway
expansion
the first equation of stellar structure, the hydrostatic equilibrium equation, is a
cornerstone of astrophysics. It provides insights into the stability, structure,
evolution, and behavior of stars, contributing to our understanding of the
universe on both local and cosmic scales.
2) ORBITAL DYNAMICS
Orbital dynamics deals with the motion of celestial bodies (such as planets,
moons, asteroids, and comets) as they move around a central object, typically a
star like the Sun. The fundamental principles governing these motions were first
formulated by Johannes Kepler and further elucidated by Sir Isaac Newton.

Newton's Law of
Universal
Gravitation:

Newton's law of universal

gravitation states that every
particle in the universe attracts
every other particle with a force
that is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between
their centers. Mathematically, it
can be expressed as:

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹= 𝑟2

Where:

• F is the gravitational force between the two bodies,

• G is the gravitational constant,
• m1 and m2 are the masses of the two bodies, and
 • r is the distance between their centers

Orbital Dynamics Equations:

From Newton's laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation, we can
derive second-order ordinary differential equations that describe the motion of
celestial bodies in gravitational fields. The most common of these equations is
the second-order differential equation for radial motion, which can be derived
using Newton's second law and the law of universal gravitation.

𝑑2𝑟 𝐺𝑚𝑀
𝑚 2 =− 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑟

Where:
• m is the mass of the orbiting body,
• M is the mass of the central body (e.g., the Sun),
• r is the radial distance between the orbiting body and the central body, and
• t is time

Now, we equate the gravitational force to the centripetal force necessary to keep the
1
smaller object in orbit. The centripetal force is given by 𝐹 = 𝑟 𝑚𝑣 2
So,
𝐺𝑚𝑀 1
2 = 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑟 𝑟

𝑑𝑟
Here, v is the first derivative of position r with respect to time t, i.e., v = 𝑑𝑡

To solve for r(t), we need to express this equation in terms of r and its derivatives.

𝑑𝑣3 2
𝑑2𝑟
𝐺𝑀 = 𝑟 ( ) + 𝑟
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡 2

second-order ordinary differential equation (ODE) for r(t), the radial distance of the orbiting
object from the center of the larger object. Solving this equation provides the trajectory r(t) of
the orbiting object over time.
In celestial mechanics, we often deal with more complex scenarios involving
multiple bodies or non-uniform gravitational fields. In such cases, systems of
coupled ODEs are used to describe the motions of all interacting bodies
simultaneously. These systems can be solved numerically using methods like
the Runge-Kutta method or the Verlet method.

In summary, ordinary differential equations play a central role in describing

orbital dynamics by relating the forces acting on celestial bodies to their
motions over time. These equations enable us to predict and understand various
phenomena in space, from planetary orbits to satellite trajectories.
3) Perturbation Theory

Perturbation theory is a mathematical method used to approximate solutions to a

problem by systematically analysing the effects of small changes or
disturbances ("perturbations") on an idealized or known solution. It's widely
applied in physics, engineering, and other scientific disciplines to study systems
where exact solutions are difficult or impossible to obtain directly.

In perturbation theory, the problem of interest is typically formulated as a set of

equations describing the behaviour of a system under certain conditions. These
equations may represent physical laws, dynamical equations, or mathematical
relationships governing the system's behaviour.

Idealized Two-Body Problem:

In the absence of any perturbations, the motion of the planet around the star can
be described by Newton's law of universal gravitation and Newton's second law
of motion, resulting in a second-order ordinary differential equation (ODE)
known as the Kepler problem:

𝑑2 𝑟 −𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚 2= 𝑟
𝑑𝑡 |𝑟|3

Where

m is the mass of the planet

M is the mass of the star,

G is the gravitational constant,

r is the position vector of the planet relative to the star, and t is time.

Introduction of Perturbations
Now, let's introduce the gravitational influence of another nearby massive body (e.g., a
second star or a giant planet). We'll denote the mass of this perturbing body as 𝑚𝑝 The
perturbing force can be modelled as an additional term in the equation of motion:

𝑑 2 𝑟 −𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚 = 𝑟 + 𝐹𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡 2 |𝑟|3

Expansion in Small Parameters:

We'll assume that the perturbation is small compared to the dominant
gravitational force between the planet and the star. This allows us to expand the
perturbing force in terms of small parameters, such as the ratio of the mass of
the perturbing body to the mass of the star (𝑚𝑝 /M) or the ratio of the distance
between bodies to the semi-major axis of the planet's orbit. Let's denote these
small parameters as ϵ.
Fperturbation=ϵF1+𝜖 2F2+⋯
Iterative Solution

We can now solve the perturbed equation of motion iteratively, considering

higher-order terms in the expansion. At each order of approximation, we
calculate the correction to the orbit caused by the perturbation and add it to the
solution obtained from the idealized two-body problem.

Secular and Periodic Effects:

By considering terms up to certain orders in the perturbation expansion, we can

identify secular effects (resulting in long-term changes in the orbit) and periodic
effects (resulting in oscillations or variations around the mean orbit). These
effects arise from different orders of perturbation in the solution.
Application to Celestial Mechanics:

Perturbation theory allows us to predict the effects of gravitational interactions

between celestial bodies beyond the simple two-body problem. It enables us to
refine our understanding of celestial motion, account for deviations from
idealized orbits, and make accurate predictions about phenomena like orbital
resonances, secular variations, and the stability of planetary systems.

In summary, we use ordinary differential equations to model the motion of

celestial bodies and perturbation theory to account for small deviations caused
by additional gravitational influences. This approach provides a systematic
framework for analyzing complex celestial dynamics and refining our
predictions.

\
Conclusion
The Role of Ordinary Differential Equations in Astrophysical Phenomena

In the realm of astrophysics, the study of celestial bodies and their interactions
relies heavily on the mathematical framework provided by Ordinary Differential
Equations (ODEs). Throughout this project, we have explored the indispensable
role of ODEs in understanding diverse phenomena such as stellar structure,
planetary orbits, and perturbation theory, shedding light on the fundamental
principles governing the cosmos.

Firstly, we delved into the intricate structure and evolution of stars, which are
governed by a set of coupled ODEs describing processes such as hydrostatic
equilibrium, energy transport, and nuclear fusion. These equations provide
insights into the temperature, density, luminosity, and lifespan of stars, allowing
us to unravel the mysteries of stellar birth, life, and death.

Moving beyond individual stars, we investigated the dynamics of planetary

orbits within the Solar System. Kepler's laws, formulated using ODEs, elucidate
the motion of planets around the Sun, offering predictive power in determining
orbital shapes, sizes, and velocities. ODEs also underpin the study of celestial
mechanics, enabling astronomers to simulate and forecast planetary motions
accurately.

Furthermore, we explored perturbation theory, a powerful mathematical tool

employed to analyze small deviations from idealized solutions in celestial
systems. By expanding ODEs in terms of perturbation parameters, we can
systematically approximate the effects of external influences on celestial bodies,
such as gravitational interactions between planets or the effects of non-
gravitational forces.

Throughout our investigation, it became evident that ODEs serve as the

cornerstone of astrophysical research, providing a versatile and robust
framework for modeling, simulating, and understanding complex phenomena in
the cosmos. Whether probing the depths of stellar interiors, charting the
trajectories of planets, or unraveling the intricacies of perturbed orbits, ODEs
offer a mathematical language that transcends the boundaries of space and time.

In conclusion, the application of Ordinary Differential Equations in astrophysics

is not merely a mathematical exercise but a fundamental tool for unraveling the
mysteries of the universe. By harnessing the power of ODEs, we gain deeper
insights into the workings of celestial bodies, uncovering the secrets of the
cosmos and expanding our understanding of the universe that surrounds us.