Unit 3

Local area network

A Local area network (LAN) is a network that is used to link devices in a single office, building, or campus of up to a short
distance. LAN is restricted in size. In LAN networks internet speed is from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps (But now much higher speeds
can be achieved). The most common topologies used in LAN networks are bus, ring, and star.

Imagine your home Wi-Fi network. All the devices connected to it, like your computer, phone, or smart TV, form a LAN. They can
share files, printers, and internet access, making it easy to work and play together.

The full form of LAN is Local-area Network. It is a computer network that covers a small area such as a building or campus up to
a few kilometers in size. LANs are commonly used to connect personal computers and workstations in company offices to share
common resources, like printers, and exchange information. If we connect LAN in a real-life example then the family is the best
example each family member is connected to each other in the same way each device is connected to the network. Several
experimental and early commercial LAN technologies were developed in the 1970s. Cambridge Ring is a type of LAN that was
developed at Cambridge University in 1974.

How it works

LANs typically use either cables (like Ethernet) or wireless technology (like Wi-Fi) to connect devices. Routers and switches are
often used to manage traffic and provide internet access within the LAN.

Advantages

• Resource Sharing: Easily share files, printers, and other resources among connected devices.

• High-Speed Data Transfer: LANs offer high-speed data transfer rates within the localized area, allowing for quick and
efficient communication between devices.

• Centralized Control and Data Storage: Allows for data to be stored and managed on central servers, simplifying backup
and recovery processes.

• Enhanced Security: Being confined to a smaller area, LANs are generally easier to secure compared to wider networks.

IEEE 802.3 and Ethernet

Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. It was first standardized in 1980s by IEEE 802.3
standard. IEEE 802.3 defines the physical layer and the medium access control (MAC) sub-layer of the data link layer for wired
Ethernet networks. Ethernet is classified into two categories: classic Ethernet and switched Ethernet.
Classic Ethernet is the original form of Ethernet that provides data rates between 3 to 10 Mbps. The varieties are commonly
referred as 10BASE-X. Here, 10 is the maximum throughput, i.e. 10 Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and X is
the type of medium used. Most varieties of classic Ethernet have become obsolete in present communication scenario.

A switched Ethernet uses switches to connect to the stations in the LAN. It replaces the repeaters used in classic Ethernet and
allows full bandwidth utilization.

EEE 802.3 Popular Versions

There are a number of versions of IEEE 802.3 protocol. The most popular ones are -

• IEEE 802.3: This was the original standard given for 10BASE-5. It used a thick single coaxial cable into which a connection
can be tapped by drilling into the cable to the core. Here, 10 is the maximum throughput, i.e. 10 Mbps, BASE denoted
use of baseband transmission, and 5 refers to the maximum segment length of 500m.

• IEEE 802.3a: This gave the standard for thin coax (10BASE-2), which is a thinner variety where the segments of coaxial
cables are connected by BNC connectors. The 2 refers to the maximum segment length of about 200m (185m to be
precise).

• IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for twisted pair (10BASE-T) that uses unshielded twisted pair (UTP) copper wires as
physical layer medium. The further variations were given by IEEE 802.3u for 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4 and 100BASE-FX.

• IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for Ethernet over Fiber (10BASE-F) that uses fiber optic cables as medium of
transmission.

Frame Format of Classic Ethernet and IEEE 802.3

The main fields of a frame of classic Ethernet are -

• Preamble: It is the starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for transmission. In case of classic Ethernet it is an 8
byte field and in case of IEEE 802.3 it is of 7 bytes.

• Start of Frame Delimiter: It is a 1 byte field in a IEEE 802.3 frame that contains an alternating pattern of ones and zeros
ending with two ones.

• Destination Address: It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of destination stations.

• Source Address: It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the sending station.

• Length: It a 7 bytes field that stores the number of bytes in the data field.

• Data: This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes.

• Padding: This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum requirement of 46 bytes.
 • CRC: CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error detection information.

What is IEEE 802.3?

802.3, or IEEE 802.3, is a working group of standard specifications for Ethernet, a method of packet-based physical
communication in a local area network maintained by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).

It defines a physical layer and a data link layer for media access control, or MAC address, for a wired, fast Ethernet network
connection. These physical connections are made between nodes or devices such as routers, switches and hubs via copper or
fiber cables.

In general, IEEE 802.3 standards specify the physical media and the working characteristics of Ethernet. However, there are
many variations of this standard used today.

What are the most popular communication standards for IEEE 802.3?

The first Ethernet standards to be defined support a data rate of 10 megabits per second (Mbps). Today, there are many
variations of 802.3 in use. The following are several examples.

• 3 - 10BASE5: Thick wire coaxial cable with a maximum cabling length of 500 meters. This is based on
the CSMA/CD process.

• 3a - 10BASE2: Thin wire coax cable that uses Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC) connectors, with a maximum cabling
length of 185 meters.

• 3i - 10BASE-F: Optical fiber Ethernet cables.

• 3i - 10BASE-T: Ordinary telephone twisted-pair wire that uses unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cables as its physical layer,
and fiber optic cables as a transmission medium. Additional variations include IEEE 802.3u and 100BASE-TX.
 • 3b - 10BROAD36: Broadband multi-channel coaxial cable with a maximum segment length of 3,600 meters.

• 3bt: Third-generation power over Ethernet (POE) that uses four pairs of twisted-pair cables to support IoT applications.

• 3x - Full-Duplex: Provides Flow control and includes DIX framing.

The "10" in the media type designation refers to the transmission speed of 10 Mbps.

The "BASE" refers to Baseband signaling, which means that only Ethernet signals are carried on the medium (or, with
10BROAD36, on a single channel in a shared cable).

The "T" represents twisted-pair; the "F" represents fiber optic cable; and the "2," "5" and "36" refer to the coaxial cable segment
length in 100-meter sections (the 185-meter length has been rounded up to "2" for 200).

Token Ring Network (IEEE Standard 802.5) in Computer

Networks
Token Ring Network (IEEE Standard 802.5)

In a token ring, a special bit pattern, known as a token, circulates around the ring when all the stations are idle. Token Ring is
formed by the nodes connected in ring format, as shown in the diagram below.

The principle used in the token ring network is that a token is circulating in the ring, and whichever node grabs that token will
have the right to transmit the data.

Whenever a station wants to transmit a frame, it inverts a single bit of the 3-byte token, which instantaneously changes it into a
normal data packet. As there is only one token, there can be only one transmission at a time.

Since the token rotates in the ring, it is guaranteed that every node gets the token within some specified time. So there is an
upper bound on the time of waiting to grab the token so that starvation is avoided. There is also an upper limit of 250 on the
number of nodes in the network.

The ring network is depicted in the figure given below

Modes of Operation in Token Ring Network (IEEE Standard 802.5)

There are various modes of operations which are as follows

• Listen Mode In the listen mode, the incoming bits are simply transmitted to the output line with no further action taken.

• Talk or Transmit Node The ring interface is set to the talk or transmit node when the station connected to the ring
interface has acquired a token. The direct input to output connection through the single bit buffer is disconnected.
 • By-pass Mode This mode reaches when the node is down. Any data is just bypassed. There is no one-bit delay in this
mode.

Handling Breakage

The main problem with a ring network is that the network goes down when the ring cable breaks down or gets tempered. The
solution to this problem is the use of a wire centre, as shown in the figure.

This wire center bypasses the terminals that have gone down from the ring. This is done by connecting the bypass relay for that
station. These relays are generally controlled by the software that operates automatically in case of station failure. The use of a
wire center improves the reliability and maintainability of the ring network.

Priority and Reservation

In IEEE 802.5, each station has a priority code. As a token circulates on the ring, any station which wants to transmit the frame
may reserve the token by entering its priority code in the Access Control (AC) field of the token frame or data frame.

Time Bounding

A station that is in possession of the token only can transmit his frames. It may transmit one or more data frames but before the
expiry of Token Holding Time (THT). Typically, this time is 10 milliseconds. After the THT, the token frame must be handed over
to some other station.

The Monitor Station

The monitor station sets the timer on when each time the token passes. If the token does not regenerate in the allotted time, it
is assumed to be lost, and then the monitor station generates a new token and sends it to the ring. If the monitor fails, a second
station is designated as back-up.

Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) Network

Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) is a popular standard for token passing LANs. In a token bus LAN, the physical media is a bus or a tree,
and a logical ring is created using a coaxial cable. The token is passed from one user to another in a sequence (clockwise or
anticlockwise). Each station knows the address of the station to its "left" and "right" as per the sequence in the logical ring. A
station can only transmit data when it has the token. The working of a token bus is somewhat similar to Token Ring.

The Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) is a standard for deploying token rings in LANs over a virtual ring. The physical medium uses coaxial
cables and has a bus or tree architecture. The nodes/stations form a virtual ring, and the token is transmitted from one node to
the next in a sequence along the virtual ring. Each node knows the address of the station before it and the station after it. When
a station has the token, it can only broadcast data. The token bus works in a similar way as the Token Ring.
The above diagram shows a logical ring formed in a bus-based token-passing LAN. The logical ring is shown with the arrows.

Frame Format:

The various fields of the frame format are:

1. Preamble - It is used for bit synchronization. It is a 1-byte field.

2. Start Delimiter - These bits mark the beginning of the frame. It is a 1-byte field.

3. Frame Control - This field specifies the type of frame - data frame and control frames. It is a 1-byte field.

4. Destination Address - This field contains the destination address. It is a 2 to 6 bytes field.

5. Source Address - This field contains the source address. It is a 2 to 6 bytes field.

6. Data - If 2-byte addresses are used then the field may be up to 8182 bytes and 8174 bytes in the case of 6-byte
addresses.

7. Checksum - This field contains the checksum bits which are used to detect errors in the transmitted data. It is 4 bytes
field.

8. End Delimiter - This field marks the end of a frame. It is a 1-byte fie

FDDI Protocol
FDDI stands for Fiber Distributed Data Interface. It is a set of ANSI and ISO guidelines for information transmission on fiber-optic
lines in Local Area Network (LAN) that can expand in run upto 200 km (124 miles). The FDDI convention is based on the token
ring protocol.

In expansion to being expansive geographically, an FDDI neighborhood region arranges can support thousands of clients. FDDI is
habitually utilized on the spine for a Wide Area Network(WAN).

An FDDI network contains two token rings, one for possible backup in case the essential ring falls flat.
The primary ring offers up to 100 Mbps capacity. In case the secondary ring isn't required for backup, it can also carry
information, amplifying capacity to 200 Mbps. The single ring can amplify the most extreme remove; a double ring can expand
100 km (62 miles).
Characteristics of FDDI

• FDDI gives 100 Mbps of information throughput.

• FDDI incorporates two interfaces.

• It is utilized to associate the equipment to the ring over long distances.

• FDDI could be a LAN with Station Management.

• Allows all stations to have broken even with the sum of time to transmit information.

• FDDI defines two classes of traffic viz. synchronous and asynchronous.

Advantages of FDDI

• Fiber optic cables transmit signals over more noteworthy separations of approximately 200 km.

• It is conceivable to supply the need to the work stations associated within the chain. Consequently, based on the
prerequisite a few stations are bypassed to supply speedier benefit to the rest.

• FDDI employments different tokens to make strides organize speed.

• It offers a higher transmission capacity (up to 250 Gbps). Thus, it can handle information rates up to 100 Mbps.

• It offers tall security because it is troublesome to spy on the fiber-optic link.

• Fiber optic cable does not break as effectively as other sorts of cables.

Disadvantages of FDDI

• FDDI is complex. Thus establishment and support require an incredible bargain of expertise.

• FDDI is expensive. Typically since fiber optic cable, connectors and concentrators are exceptionally costly.

DQDB Protocol
IEEE 802.6 standard i.e. DQDB(Distributed Queue Dual Bus) is a MAN(Metropolitan Area Network) protocol. It can be defined as
a high speed shared medium access control protocol that is used over a bus network. It has two unidirectional buses, for
controlling purposes, where the bus can carry data, video, and voice over a network with bandwidth being allocated as per time
slots. The advantage of using the paired bus is that it is used to tackles failure configuration. It can be extended up to 30 miles at

34-55 Mbps.

Fig.1:- Working of DQDB

Directional Traffic: Each bus support traffic in only one direction and are opposite to one another. The start of the bus being
represented as a square and the end of the bus being represented as a triangle (Fig.1). Bus A traffic moves from right to left (i.e.
from station 1 to 5) whereas the bus B traffic moves from left to right (i.e. from station 5 to 1).

Upstream and Downstream: The relationship of stations of the DQDB network depends on the directional flow of traffic of the
buses. Considering bus A in Fig.1, which has station 1 & 2 marked as upstream w.r.t station 3 and station 4 & 5 are downstream
w.r.t station 3. Here in bus A, station 1 is head of the bus as there is no upstream station and station 5 has no downstream
station and it is regarded as to end of bus A. Working: The head of the bus A i.e. station 1 generates empty slot for use of bus A.
Similarly, the head of bus B i.e. station 5 generate empty slot for use of bus B. The empty slot travels down its bus until the
transmission station drops data into it and intended destination reads the data.

Fig.2:- DQDB Slot traveling

For example: If station 2 wants to send data to station 4 (Fig.2), it chooses a slot on bus A as station 4 is downstream in bus A.
The head of the bus A i.e. station 1 creates an empty slot. Station 2 drops its data & address of destination slot into the passing
slot. Station 3 reads the address and passes the slot as unread. Station 4 recognizes its address, reads the data and changes the
status of the slot and passes it along with station 5 where it is absorbed. How slot reservation is done? To send data
downstream, a station must wait for the arrival of the unoccupied slot, but here the question arises that how to stop an
upstream station from manipulating the bus due to which the station near the end of the bus suffers, as the imbalance can lead
to degraded quality of service. The solution to this problem is to do a reservation at the station. Here station 2 can make a
reservation for bus A on bus B. Station 2 sets a reservation bit on a slot on bus B to tell each station it passes through, that the
station is reserving a slot on bus A. All the station must respect the reservation of downstream station and leave the slot for
requested station.

INTER NETWORKING
Internetworking is defined as a way to connect multiple forms of computer networks. A computer network is defined as the
interconnection of two or more computers. Computer internetworking occurs when several computer LANs, WANs, or parts of a
computer network are linked together using devices such as routers and coordinated through a logical addressing system
utilizing a protocol such as IP (Internet Protocol).

What is Internetworking in Computer Network?

Internetworking, often called interconnecting networks, is the practice of connecting different computer networks or network
segments to create a larger and more extensive network infrastructure. Various networking technologies, protocols, and
devices, including routers and switches, are used to enable communication and data exchange between these distinct networks.

The term internetworking is made up of two words, inter and networking, which refers to a link between two or more separate
nodes/segments. Internetworking aims to establish a seamless and cohesive network environment in which data can transfer
efficiently and effectively across several interconnected networks, regardless of their underlying technologies or architectures.

There is a slight difference between network expansion and Internetworking. Using a switch or hub to link two local area
networks constitutes a LAN extension, whereas employing a router to connect them exemplifies internetworking.
Internetworking operates within Layer 3 (Network Layer) of the OSI-ISO model. The most popular example of internetworking is
the Internet.

How does It Work?

Internetworking establishes connections between distinct computer networks, allowing them to communicate and share data
effectively. Every individual network node or phase is built with a similar protocol or communication logic, such as Transfer
Control Protocol (TCP) or Internet Protocol (IP), to enable communication. Internetworking occurs when one network
communicates with another using constant communication processes. The goal of internetworking was to overcome the
problem of sending a packet of data across several lines.

Types of Internetworking
The three types of internetworking are as follows:

Extranet

In computer networks, an extranet refers to a controlled and secure extension of an organization’s internal network that allows
authorized external parties, such as clients, partners, suppliers, or customers, to access certain resources, services, and
information.

It is a network of internetwork that is restricted in scope to one organization or entity but also has restricted links to the
networks of one or more other organizations or entities at times, but not always. It is the most basic level of Internetworking,
usually imposed in an extremely private place. Although an extranet may be classed as a Man, WAN, or another type of
network, it cannot include a single local area network and must include at least one reference to an external network.

Intranet

An intranet is a private and internal network within a company that uses internet protocols and technology to allow employees
or members to share information, resources, and services. It functions similarly to the internet but is limited to the members of
the organization. Intranets are used for internal communication, document sharing, project collaboration, and access to internal
tools and applications.

This type of computer network is a compilation of interconnected networks that leverage the Internet Protocol and employ IP-
based tools such as web browsers and FTP applications. It operates under the jurisdiction of a single administrative entity. This
entity restricts external access to the network, permitting entry exclusively to designated users. Commonly, this network
functions as the internal infrastructure of a corporation or another business entity. In larger instances, this network may
incorporate its web server, enabling users to access and navigate through available information.

Internet

The internet, short for interconnected network, is a global network of interconnected computers and computer networks that
communicate with one another via standardized protocols. It is an immense network that allows people, organizations, and
computers all over the world to share information, resources, and services.

It is a specific Internetworking, consisting of a worldwide interconnection of governmental, academic, public, and personal
networks primarily based on the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by ARPA of the United
States Department of Defence and also home to the World Wide Web (WWW) and referred to as the ‘Internet’ to distinguish it
from all other generic Internetworks. Participants on the internet, as well as their service providers, use IP addresses obtained
from address registries that control assignments.

Internetwork Addressing

Data Link Layer Addresses

Data-link layer addresses serve as distinct identifiers for the physical network connections of network devices. These addresses,
often referred to as hardware addresses or MAC addresses, are commonly utilized to uniquely identify devices within a network.
They can be organized hierarchically or in a flat manner. Data-link addresses are typically pre-assigned to devices and remain
constant for a specific device.

End systems typically possess a single data-link address due to their singular physical network connection. Conversely, routers
and other internetworking components often feature multiple data-link addresses due to their numerous physical network
associations.

MAC Addresses

MAC addresses are essential elements of the data-link layer, defining network identities within IEEE-assigned MAC address-
based local area networks (LANs). Each local area network interface has a unique MAC address that represents a single network
unit. These addresses have twelve hexadecimal digits and a length of forty-eight bits. The first twelve digits are the
Organisational Unique Identifier (OUI), which is frequently handled by the IEEE and identifies the manufacturer or vendor.

The last six hexadecimal digits reflect the interface serial number or another value specified by the manufacturer. These MAC
addresses are automatically copied from read-only memory (ROM) to random-access memory (RAM) during interface card
activation. They are also known as burned-in addresses (BIAs).
Network Layer Addresses

Network addresses can appear in both structured address spaces and the more common virtual or logical address spaces. The
relationship between the network address and the device is flexible and conceptual in nature. It frequently relies on elements
such as physical network features or arbitrary groups rather than exact physical properties. Each network-layer protocol that an
end system supports requires a network-layer address.

Similarly, routers and other internetworking equipment necessitate a distinct network-layer address for each physical network
connection within their support for each network-layer protocol.

Note: IP addresses in computer networks come in two main types: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4, using 32-bit numbers like [Link],
faces scarcity issues. IPv6, with 128 bits in hexadecimal like [Link], solves this problem.

Challenges to Internetworking

Internetworking comes with several challenges due to its complexity and the diverse technologies and systems involved. Some
of the challenges include:

• Scalability: As the number of devices and users on a network increases, the network must be able to handle growing
traffic, data, and demands without incurring major performance degradation. It is a continuing struggle to design
networks that can scale effectively.

• Security: As networks become more connected, the potential attack surface for malicious actors grows. Protecting
networks from unauthorized access, data breaches, viruses, and other online threats is an essential concern in
internetworking.

• Reliability and Redundancy: Networks need to be highly reliable, minimizing downtime and disruptions. Implementing
redundancy mechanisms and failover systems to ensure continuous operation in the face of failures is complex but
necessary.

• Interoperability: Different networks and devices frequently employ a variety of protocols, standards, and technologies.
It can be difficult to ensure smooth communication and compatibility among these disparate elements. Protocols such
as TCP/IP have helped bridge these gaps, although problems can still exist.

• Network Management: As networks grow in complexity, managing and monitoring them becomes increasingly
challenging. Efficiently diagnosing and troubleshooting issues, optimizing performance, and ensuring proper resource
allocation are ongoing tasks.

• Resource Management: It can be difficult to manage network resources properly to ensure optimal performance,
especially in shared environments. This includes responsibilities such as bandwidth allotment and congestion control.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Internetworking

Advantages

• Global Connectivity: Internetworking provides worldwide connectivity, allowing users and devices to communicate and
exchange resources from all over the world.

• Scalability: Internetworking allows networks to scale to accommodate growing numbers of users and devices without
needing to rebuild the entire infrastructure.

• Resource Sharing: Users can share resources such as files, printers, and databases across networks, increasing efficiency
and collaboration.

• Remote Access: Internetworking facilitates remote access to corporate networks, enabling telecommuting and remote
management.

• Redundancy and Failover: Redundant network connections and failover mechanisms improve network reliability,
minimizing downtime and ensuring continuous operation.

Disadvantages

• Security Risks: Internetworking exposes networks to additional security concerns such as unauthorized access, data
breaches, and cyberattacks.
 • Network Congestion: Increased connectivity can cause network congestion and poor performance, particularly during
high usage times.

• Privacy Concerns: Internetworking raises concerns about user privacy and data protection, particularly when sensitive
information is transmitted across networks.

• Dependency on Infrastructure: Organizations that rely on interconnected networks are vulnerable to outages or
interruptions in the internet infrastructure.

• Complexity: Connecting multiple networks using different technologies and protocols creates complexity in terms of
configuration, management, and troubleshooting.

REPEATERS
Repeaters

Repeaters are network devices operating at physical layer of the OSI model that amplify or regenerate an incoming signal before
retransmitting it. They are incorporated in networks to expand its coverage area. They are also known as signal boosters.

Why are Repeaters needed?

When an electrical signal is transmitted via a channel, it gets attenuated depending upon the nature of the channel or the
technology. This poses a limitation upon the length of the LAN or coverage area of cellular networks. This problem is alleviated
by installing repeaters at certain intervals.

Repeaters amplifies the attenuated signal and then retransmits it. Digital repeaters can even reconstruct signals distorted by
transmission loss. So, repeaters are popularly incorporated to connect between two LANs thus forming a large single LAN. This is
shown in the following diagram
Types of Repeaters

According to the types of signals that they regenerate, repeaters can be classified into two categories

• Analog Repeaters They can only amplify the analog signal.

• Digital Repeaters They can reconstruct a distorted signal.

According to the types of networks that they connect, repeaters can be categorized into two types

• Wired Repeaters They are used in wired LANs.

• Wireless Repeaters They are used in wireless LANs and cellular networks.

According to the domain of LANs they connect, repeaters can be divided into two categories

• Local Repeaters They connect LAN segments separated by small distance.

• Remote Repeaters They connect LANs that are far from each other.

Working of Repeaters

• Initially the source system transmits the signals. This source systems can be a mobile phone, laptop or radio.

• This transmitted signal from the source system travels in air if it's wireless network or through the cable if it is wired
network. As the signal goes away from the source it's strength gets weak.

• The signal received to the repeater is not the actual signal sent by source system but a weak signal. Therefore repeater
amplifies this weak signal to get it strengthen.

• The strengthen signal is now being sent from the repeater to its destination. This signal is more stronger and can travel
at longer distance. In short, it extends the network without losing the quality of signal.

• Repeaters are therefore used in various wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi and wired technologies such as ethernet.

Advantages of Repeaters

• Repeaters are simple to install and can easily extend the length or the coverage area of networks.

• They are cost effective.

 • Repeaters dont require any processing overhead. The only time they need to be investigated is in case of degradation of
performance.

• They can connect signals using different types of cables.

Disadvantages of Repeaters

• Repeaters cannot connect dissimilar networks.

• They cannot differentiate between actual signal and noise.

• They cannot reduce network traffic or congestion.

• Most networks have limitations upon the number of repeaters that can be deployed.

HUBS
Hubs are networking devices operating at a physical layer of the OSI model that are used to connect multiple devices in a
network. They are generally used to connect computers in a LAN.

A hub has many ports in it. A computer which intends to be connected to the network is plugged in to one of these ports. When
a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast to every other port, without considering whether it is destined for a particular
destination device or not.

Hub in networking plays a vital role in data transmission and broadcasting. A hub is a hardware device used at the physical layer
to connect multiple devices in the network. Hubs are widely used to connect LANs. A hub has multiple ports. Unlike a switch, a
hub cannot filter the data, i.e. it cannot identify the destination of the packet, So it broadcasts or sends the message to each
port.

Features of Hubs

• A hub operates in the physical layer of the OSI model.

• A hub cannot filter data. It is a non-intelligent network device that sends message to all ports.

• It primarily broadcasts messages. So, the collision domain of all nodes connected through the hub stays one.

• Transmission mode is half duplex.

• Collisions may occurs during setup of transmission when more than one computers place data simultaneously in the
corresponding ports.

• Since they lack intelligence to compute best path for transmission of data packets, inefficiencies and wastage occur.
 • They are passive devices, they don’t have any software associated with it.

• They generally have fewer ports of 4/12.

Types of Hubs

Initially, hubs were passive devices. However, with development of advanced technology, active hubs and intelligent hubs came
into use.

• Passive Hubs − Passive hubs connects nodes in a star configuration by collecting wiring from nodes. They broadcast
signals onto the network without amplifying or regenerating them. As they cannot extend the distance between nodes,
they limit the size of the LAN.

• Active Hubs − Active hubs amplify and regenerate the incoming electrical signals before broadcasting them. They have
their own power supply and serves both as a repeater as well as connecting centre. Due to their regenerating
capabilities, they can extend the maximum distance between nodes, thus increasing the size of LAN.

• Intelligent Hubs − Intelligent hubs are active hubs that provide additional network management facilities. They can
perform a variety of functions of more intelligent network devices like network management, switching, providing
flexible data rates etc.

Advantages of Network Hubs

• It is less expensive.

• It does not impact network performance.

• Hub support different network media.

Disadvantages of Network Hubs

• It cannot find the best/ shortest path of the network.

• No mechanism for traffic detection.

• No mechanism for data filtration.

• Not capable of connecting to different network topologies like token ring, ethernet, etc.

Difference Between Network Hub And Switch

Hub Switch

It works on the data link layer of the OSI

It works on the physical layer of the OSI model.
model.

It performs frame flooding, which includes It mainly performs broadcasts and performs
broadcast, multicast and unicast as well. multicast, and unicast whenever required.
Hub Switch

The transmission mode is half-duplex. The transmission mode is full-duplex.

It can filter data and send the frame to the

It cannot perform data filtering.
desired destination.

A switch may contain more than one

There is no spanning tree.
spanning tree possible.

It can not store the MAC address of the ports and It can store the data in a routing table and it
the destination address of the frame that arrived. helps in further sending the data.

It is a passive device. It is an active device.

The switch can operate at a speed of 10-

Hub can operate at a speed of 10Mbps.
100Mbps and 1- 10 Gbps.

BRIDGES
Bridges are used to connect two subnetworks that use interchangeable protocols. It combines two LANs to form an extended
LAN. The main difference between the bridge and repeater is that the bridge has a penetrating efficiency.

Working of Bridges

A bridge accepts all the packets and amplifies all of them to the other side. The bridges are intelligent devices that allow the
passing of only selective packets from them. A bridge only passes those packets addressed from a node in one network to
another node in the other network.

A bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect multiple LANs together with a larger Local Area Network (LAN). The
mechanism of network aggregation is known as bridging. The bridge is a physical or hardware device but operates at the OSI
model's data link layer and is also known as a layer of two switches.

The primary responsibility of a switch is to examine the incoming traffic and determine whether to filter or forward it. Basically,
a bridge in computer networks is used to divide network connections into sections, now each section has a
separate bandwidth and a separate collision domain. Here bridge is used to improve network performance.
Types of Bridges

There are three types of bridges in computer networks, which are as follows:

• Transparent Bridge: Transparent bridges are invisible to other devices on the network. This bridge doesn't reconfigure
the network on the addition or deletion of any station. The prime function of the transparent bridge is to block or
forward the data according to the MAC address.

• Source Routing Bridge: Source routing bridges were developed and designed by IBM specifically for token ring
networks. The frame's entire route is embedded with the data frames by the source station to perform the routing
operation so that once the frame is forwarded it must follow a specific defined path/route.

• Translational Bridge: Translational bridges convert the received data from one networking system to another. Or it is
used to communicate or transmit data between two different types of networking systems. Like if we are sending data
from a token ring to an Ethernet cable, the translational cable will be used to connect both the networking system and
transmit data.

Working of Bridges

Let's see the step-by-step working of the bridge in computer networks:

• Receiving Data: The bridge gets data packets (or frames) from both network segments A and B.

• Building a Table: It creates a table of MAC addresses by looking at where the data is coming from to know which device
is on which segment.

• Filtering Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device also on network A, the bridge stops it from going further.

• Forwarding Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device on network B, the bridge sends it to the correct place
on network B.

• Repeating for Both Sides: The bridge does the same thing for data coming from network B.

Models of Bridge in Computer Networks

There are two main models of bridging in computer network: Local bridging and remote bridging. Let us learn about them in
detail.

• Local Bridging Local bridging connects LAN switches using local cables. This allows computers on the
same Ethernet segment, whether they're connected to virtual hubs or physical LANs, to communicate freely. It's used
when LANs within the same area need to talk to each other directly at the link layer.

• Remote Bridging Remote bridging connects two bridges over a Wide Area Network (WAN). This model is used when
LANs are located in different geographical areas and need to communicate with each other at the link layer.

Uses of Bridge in Computer Network

• Bridges are used to increase the network capacity as they can integrate multiple LANs together.
 • On receiving a data frame, databases use the bridge to decide whether to accept or reject the data.

• In the OSI model, it can be used to transmit the data to multiple nodes of the network.

• Used to broadcast the data even if the MAC address or destination address is unavailable.

• It forwards data packets despite faulty nodes.

• The data packet can be forwarded or discarded by the bridge when the MAC address is available.

Functions of Bridges in the Network

• The bridge is used to divide LANs into multiple segments.

• To control the traffic in the network.

• It can interconnect two LANs with a similar protocols.

• It can filter the data based on destination/MAC address.

Advantages

• Bridges can be used as a network extension like they can connect two network topologies together.

• It has a separate collision domain, which results in increased bandwidth.

• It can create a buffer when different MAC protocols are there for different segments.

• Highly reliable and maintainable. The network can be divided into multiple LAN segments.

• Simple installation, no requirement of any extra hardware or software except the bridge itself.

• Protocol transparency is higher as compared to other protocols.

Disadvantages

• Expensive as compared to hubs and repeaters.

• Slow in speed.

• Poor performance as additional processing is required to view the MAC address of the device on the network.

• As the traffic received is in bulk or is broadcasted traffic, individual filtering of data is not possible.

• During the broadcasting of data, the network has high broadcast traffic and broadcast storms can be formed.

SWITCHES
The Switch is a network device that is used to segment the networks into different subnetworks called subnets or LAN
segments. It is responsible for filtering and forwarding the packets between LAN segments based on MAC address.

Switches have many ports, and when data arrives at any port, the destination address is examined first and some checks are also
done and then it is processed to the devices. Different types of communication are supported here like unicast, multicast, and
broadcast communication.

Features of Network Switches

• It operates in the Data Link Layer in the OSI Model.

• It performs error checking before forwarding data.

• It transfers the data only to the device that has been addressed.

• It operates in full duplex mode.

• It allocates each LAN segment to a limited bandwidth.

• It uses Unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many), and broadcast (one-to-all) transmission modes.
 • Packet-switching techniques are used to transfer data packets from source to destination.

• Switches have a more significant number of ports.

Why Are Network Switches Valuable?

Switches are one of the most important things for transferring information between different endpoints. Some of the benefits
are mentioned below.

• Switches are having full-duplex communication which helps in making effective use of bandwidth.

• Switches help to provide a wired connection to printers, IoT devices, wireless points, and many more devices.

• IoT Devices send data through Network Switches that help in making smarter surroundings with the help of Artificial
Intelligence.

• Network Devices are made with the help of Switches that carry a large number of traffic in telecommunication.

Types of Switches

Switches are mainly classified into the following types that are mentioned below.

• Virtual Switches: Virtual Switches are the switches that are inside Virtual Machine hosting environments.

• Routing Switches: These are the switches that are used to connect [Link] also have the work of performing
functions in the Network Layer of the OSI Model.

• Unmanaged Switches: Unmanaged Switches are the devices that are used to enable Ethernet devices that help in
automatic data passing. These are generally used for home networks and small businesses. In case of the requirement
of more switches, we just add more switches by plug and play method.

• Managed Switches: Managed Switches are switches having more complex networks. SNMP (Simple Network
Management Protocol) can be used for configuring managed switches. These types of switches are mostly used in large
networks having complex architecture. They provide better security levels and precision control but they are more costly
than Unmanaged switches.

• LAN Switches: LAN (Local Area Network) Switches are also called ethernet switches or data switches. LAN switches
always try to avoid overlapping of data packets in the network just by allocating bandwidth in such a manner.

• PoE Switches: Power over Ethernet(PoE) are the switches used in Gigabit Ethernets. PoE help in combining data and
power transmission over the same cable so that it helps in receiving data and electricity over the same line.

• Smart Switches: Smart Switches are switches having some extra controls on data transmissions but also have extra
limitations over managed Switches. They are also called partially managed switches.

• Stackable Switches: Stackable switches are connected through a backplane to combine two logical switches into a single
switch.

• Modular Switches: These types of switches help in accommodating two or more cards. Modular switches help in
providing better flexibility.

What is a Layer 2 Switch?

A Layer 2 switch operates at Layer 2 of OSI model, which is the Data Link Layer. The switch forwards data packets depending on
the devices’ MAC (Media Access Control) addresses that are in its network. Most commonly they are found in Local Area
Networks (LAN) where their main purpose includes providing different collision domains while reducing congestion within that
network .To enable delivery of this data to specific destination layer II switches find out appropriate port for these packets on
MAC basis.

How Does a Network Switch Works?

When the source wants to send the data packet to the destination, the packet first enters the switch and the switch reads its
header and finds the MAC address of the destination to identify the device then it sends the packet out through the appropriate
ports that lead to the destination devices.
Switch establishes a temporary connection between the source and destination for communication and terminates the
connection once the conversation is done. Also, it offers full bandwidth to network traffic going to and from a device
simultaneously to reduce collision.

Switching Techniques

Switching techniques are used to decide the best route for data transmission between source and destination. These are
classified into three categories :

• Circuit Switching

• Message Switching

• Packet Switching

Difference Between Network Switch and Router

Network Switch Router

The router is primarily a device of Layer 3 of the OSI

Network Switch works on Layer 2 of the OSI Model.
Model.

The resource is shared among multiple devices with the help of a Data is moved between two or more computers
single LAN using a network switch. with the help of a router.

Network switches uses data frames. Routers use data packets.

Switches only work in a Wired network connection. Router works with both wired and wifi networks.

Switches use MAC Addresses for transferring data to the proper

Routers use IP Addresses for the same work.
destination.

Uses of Network Switches

Network Switches are an important part of Network communication. Some of the use cases are mentioned below.

• Network switches help provide automatic link connections that remove time-consuming settings and provide easy
access to network devices.

• Switches provide a better, more secure, reliable network having more control over data.

• Generally, switches work in full duplex mode, which helps in continuous data transmission and that improves better
connectivity.
 • As MAC Address is used for the devices connected to it, that helps in the delivery of messages to only the required
destination, not everywhere.

• Network Switches work for home networks or local networks where streaming works are performed regularly.

Difference between Network Switch and Hub

Network Switch Hub

Hub is a physical device of Layer 1 of the OSI

Network Switch is a device of layer 2 of the OSI Model.
Model.

Hub is a simple device as compared to Network

Network Switch is a little more complex than a Hub.
Switch.

Network Switch easily manages data in and out, hence less

Communication Collisions usually happen in a Hub.
communication collision.

The main task of Hub is to connect all nodes of the

Network Switches transfer data together by connecting devices.
network.

Switches prevent collision with the help of Ethernet frames. Hubs cannot help in preventing collisions.

Advantages of Switches

• Prevents traffic overloading in a network by segmenting the network into smaller subnets.

• Increases the bandwidth of the network.

• Less frame collision as the switch creates the collision domain for each connection.

Disadvantages of Switches

• It can not stop traffic destined for a different LAN segment from traveling to all other LAN segments.

• Switches are more expensive.

ROUTERS
Routers are networking devices operating at layer 3 or a network layer of the OSI model. They are responsible for receiving,
analysing, and forwarding data packets among the connected computer networks. When a data packet arrives, the router
inspects the destination address, consults its routing tables to decide the optimal route and then transfers the packet along this

route.
Features of Routers

• A router is a layer 3 or network layer device.

• It connects different networks together and sends data packets from one network to another.

• A router can be used both in LANs (Local Area Networks) and WANs (Wide Area Networks).

• It transfers data in the form of IP packets. In order to transmit data, it uses IP address mentioned in the destination field
of the IP packet.

• Routers have a routing table in it that is refreshed periodically according to the changes in the network. In order to
transmit data packets, it consults the table and uses a routing protocol.

• In order to prepare or refresh the routing table, routers share information among each other.

• Routers provide protection against broadcast storms.

• Routers are more expensive than other networking devices like hubs, bridges, and switches.

• Routers are manufactured by some popular companies like ?

o Cisco

o D-Link

o HP

o 3Com

o Juniper

o Nortel

Routing Table

The functioning of a router depends largely upon the routing table stored in it. The routing table stores the available routes for
all destinations. The router consults the routing table to determine the optimal route through which the data packets can be
sent.

A routing table typically contains the following entities ?

• IP addresses and subnet mask of the nodes in the network

• IP addresses of the routers in the network

• Interface information among the network devices and channels

Routing tables are of two types ?

• Static Routing Table ? Here, the routes are fed manually and are not refreshed automatically. It is suitable for small
networks containing 2-3 routers.

• Dynamic Routing Table ? Here, the router communicates with other routers using routing protocols to determine the
available routes. It is suited for larger networks having large number of routers.

Types of Routers

A variety of routers are available depending upon their usages. The main types of routers are ?

• Wireless Router ? They provide WiFi connection WiFi devices like laptops, smartphones etc. They can also provide
standard Ethernet routing. For indoor connections, the range is 150 feet while its 300 feet for outdoor connections.

• Broadband Routers ? They are used to connect to the Internet through telephone and to use voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP) technology for providing high-speed Internet access. They are configured and provided by the Internet
Service Provider (ISP).
 • Core Routers ? They can route data packets within a given network, but cannot route the packets between the
networks. They helps to link all devices within a network thus forming the backbone of network. It is used by ISP and
communication interfaces.

• Edge Routers ? They are low-capacity routers placed at the periphery of the networks. They connect the internal
network to the external networks, and are suitable for transferring data packets across networks. They use Border
Gateway Protocol (BGP) for connectivity. There are two types of edge routers, subscriber edge routers and label edge
routers.

• Brouters ? Brouters are specialised routers that can provide the functionalities of bridges as well. Like a bridge, brouters
help to transfer data between networks. And like a router, they route the data within the devices of a network.

How Does Router Work?

• A router determines a packet's future path by examining the destination IP address of the header and comparing it to
the routing database. The list of routing tables outlines how to send the data to a specific network location. They use a
set of rules to determine the most effective way to transmit the data to the specified IP address.

• To enable communication between other devices and the internet, routers utilize a modem, such as a cable, fiber, or DSL
modem. Most routers include many ports that can connect a variety of devices to the internet simultaneously. In order
to decide where to deliver data and where traffic is coming from, it needs routing tables.

• A routing table primarily specifies the router's default path. As a result, it might not determine the optimum path to
forward the data for a particular packet. For instance, the office router directs all networks to its internet service
provider through a single default channel.

• Static and dynamic tables come in two varieties in the router. The dynamic routing tables are automatically updated by
dynamic routers based on network activity, whereas the static routing tables are configured manuall

Gateways in Computer Network

A gateway is a network node that forms a passage between two networks operating with different transmission protocols. The
most common type of gateways, the network gateway operates at layer 3, i.e. network layer of the OSI (open systems
interconnection) model. However, depending upon the functionality, a gateway can operate at any of the seven layers of OSI
model. It acts as the entry exit point for a network since all traffic that flows across the networks should pass through the
gateway. Only the internal traffic between the nodes of a LAN does not pass through the gateway.
Features of Gateways

• Gateway is located at the boundary of a network and manages all data that inflows or outflows from that network.

• It forms a passage between two different networks operating with different transmission protocols.

• A gateway operates as a protocol converter, providing compatibility between the different protocols used in the two
different networks.

• The feature that differentiates a gateway from other network devices is that it can operate at any layer of the OSI model.

• It also stores information about the routing paths of the communicating networks.

• When used in enterprise scenario, a gateway node may be supplemented as proxy server or firewall.

• A gateway is generally implemented as a node with multiple NICs (network interface cards) connected to different
networks. However, it can also be configured using software.

• It uses packet switching technique to transmit data across the networks.

Types of Gateways

On basis of direction of data flow, gateways are broadly divided into two categories

• Unidirectional Gateways They allow data to flow in only one direction. Changes made in the source node are replicated
in the destination node, but not vice versa. They can be used as archiving tools.

• Bidirectional Gateways They allow data to flow in both directions. They can be used as synchronization tools.

On basis of functionalities, there can be a variety of gateways, the prominent among them are as follows

• Network Gateway This is the most common type of gateway that provides as interface between two dissimilar networks
operating with different protocols. Whenever the term gateway is mentioned without specifying the type, it indicates a
network gateway.

• Cloud Storage Gateway It is a network node or server that translates storage requests with different cloud storage
service API calls, such as SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) or REST (REpresentational State Transfer).It facilitates
integration of private cloud storage into applications without necessitating transfer of the applications into any public
cloud, thus simplifying data communication.

• Internet-To-Orbit Gateway (I2O) It connects devices on the Internet to satellites and spacecraft orbiting the earth. Two
prominent I2O gateways are Project HERMES and Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations (GENSO).

• IoT Gateway IoT gateways assimilates sensor data from IoT (Internet of Things) devices in the field and translates
between sensor protocols before sending it to the cloud network. They connect IoT devices, cloud network and user
applications.

• VoiP Trunk Gateway It facilitates data transmission between plain old telephone service (POTS) devices like landline
phones and fax machines, with VoIP (voice over Internet Protocol) network.
How Gateways Work?

• The gateway receives data from devices within the network.

• After receiving data the gateway intercept and analyze data packets, which include analyzing packet header, payload etc.

• Based on the analysis of the data packets, the gateway calculate an appropriate destination address of data packet. It
then routes the data packets to their destination address.

• In some cases, the gateway might also want to transform the format of the obtained data to ensure compatibility at the
receiver.

• Once the data packets have been analyzed, routed, and converted, then the gateway sends the last packets to their

respective destinations address inside the network.

Advantages of Gateways

• Gateway helps in connecting two different network.

• Gateway is used to filters and does not allow anything that can harm to the network.

• Gateway is worked as the protocol converter.

• Gateway is the highly secure device that provides security from external attacks.

Limitations of Gateways

There are few limitations of gateways as well. Here are some of them:

• Gateway causes time delay since the conversion of data according to the network requires time.

• Failure of the gateway might lead to the failure of connection with other networks.

• The implementation of Gateway is very complex and it is not cost eff